CAVING METHOD – BLOCK CAVING

Introduction
The system is characterized by breaking the ore by the caving action initiated when
support is withdrawn from a sizable area (which has been created first of all) under
a column of ore (block), allowing it to cave in. At the same time a series of
workings are cut along vertical plane boundaries of the block to weaken its bound
to the solid. Gravity and rock pressure of over burden make the undercut ore to
cave in, thereby filling gradually, the undercutting space. Thus, unlike sublevel
caving, not only the walls (h/w as well as f/w) and the capping rocks but also the
ore itself must be weak, fractured and cavable. The caved ore is discharged through
the ore passes, which are known by the structures such as: funnels, finger raises,
bells, etc. connecting either to grizzly level for its screening through it (in some
layouts), or directly to troughs that are connected to the extraction drives/cross-
cuts. LHD mucking, or direct discharge into mine cars through chutes enables
muck transfer from the stope for its onward disposal. Since the orebody is divided
into large sized blocks, and the caving and mining of the whole block starts at a
time, hence the name ‘block caving’. In order to ensure proper caving of walls and
cap rocks, and smooth flow of the caved ore through the collecting x-cuts/drives;
a proper study must be carried out to decide the size of various openings that are
included within a stope layout. Prominent parameters amongst them are the
dimensions of the funnels/finger raises/ troughs, and spacing between them.
Following are the suitable conditions, in general, for the application of block
caving: ● Ore strength: weak, soft, friable, fractured and/or jointed. It should cave
freely under its own weight when undercut. It should not be sticky if wet and not
readily oxidized.
● Rock strength: weak to moderate but fractured, jointed and cavable. Almost
similar characteristics as that of ore. Ore rock boundary should be distinct.
● Deposits shape: thick tabular or massive. Preferably regular.
● Deposit’s dip: steep but can be applied to flat dip if deposit is very thick.
● Size and thickness: large extent along and across the dip, thickness 30 m.
● Ore grade: can be low but uniform as sorting is not possible.
● Depth: moderate, practiced up to a depth of 1.2 km. If sufficient depth then
strength of over burden could exceed that of rock strength (h/w rock), thereby
surface subsidence can be reduced. Applications: Widely applied to win the ores
of metal and non-metal deposits such as iron, copper, lead, zinc, asbestos,
diamond (South Africa), molybdenum, nickel and many others. This is a bulk
mining method that has been applied in the mines with high production.

Variants
Based on
deposit’s
division:
● Block caving: Regular square or rectangular areas (30m 30 m to 60m 60 m) are
undercut and usually these are mined in alternating or diagonal order. The height
of block is in the range of 40–100 m, seldom more. Ores that are weak, fractured
and break fine, usually fall in this category. In order to minimize dilution and
provide space for service and ventilation openings; blocks are separated by
pillars (both the sides). It is being applied in about 50% cases.
● Panel caving: When ore is unstable and caves readily, panels of 20 m to 60 m
wide and 150– 300 m long, are arranged along or across the strike of orebody,
and they are mined retreating. Caving in several panels can be performed
simultaneously with a definite lead. In order to minimize dilution and provide a
space for the service and ventilation openings; panels are separated by pillars (3–
10 m wide). Adaptability of this variant is in 25% cases.
● Mass Caving: In this scheme no division of the area is made as in block or panel
caving variants. Also no pillar is left. Irregularly sized prisms are mined as large
as consistent with caving properties of the ore and stress on the opening below.
 Undercutting is initiated on the retreat pattern. Adaptability of this type of caving
is 25%.

Stope preparation
First the block to be mined is connected to the main mine entries such as shafts,
main levels, declines etc. in the usual manner by driving a network of mine
roadways in the form of drives, crosscuts and raises to facilitate haulage,
ventilation and other mine services. Sublevel or subhorizons are required to be
developed between undercut and the haulage level. This includes driving of
finger raises, grizzly level and transfer raises in case of grizzly system of draw.
In case of slusher system of draw, the development work between undercut and
haulage level involves driving of draw or finger raises, scram/ slusher drifts and
transfer raises/trenches. Similarly for LHD draw system a network of troughs
and draw-points need to be developed. Amongst these development activities,
the most critical activity is undercutting. This needs careful removal of pillars or
supports installed, so that caving can be initiated without danger of air blast,
premature collapse etc.
The interval required between different development entries (sublevels,
ore passes and undercut) is a function of draw system adopted. Gravity
system requires maximum development work whereas the mechanized
loading by LHD etc. is the least. Boundary weakening, other than
undercutting, is rarely performed in block caving. Occasionally corner
raises are driven on one side of undercut block, and slab (widened) to
create a narrow slot.

Layouts
In figure 16.28 (top) a mine having mass caving system has been illustrated. In
block caving; to start with as shown in figure 16.28 (bottom) (a), the ore in-situ is
under-cut. This initiate caving and production commences (fig. (b)). The effect of
caving influencing the whole stope including capping can be seen in fig. (c);
subsidence begins. Automated caving (using hydraulic fracturing) at Northparkes,
Australia4: E26 mine belonging to Rio Tinto was Australia’s first block cave mine.
Construction of first block known as lift 1 was commenced in 1993 and completed
in 1997. It is known to be highly productive and low cost operation, for example,
in 1999–2000; E26 produced 50,340 t of copper-gold ore per underground
employee, including contractors. E26 deposits has been divided into two sections
(figs 16.31(a) and (b)),4 lift 1 extends to 480 m below surface, and lift 2 consist of
lower 350 m of the deposit. The undercut of lift 1 dimensions measure 196 m long
by 180 m wide. Continuous caving was never achieved so cave inducement was
required to main caving and sustain production. Use of hydraulic fracturing to
induce caving was tested in the existing boreholes and then it was applied. It
yielded some 7 Mt of ore at significantly lower cost than conventional cave
inducement techniques. An inflatable straddle packer system and diesel powered
triple pump were used to induce hydraulic fracturing (fig. 16.31(c)). The straddle
packers were connected to AQ drill rods and lowered down a selected borehole
using a diamond drill. Once in position, the packers were inflated with water,
usually around 5MPa above the anticipated injection pressure. The triplex pump
then pumped water under high pressure along an injection line and into the straddle
section between the packers. Pressurization of rock between the straddle sections
induces tensile stress along the walls of the hole and eventually fractures the rock,
or open existing fractures. Further injection forces water into these fractures
causing them to extend into surrounding rock mass. Most hydraulic fracture
treatments were characterized by increase seismicity both during and after
injection. In several cases this increase in seismicity was followed by significant
caving events. Laubscher Mining Rock Mass Rating (MRMR) was chosen to
identify cavability and it was found that with MRMR from 33 to 50 (lift 1) was
suitable for caving. During planning Gemcom’s PC-BC, a programme design and
evaluation of block cave, was extensively used. Draw points system as shown in
figure 16.31(d) for use of Toro 450E LHD were used during lift 1 as well for lift 2
(with modification of making brows stronger by reinforcement).

Advantages
● Productivity: fairly high, OMS in the range of 15–40 t/shift/man; maximum in
the range of 40–50 t/shift/man.
● Production rate – high; it can be considered as one of the bulk mining methods.
● Recovery – with pillar extraction 90%, but with dilution sometimes it exceeds
100%. ● Commencement of regular production: On completion of undercutting
and haulage layout production can be commenced. Drilling and blasting during
stoping are completely eliminated. ● Cost – Comparatively lowest (20% relative
cost). Cost is comparable with surface mining methods. Tonnage yield/m of
development is the highest.
● Adaptability to mechanization: suitable for high degree of mechanization for
mucking and transportation.
● Safety – good safety records.
Limitations
● Dilution is high and it ranges 10–20% and needs control. This feature limits its
application to high valued ores.
● Subsidence and caving occur over wide areas causing land degradation.
● Draw control is critical factor for the success of this method. ● Stope
development is comparatively slow, tedious and costly.