CHAPTER-6

High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission

6.1 INTRODUCTION
HVDC transmission is an efficient technology designed to deliver large amounts of electricity
over long distances with low losses. It can also interconnect incompatible AC networks and
stabilize the surrounding grid. HVDC systems can transmit more electrical power over longer
distances than a similar alternating current (AC) transmission system, which means fewer
transmission lines are needed, saving both money and land. In addition to significantly lowering
electrical losses over long distances, HVDC transmission is also very stable and easily
controlled, and can stabilize and interconnect AC power networks that are otherwise
incompatible. The HVDC market is growing rapidly and has become an important part of many
transmission grids; not least because it can connect remote sources of electrical generation often
emissions-free renewable sources like hydro or wind – to load centers where it is needed,
hundreds or even thousands of kilometers away. Once installed, HVDC transmission systems
become an integral part of the electrical power system, improving the overall stability and
reliability. The HVDC systems core component is the power converter, which serves as the
interface with the AC transmission system. The conversion from AC to direct current (DC), and
vice versa, is achieved by controllable electronic switches, called valves.

6.1.1) TYPES OF DC LINKS (TRANSMISSION MODES)

The DC links (connecting structure) can be classified into the following types:

(a) Monopolar Link: It has only one energized conductor normally of negative polarity and uses
ground or sea water as the return path. It may be noted that earth has a much lower resistance to
DC as compared to AC. The negative polarity is preferred on overhead lines due to lesser radio
interference. Figure 6.1.1(a) shows a monopolar link.

1
Figure 6.1.1

(b) Bipolar Link: This link has two conductors, one positive and the other negative potential of
the same magnitude (e.g. ±650 kV) (6.1.2 (b)). At each terminal, two converters of equal rated
voltages are connected in series on the DC side. The neutral points (i.e. the junctions between
converters) are grounded, at one or both ends. If both the neutrals are grounded, the two poles
operate independently. If the currents in the two conductors are equal, the ground current is zero.
If one conductor has a fault, the other conductor (along with ground return) can supply half the
rated load. The rated voltage of bipolar link is given as (say) ±650 kV.

Figure 6.1.2 Bipolar link (line)

A bipolar transmission has two circuits which are almost independent of each other A bipolar
line can be operated as a monopolar line in an emergency. In some applications continuous
current through earth is not permitted, and a bipolar arrangement is the natural solution.

(c) Homopolar Link: A homopolar link shown in Fig. 6.1.3 has two or more conductors, all
having the same polarity (usually negative), as the corona loss and radio interference get
reduced, and it always operates with ground as the return. If one of the conductors develops a
fault, the converter equipment can be reconnected so that the healthy conductor (with some
overload capacity) can supply more than 50% of the rated power. A two-conductor DC line is
more reliable than a three-conductor AC line, because in the event of a fault on one conductor,
the other conductor can continue to operate with ground return during the fault period. The same

2
is not possible with the AC line. Furthermore if a two pole (homopolar) DC line is compared
with a doublecircuit three-phase AC line, the DC line costs would be about 45% less than the AC
line. In general, the cost advantage of the DC line increases at higher voltages.

Figure 6.1.3 Homopolar Link

6.2) PRINCIPLES OF AC/DC CONVERTER

6.2.1 CONVERTOR BASICS DC
transmission requires a convertor at each end of the line. The sending end convertor act, as a
rectifier converting AC to DC and the receiving end converter acts as an inverter converting DC
to AC. The rectifier is fed from an AC source through a transformer and the inverter feeds AC
load through a transformer. As we shall see later, the role of the converter is easily reversed from
rectifier to inverter and vice versa, thereby, reversing the flow of DC power on the line. Modern
day converter are thyristor based. Some basic understanding of the thyristor converter–its
operation and control—is essential at this stage.

Thyristor (Valve)

3
It is a three terminal solid-state device whose symbol is shown in Fig. 6.2.1. The three terminals
are Anode, Cathode and Gate. When Anode is connected to positive polarity of a source and
Cathode to its negative polarity and a short duration positive pulse is applied at the Gate, the
current will be conducted from anode to cathode whose magnitude is dependent on the external
circuit. If anode is negative and cathode positive, no current can flow irrespective of the gate
pulse. With proper anode and cathode polarities the conduction is initiated by the gate pulse after
which the gate loses control over conduction. The device will return to non-conducting state after
anode to cathode current becomes zero (naturally or otherwise). It can pulsed (fired) again to
start conduction, if the anode–cathode polarities are right.

Figure 6.2.1 Thyristor symbol

4
The connection diagram of a thyristor bridge converter is drawn in Fig. 6.2.2. The six thyristors
are connected in three sets of two thyristors each across the DC terminals; in each set (or row)

Figure 6.2.2 Important angles for rectifier and inverter operation of a converter
the thyristors have the same conduction direction. Upon pulsing the gate of Th1 it begins to
conduct and the current which was being conducted by Th4 shifts (commutes) to Th1, which
then conducts the current for 180°. This process keeps repeating between Th1 and Th4 every
180°. The same process occurs between Th2 and Th5 displaced by 120° from Th1 and Th4 and
also between Th3 and Th6 displaced another 120°. In all there are 6 pulses per cycle of AC and
the pulse rate is 6 times that of AC frequency The basic control over DC voltage magnitude and
polarity is achieved by the angle of thyristor firing (a). The waveform of voltage (line) vab is
drawn in Fig.6.2.3. This voltage appears across Th1 and Th5, where Th5 is already conducting.
Upon firing Th1 at angle a it will conduct current Id for 180° (up to p + a). The average (DC)
voltage Vd is positive.

Figure 6.2.3 Important angles for rectifier and inverter operation of a converter

The converter is therefore acting as a rectifier. As angle a is increased Vd reduces till at a = 90°,
Vd = 0. Of course from a the commutation occurs in

5
overlap angle m and is completed at d = a + m, the extinction angle. This overlap affects,
(reduces) the value of Vd. (Id is flowing out of +ve terminal of Vd) As angle a is increased
beyond 90°, Vd (average voltage) becomes negative while Id flows in the same direction. The
DC power flows into the converter, while AC power flows out of it. The converter is therefore
acting as an inverter. To summarize: Rectifier 0 < a < 90° Inverter 90° < a < 180° As from the
firing angle onwards, the current flows for 180°, while voltage condition across thyristor change.
This is because the current is out of phase with voltage. So for part of time current is conducted
by diodes, called free wheeling diodes. Thyristor Ratings ∑ Maximum current carrying capacity.
∑ Maximum inverse voltage above which the thyristor breaks down. At present thyristor are
available with current rating of 2.5 kA and voltage rating of 3 kV. For higher current carrying
and higher voltage rating converter each converter row (branch) is formed by series-parallel
combination of thyristors. The detailed derivation of converter performance equation will be
carried out in Sec. 20.9. Harmonics The alternating current waveform injected by the inverter
into the AC system have a high harmonic content. The rectifier draws nearly trapezoidal current
which contains the fundamental sine wave and also harmonics of order depending upon the
number (n) of thyristors (valves). For a six valve bridge the harmonic order is 6n ± 1 i.e. 5, 7, 11,
... 25. By Fourier series it is found that i = 2 3 dI p (cos wt + 1 5 cos 5 wt – 1 7 cos 7 wt – 1 11
cos 11 wt) The harmonics are affected by the two operating angles of the converters. These are m
= commutation or overlap angle a = delay angle Harmonic magnitude decrease with decrease in
m. However, a for a given m does cause any significant effect on harmonics. The largest
variation in a is between 0 to 10°.

For normal operation a is less than 10° and –m ª 20°, resulting in low harmonic content. During
faults, however, a may reach ª 90° while m remains small, resulting in substantial increase in
harmonic content. Pulse Number (p): The number of pulsations (i.e., cycles of ripple) of the
direct voltage per cycle of alternating voltage. Ripple: The AC component from DC power
supply arising from the conversion processes. It is expressed in peak, peak-to-peak, rms volts, or
as % rms of DC voltage. Since HVDC converters have large DC smoothing reactors,
approximately 1 H, the resultant DC is practically constant (ripple free). However, the direct
voltage on the valve side of the smoothing reactor has ripple. Ripple Amplitude: The maximum
value of the instantaneous difference between the average and instantaneous value of a pulsating
unidirectional wave. Smoothing Reactor: An inductive reactor between the DC output of the
converter and the load. It is used to smooth the ripple in the DC properly, to reduce harmonic
voltages and currents in the DC line, and to limit the magnitude of the fault current (reduce the
rate of rise of fault current on DC line).

6.3Reactive Power Demand

The requirement of reactive power at converter stations is due to :

6
  The control of HVDC converter (a, g ) which introduces a phase shift between the
fundamentals of AC current and voltage, and
 The commutation process, in which the DC current is commutated from one valve to
another, and which introduces further phase shift. In addition to reactive power
consumption by converters, converter transformers also consume reactive power.
Considering normal values of a (rectifier) or g (inverter), the reactive power demand
usually is in the range of 50–60% of the transmitted active power. This figure is for each
converter station. The reactive power may be supplied from:

1. AC filters
2. Shunt capacitors (least costly)
3. AC network
4. Static compensators (SVS) (for fast voltage regulation), and
5. Synchronous condensers (if AC network is weak). While choosing reactive power
generation equipment, one must consider both economic and technical aspects.

6.4 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

Consider an AC line and a DC line employing the same number of conductors and insulators. Let
us compare the power per conductor on the two lines. If in each case the current is limited by
temperature rise, the direct current equals the rms alternating current. Assume also that the
insulators withstand the same peak voltage to ground in each case. Then the direct voltage is 2
times the rms AC voltage The DC power per conductor is Pdc = VdcIdc (20.5) and the AC
power per conductor is Pac = Vac Iaccos f (20.6) where Idc and Iac are the currents per
conductor, Vdc and Vac the conductor-toground voltages, and cos f the power factor. Now dc ac
P P = cos dc dc ac ac V I V I f = 2 cosf (20.7) taking cos f = 0.945, Pdc/Pac = 1.5 (20.8) Now
compare a three phase, three conductor AC line with a bipolar two conductor DC line. The
power capabilities of the respective circuits are P¢ dc = 2P¢ dc and P¢ ac = 3P ¢ ac
P¢ dc/P ¢ ac = 2 1.5 3 ¥ = 1 (20.10) Both lines carry the same power. The DC line, however, is
simpler, and cheaper, having two conductors instead of three. Further, an overhead line requires
only 2/3 as many insulators, and the towers are simpler, cheaper and narrower. A narrower right
of way would be required. Both lines have the same power loss per conductor. The percentage
loss of the DC line is only two-thirds that of AC line. If cables are used instead of line, the
permissible working stress (voltage per unit thickness of insulation) is higher for DC than for
AC, and, further, the power factor for DC is unity and, for AC, considerably lower than that used
above. Both changes further favor DC as compared to AC by increasing the ratio of DC power to
AC power per conductor. The resulting ratio may be between 5 and 10. Since the power limit of
an overhead AC line is normally fixed by factors other than conductor heating, the ratio of DC
power per conductor to AC power per conductor may be as high as 4. However, the cost of
7
terminal equipment is much more in case of DC (converting stations) than in case of AC
(transformer/substations). If we plot the variation of cost of power as a function of transmission
distance it will be as shown in Fig. 6.4.1. The slope gives cost per unit length of the line and
other accessories. The point of intersection P is called a breakeven point which shows that, if the
transmission distance is more than 0p, is preferable to use DC; otherwise AC should be used.
There is hardly any scope to reduce the cost of AC terminal equipment. But a lot of progress has
been made in the development of converting devices, and the breakeven distances are reducing
with further development of these devices.

Figure 6.4.1

Present day breakeven distance in favor of DC transmission is 7 km for overhead lines.

However, the breakeven distance varies with each individual project and should always be
checked. The difference installation costs between AC and DC submarine or underground cable
is several times as high as the corresponding difference in overhead line costs. This means that
the breakeven distance for a cable transmission is much shorter and is of the order of 30 – 50 km.

6.5 HVDC APPLICATIONS

1) CONNECTING REMOTE GENERATION

8
Some energy sources, such as hydro and solar power, are often located hundreds or thousands
kilometers away from the load centers. HVDC will reliably deliver electricity generated from
mountain tops, deserts and seas across vast distances with low losses.

2) Asynchronous Inter connection Of Ac System Operating

When Ac systems operating with different frequencies has to be interconnected. Suppose we
have two systems having 50Hz and the other 60Hz if we want to interconnect these systems we
call it asynchronous, once converted to DC their frequencies become zero.

3) CONNECTING REMOTE LOADS

Islands and remotely located mines often have the disadvantage of a weak surrounding AC grid.
Feeding power into the grid with an HVDC link, improves the stability and even prevents black-
outs.

4) Long distance bulk power transmission

We apply HVDC transmission for long distance ad bulk power because it is economical.

5)High power underground (submarine) distribution system feeders:

Here it is found that DC may be cheaper at distances greater than approximately 50 km with a
power level of 1000–2000 MW. With AC we need forced cooling due to the higher amount of
heat produced. Also there are increased dielectric losses at EHV AC.

6.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF HVDC SYSTEMS
6.6.1Advantages

9
1. These systems are economical for long distance bulk power transmission by overhead lines
(reduced tower and cable costs).

2. There is greater power per conductor and simpler line construction.

3. Ground return is possible.

4. There is no charging current and skin effect.

5. The voltage regulation problem is much less serious for DC, since only the IR drop is involved
(IX = 0). For the same reason steady-state stability is no loner a major problem.

7. The DC line is an asynchronous or flexible link (resynchronization is not required) and it can
interconnect two rigid systems operating at different frequencies.

8. For a single DC line between two converter stations, circuit breakers are unnecessary since
control of the converters can be used to block current flow during faulted conditions.

9. Each conductor can be operated as an independent circuit.

10. Smaller amount of right of way and narrower towers are required. The distance between two
outside conductors of a 400 kV AC line is normally 20 m, whereas the same between a
corresponding DC line is roughly half, i.e. 10 m only.

11. There is considerable insulation economy. The peak voltage of the 400 kV AC line is 2 × 400
= 564 kV. So the AC line requires more insulation between the tower and conductors, as well as
greater clearance above the earth as compared to corresponding 400 kV DC line.

12. There is no technical limit to the distance over which power may be transmitted by lines or
underground or undersea cables because of absence of both charging current and stability
limitations.

13. Line losses are smaller.

14. Corona loss, radio interference and audible emissions are less as compared to AC.

16. Fast control of converters can be used to damp out connected AC system oscillations.

6.6.2 Disadvantages
1. The systems are costly since installation of complicated converters and DC switchgear is
expensive.

2. Converters require considerable reactive power.

10
3. Harmonics are generated which required filters.

4. Converters do not have overload capability.

5. Lack of HVDC circuit breakers hampers multiterminal or network operation. There is no DC

device which can perform excellent switching operations and ensure protection. (Simultaneous
control at all converters is difficult).

6. There is nothing like DC transformer which can change the voltage level in a simple way.
Voltage transformation has to be provided on the AC sides of the system.

7. Reactive power required by the load is to be supplied locally as no reactive power can be
transmitted over a DC link.

8. Contamination of insulators is polluted in some areas or along the sea coast. Pollution affects
DC more than AC. More frequent cleaning of insulators is required.

11