Modal Ve꺄）

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we learn about modal verbs, or modals for short.' Modals express spe-
cial meanings such as ability, necessity, and permission. The cartoon below illustrates
an important fact about modals: they can have more than one meaning.

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The husband in the cartoon insists that his wife use a modal of polite request, may,
instead of making a more informal request with can. However, his wife points out that
her use of can was intended to indicate the meaning of possibility.
Because English learners need to be able to express the various meanings of modals
as soon as possible in their communication with others, modals are among the first
grammar topics taught in most English language courses. In this chapter, you will find
detailed coverage of the meanings that modals have. Even though you may not teach all
of these meanings, you will find that having this knowledge can be useful in answeriiig
questions about these verbs.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODALS
Modals (MOD) are one kind of auxiliary verb (AUX). In declarative sentences, aux-
iliary verbs come before the main verb (V). As we saw in Chapter 2 and Chapter 4,
be and have can be auxiliaries as well as main verbs. Examples (la) and (ib) show the

293
294 Chapter 14

verbs as auxiliaries preceding a main verb. When they appear together as auxiliaries,
some form of have always precedes been, as shown in (ic).
Aux `/
(1) a. He [is] [waiting].
爪7x `/
b. She [has] [waited] for a long time.
AUx 겨（'x v
c. They [have] [been] [waiting] for over three hours.
Modals appear either directly before a main verb, as in (2a), or before the auxiliary
verbs be and have, as shown in (2b), (2c), and (2d). Note that a verb following a modal
is always in its basic (bare infinitive) form.
MOD V
(2) a. He [musti [work] very hard to earn that much money.
ㅆoD A(7x v
b. He [must] [be] [working] very hard to earn all that money.
＾〃oD AUx `/
c. He [must] [have] [worked] very hard to earn all that money.
M0D 겨Ux A￡＇x v
d. He [must] [have] [been] [working] very hard to earn all that money.
Modals, like other auxiliary verbs, have some characteristics that distinguish them
from main verbs. First of4 all, as shown in (3), modals can contract with not, whereas
main verbs cannot.
(3) a. He shouldn't see her.
b. *He worksn't with her.
There are, however, two modals that do not form contractions with not. May does not
contract, as (4b) shows.2 Shan't exists as a contraction of shall not only in British Eng-
hsh and is restricted largely to use with a first person pronoun, as in (4c) (won't is used
in American English instead).
(4) a. He may not come.
b. *He mayn't come.
c. We shan't be very long. British English
d. We won't be very long. American English
Second, modals undergo subject-aux inversion in yes/no questions, as shown in (5a), and
in statements with an introductory negative word such as never, rarely, or not often, as in
(5b). (For more on modals and subject-aux inversion, see Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.)
(5) a. Should I finish that book?
b. Rarely, if ever, will you see a performance as good as that.
Third, in retorts, modals are repeated with primary stress, indicated in (6) with capi-
tal letters.3
(6) You think he can't do it? Well, he CAN!
This repetition also occurs in tag questions, in which a modal verb in the stem re-
appears in the tag. (For tag questions, see Chapter 4.)
 Modal Verbs 295

(7) He can come, can't he?

Finally, modals do not take the present tense -s ending or the past tense -ed ending,
as illustrated for can in (8a). Some modals, however, have what can be seen as a
corresponding irregular past tense form, for example, could in the case of can, as
(8b) indicates.4
(8) a. *IIe canned run a mile in almost four minutes when he was younger.
b. He could run a mile in almost four minutes when he was younger.

TYPES OF MODALS
Modals can be classified according to form and according to meaning. In this section,
we classify modals both ways; these classifications then organize the rest of the discus-
sion of modals.

자ie Forms of Modals

Modals can be classified into three categories according to their form. The first cat-
egory, pure modals, is comprised of verbs such as can, could, and may. With the one
exception shown in (4b), pure modals display all four of the characteristics mentioned
above - contraction, inversion, repetition in retorts and tags, and invariant form. Pure
modals do not appear together, except in some dialects of American English where you
sometimes hear sequences such as might could and might should.5
The second category, marginal modals, has only three members - dare, need, and
ought to. They are classified as marginal because they display only two of the syntactic
characteristics of pure modals - contraction with not and subject-」aux inversion - and
do so very rarely, for the most part Just in British English.6
The modals in the third category, semimodals, are fixed idiomatic expressions begin-
ning with have, had, or be - for example, have to, had better, and be going to. With
most of the semimodals, the words have, had, and be contract with not, are involved in
subject-aux inversion, and occur in tags. Unlike the pure modals, the semimodals are
not invariant, since be and have both change form (e.g., has to, were going to). Have,
had, and be often contract with preceding pronouns (e.g., you'd better, I'm going to).
The following table lists the modal verbs in each category. Example sentences using
modals from each category are shown in (9).

MODALS
Pure Modals Marginal Modals Semimodals
can dare be going to
could need be supposed to
may ought to had better
might had best
must have got to
shall have to
sho미d
wm
wo미d
296 Chapter 14

(9) a. She must turn in that report tomorrow. pure modal

b. You should see a doctor. pure modal
c. She needn't turn in that report tomorrow. mai꿍ma! modal
d. You ought to see a doctor. ma／以nal modal
e. I have got to turn in that report tomorrow. semimod낡
f. You had better see a doctor. semimodal
In addition to the modals listed in the table, there are several multiword expressions,
such as be able to, be obliged ／《〕， and be willing to, that have meanings similar to
those of modals. For example, be able to indicates ability like can, and be obliged to
indicates necessity like must. Unlike the corresponding modals, however, these ex-
pressions have only one meaning, For example, be able to is restricted to this ability
meaning, whereas can also has other meanings, which are shown in (12) and (13). For
this reason, these expressions are not considered semimodals, and they will not be
discussed here, even though they are often used in ESL/EFL textbooks to explain the
meanings of different modals.

The Meanings of Modals

As we have seen, modals can be categorized into three groups according to form: pure,
marginal, and semimodals. All of these modals can also be grouped according to the
meanings they express Many modals have meanings in addition to basic meanings
related to these groupings.7

Basic Meanings of Modals

Modals can be categorized into three groups according to meaning:8
· Modals of ability, permission, and possibility. This group includes the modals
can, could, may, and might.
· Modals of advice and necessity. This group includes must, should, dare, need, have
to, had better, had best, have got to, ought to, and be supposed to.
· Modals for expressing future time. This group of modals includes shall, will,
would, an心'e going 紬．

Extended Meanings of Modals

Modals can take on extended meanings depending on the contexts in which they ap-
pear. For example, the modal can has three basic meanings - of ability (I can't swim),
of permission (You can leave now), and of possibility (The temperature can fall below
60 degrees Fahrenheit at the South Pole). However, in certain contexts, such as in (10),
the meaning of can is extended to express something else.
(10) What? He lost the race? That can't be! I was so sure he'd win!
In (10), the modal can is used to express disbelief on the part of the speaker. The sen-
tence That can't be! is not a literal comment on the possibility of the race result, but
is instead a comment on its unexpectedness. The speaker is really saying, "It's hard
to believe that this could have happened." Thus, while the use of can't here does not
mean that the results are, in a literal sense, impossible, it expresses an extension of the
modal's meaning of possibility.
Disbelief is not one of the basic meanings that can normally conveys, and interpreting
can in this way depends on having a particular context. The extended meanings of a
 Modal Verbs 297

modal, such as the meaning of can illustrated in (10), are determined by the context,
which includes the real world situation in which the modal is used.
In the following sections, the basic and extended meanings of various modals are pre-
sented. Some meanings are specifically for the modal followed by not and/or by have.
For some modals, when we add these extended meanings to the basic meanings, we get
a long list of possible meanings. Don't be overwhelmed by this. Keep in mind that all
of the extended meanings need not be taught. As stated in the opening of this chapter,
some of this material is best thought of as extra knowledge that may be useful in an-
swering questions about particular modals.

PURE MODALS OF ABILITY, PERMISSION, AND POSSIBILITY

The modals of ability, permission, and possibility are all pure modals. They are can,
could, may, and ㅆ상仇．

can
Can expresses all three basic meanings of this set.

Ability
Can means "be able to do something," as in (h1a), or "know how to do something," as
in (lib).
(11) a. I can lift over 200 pounds.
b. I can fly an airplane.

Permission
Can is used to request permission to do something, as in (12a). In (12b), can is used to grant
permission. Can is considered to be more informal than could or may in such requests -
the basis for the husband's comment in the cartoon at the beginning of this chapter.
(12) a. Can I make a quick telephone call?
b. You can go outside after you finish your homework.

Possibility
Can also expresses possibility. In the opening cartoon, for instance, the wife's reply
to her husband's comment refers to the possibility of being able to clean the husband's
glasses given that they are so dirty. In (13), the speaker is talking about the possibility
of strong winds during a storm.
(13) The wind can easily gust up to 60 miles per hour in a bad storm.

Extended Meanings
In addition to its basic meanings, can has several extended meanings:
'Admonition. In American English, can't is sometimes used to admonish someone
not to do something. In (14), the meaning of can't is very close to "must not." The
sentence might be paraphrased as "Under no circumstances should you tell her."
(14) You can't tell her! The shock would kill her.
298 Chapter 14

· Speculation. Can also appears in questions such as (15a) and (15b), which refer to
some unexpected or unexplained occurrence or event. Such questions ask the listener
or reader to speculate about a possible explanation. In (16b), we see that speaker B
offers a speculative answer to speaker A's question.
(15) a. (hearing the telephone ring at 1:00 A.M.) Now, who can be calling at this hour?
b. A: (hearing a loud noise) What can that be?
B; I don't know, but it sounded kind of like an explosion.
· Disbelief. As we saw earlier, can't is used in conversation to express disbelief. The
speaker draws a conclusion that surprises him or her, derived from certain facts or
from other external circumstances. This meaning is exemplified by (10) as well as
by (16).
(16) He didn't get the promotion? That can't be possible! He's the most qualified
person we have in the department.

Could
Could, as mentioned earlier, corresponds to can, and it, too, expresses all three basic
meanings of the set.

Ability
Could expresses past ability, as shown in (17).
(17) a. I could run a mile in four and a half minutes when I was 19 years old. I can't
run that fast anymore.
b. When he was a child, he could speak several languages.

Permission
Could imparts a politer and more deferential tone to requests for permission than can,
as illustrated in (18). It is not used in responses.
(18) a. Coi茁／I be excused? more polite
b. Can I be excused? informal

Possibility
Could expresses possibility, and in this use, as illustrated in (19), it is often inter-
changeable with might or may.
(cou씨
(19) (looking at large black clouds overhead) It might rain today.
.'1“』
mayγ )

Extended Meanings
Could has the following extended meanings:
· Speculation or regret. Could and could have can express speculation about hy-
pothetical possibilities in the present and past, respectively, as in (20a) and (20b).
In (20c), in which could have appears in a hypothetical conditional sentence, it cx-
presses regret about an opportunity that was missed (see Chapter 19, Conditional
Sentences). (Could have is contracted to coulda or could of in conversation and is
sometimes written as could've.)
 Mod낡 Verbs 299

(20) a. Who could be calling at this hour?

b. She could have gone to the movies, but I'm not sure if she did.
c. You know, I could have won a million dollars if I had played the numbers that
I usually do. But I forgot to buy a ticket this week.
· Disbelief. Couldn't have expresses disbelief about a past event or action. In this
case, it means "It is not possible that this happened" or "I don't believe that this
happened." In (21a), the reason for the speaker's disbelief appears in the follow-
ing sentence.
(21) No, you are wrong! John couldn't have stolen your watch. He's the most honest
and trustworthy person I've ever met.
· Suggestion or implied criticism. ('ould and could have are used to advise someone
to do something. In (22a), the speaker is advising someone to seek help from the
teacher. In (22b), the speaker is showing criticism of a person's behavior.
(22) a. You know, if you don't understand the assignment, you could always ask
your teacher to explain it. I'm sure that he would be glad to.
b. Did you see that? She just burst into the room unannounced and interrupted
the meeting. I've never seen such rude behavior! At the very least, she could
have knocked before she came in.
In (22b), the projected tone is one of irritation, but this does not have to be the case. In
(23), could is used in a suggestion that is intended to be ironic.
(23) A: How do you address an angry six-foot, seven-inch football player who
weighs 295 pounds?
B: Well, you could try, "Sir."

May
May expresses possibility and permission. May have, like could have and might have
(discussed later), has the extended meaning of speculation, although the other forms
are more commonly used to express this meaning.

Possibility
May is used to express possibility. In (24), for instance, the speaker expresses the pos-
sibility that the person referred to is telling the truth.
(24) He may be telling the truth.

Permission
May is also used to request and grant permission. In these uses, may is considered more
formal than can in American English, as illustrated in (25).
(25) a. May I leave now? formal
b. Can I leave now? less formal
c. You may go in now. formal
d. You can go in now, less formal
In statements, may not, which denies permission, imparts a formal tone, emphasizing
prohibition, as shown in (26).
3卯 Chapter 14

(26) You may not leave this room at any time during the examination.

Might
Might has only the basic meaning of possibility and several extended meanings.

Possibility
Might indicates possibility - often more tentative and remote than possibility indicated
by may, as illustrated in (27).
(27) He might come, and then again, he might not.

Extended Meanings
Might has the following extended meanings:
'Speculation. Might have implies a high degree of speculation about the possibility
that an event took place, as shown in (28).
(28) He might have met her in Boston, but I'm not so sure he's ever been to Boston.
'Suggestion. Might can have the force of a neutral suggestion, as shown in (29).
(29) No, I don't know what's wrong. But you might try flipping that switch and see
what happens.
'implied criticism. Might and might have can imply criticism. The tone of an Ut-
terance can be one of annoyance or surprise due to something that the person ad-
dressed has done or has failed to do. In (30a) and (30b), respectively, the speaker
is annoyed because the person addressed acted selfishly, and upset because the
person was irresponsible; in (30c), the speaker is surprised that the person did
not take advantage of an opportunity. (In spoken English might have contracts to
mighta, or what sounds like might of These forms are never written unless the
writer is attempting to imitate speech, and then you will usually see the contrac-
tion might've.)
(30) a. You ate the rest of the pie?!! I can't believe you did that! Next time you might
ask whether anyone else wants some.
b. How could you let him go mountain climbing? You know how danger-
ous that is. You might have at least called me before he left! I could have
stopped him.
c. You mean to tell me that you were standing next to Steven Spielberg at that
party, and you never even spoke to him?! What's the matter with you? You're
an actor and he's the most powerful man in Hollywood. You might have at
least introduced yourself to him.
'Permission in formal requests. Might is used in very formal requests with first
person pronouns. This is perhaps more common in British English, as illustrated
in (31).
(31) Might I have a look at this masterpiece you have purchased?
 Modal Verbs 301

PURE MODALS OF ABILITY, PERMISSION' AND POSSIBILiTY

Modals can be classi琺（珏nto three categories according to their form: pure modalS,
marginal modals, a1d semirnodals.

鑽漱
，ㄹ 楗1 十 繃蠟
They can be classified into three categories according to 伍eir basic meanihs:
moclais 아 ability, permission, and possibility; m에als 勞 advice and necessi하, and

`
modals 釉r expressing future time.
The modats of ability, permission, and possibility are all pure noda1s杖hey a
could, may, and might. 차ieir basic and exteflded." meanings are as 以lows:
Can
* ab汎kr
Ica九 lift 20.0 pounds. .0 ver my h.αd
· permission, 츤，‘
; You can. talk to. hIm now. ,,, ,,,
냐ossil硼ty
In the suminer the temperatu can reac l0 d rees
h
eg
n
Fahe

· extended meanings
admonition
【， '" 『4 “「 , F 쵱 」 」『 ' ,『【【‘『？ ,:';.:/#,,
You can't tell he杓'et! The shock would 締 tq much.
· speculation '
Now who can that be αr the doot?
,*
· disbeli鮮，
You can't be serious..
Co跡d
· ab淋竗
When /was 18, /could,
.permission
Cou板／ta稅 次’ you for a mo7nent
. possibility
^ could snow up to ten inches today. γ’

.extended meanings
· spec미ation『 . regret
She could be α／Linda's house, but I'm 松o/ sure.
/could have been a contendr ,1
· 小sbelief
〃 couldn't have been Jim! He' 朴iever do someti綸땋 /f紛 that.
continued
302 Chapter 14

EXERCISE 14.1
Indicate the meaning expressed by each modal verb in italics. Some modals express a basic
meaning and others express an extended meaning.
Example: She's your sister, you know. You might try being a little more friendly when
she's around.
Answer: might = implied criticism
1. You can't let on that you know about the party. Your parents have worked so hard plan-
fling this surprise. They would be terribly disappointed.
2. They couldn't have told him about the party. Catherine and I were the only people who
knew about it, and we didn't tell anyone else.
3. You may not speak until you are spoken to.
4. You mean you had a chance to meet the president, and you turned it down? You can't
be serious!
5. I really don't know much about repairing car engines, but you might try connecting that
wire down there and seeing if it starts up.
6. He could do 35 chin-ups when he was 16 years old.
7. They can get as much as 60 inches of rain in a year in Seattle.
8. You might have told me that you were bringing someone home for dinner! All I ask for is
a little advance notice so that we have enough food.
9. I could be a big star if I just practice enough.
 Modal Verbs 303

PURE MODALS OF ADVICE AND NECESSITY

The pure modal of advice is should. It is interchangeable with the marginal modal
ought to for expressing the basic meaning of advice - that which the speaker considers
to be "right," in the sense of either morally called for or most practical or expedient.
Must is the pure modal of necessity and is interchangeable with the semimodal have to.
Necessity can be internal; that is, it may spring from an internal need, as in (32a), in
which the subject, Fred, feels compelled to do something. Necessity can also be exter-
nal, as in (32b), in which external circumstances create the compulsion.
(32) a. Fred is one of those people who must clear his desk of all papers before he
leaves the office.
b. Alice lost herjob, so she must budget all her expenses very carefully until she
finds a steady source of income.

Sh.f"d
In addition to its root meaning of advice, should has two important extended meanings.

Advice
In (33), should is used to express advice. These are recommendations based on the
speaker's subjective judgment.
(33) a. You should get some health insurance right away.
b. The oil in this car should be changed every 1,500 miles if you want to keep
it running.

Extended Meanings
Should has the following extended meanings:
· Inferred probability. Should can express probability based on evidence present at
the moment of speaking. In (34)., Tom, knowing the location of Bald Mountain in
relation to where he is standing, expresses the likelihood that it can be seen.
(34) Susan: Boy, we really have climbed way up, haven't we?
Tom: Yeah. We should be able to see Bald Mountain from here.
Similarly, in (35), in which the speaker has just finished tightening a leaky faucet,
should in the first sentence expresses the idea that this action has probably stopped the
leak, and shouldn't in the second sentence expresses unlikelihood.
(35) That should do it. You shouldn't get any more water dripping out of that faucet.·
Should have can express surprise that an event that bad high probability did not occur.
The contrast between the use of should to express probability and the use of should
have to express a measure of surprise is illustrated in (36).
(36) a. It's 12:18; the bus should come by any minute now.
b. The bus should have been here 10 minutes ago. I wonder what's holding it up.
In (36a), the speaker uses should to indicate probability because he knows that
the bus is scheduled to come at 20 minutes after the hour and the time is 12:18. In
(36b), the speaker uses should have to express surprise that the bus did not come
on schedule.
304 Chapter 14

· Reproach or reprimand. Should have can express a reproach or reprimand about

actions taken or not taken. In (37a), the tone is one of a reproach, in which the persOn
being spoken to has not honored his obligation. In (37b), the tone is a reprimand,
in which the person addressed has broken a law. Should have is often pronounced
shoulda in fast speech, as is illustrated in (37a).
(37) a. You shoulda taken care of me a little bit. I coulda been a contender!9
b. You shouldn't have run that red light. That's a $50 fine in this state.

M"st
Must expresses necessity and obligation; followed by not, it expresses prohibition but
not, as discussed here, absence of obligation.

Necessity or Obligation
Must expresses necessity or obligation. Necessity can be external or internal. In
(38a) and (38b), external circumstances create an obligation. In (38a), the threat of
prosecution is meant to compel the listener; in (38b), it is the law, that compels the
speaker to act. In (38c), however, the necessity expressed by must is internally mo-
tivated: the speaker simply feels obligated to carry through with a particular course
of action.
(38) a. You must fulfill the terms of your contract or else we will take you to court.
b. In pursuance of article 54, I must regrettably issue a warrant for your arrest.
c. I have decided not to pursue a career in law. I feel very strongly that I will be
happier as a' teacher. This is my destiny, and I must pursue it.
As is discussed later in this section, obligation or necessity in the past tense is ex-
pressed by had to, a form of the semimodal have to. This correspondence between must
and had to is illustrated in (39).
(39) a. If I want to be selected for the Olympic team, I must win this race.
b. In order to be selected for the Olympic team, I had to win this race.
In (39a), the speaker mentions the condition that she must fulfill to become a member
of the Olympic team. In (39b), having won the race, she talks about that same condition
using had to.
The necessity or obligation meaning of a sentence with must not is that the speaker is
obligated not to do whatever is in the following proposition. Sentences with must not,
therefore, enjoin, or admonish, someone not to do something. For example, (40) is a
warning not to forget to turn off the gas.
(40) You must not forget to turn off the gas before you leave the house.

Prohibition
Must not can also be a statement of prohibition. In (41), the judge means that the us-
tener is not allowed to contact former associates and criminals. If the paroled criminal
violates this order, there will be serious consequences.
(41) Judge: You must not have any further contact with any of your former associ-
ates or any criminals. If you do, I will have to revoke your parole.
 Modal Verbs 305

Although used in expressing prohibition, must is not used in expressing the meaning "it
is not necessary." This meaning is usually expressed by either need not or don't have to,
as is discussed in their respective sections. Need not is more typical of British English;
speakers of American English prefer don't have to, as illustrated in (42).
(42) a. You need not answer every question on the exam. British English
b. You don't have to answer every question on the exam. American English
c. You must not answer every question on the exam.
It is important for students to realize that must not cannot be used to express the ab-
sence of necessity or obligation. A common mistake made by many English learners is
to say sentences like (42c) when they want to express the absence of obligation mean-
ing shown in (42a) and (42b). The reason for this is discussed in the Problems section
of this chapter.

Minimal Requirement or Condition

Must is also used to indicate a minimal requirement or condition for something,
as shown in (43). The minimal requirement meaning "at least" is not inherently a
meaning of must and generally comes from the real-world context. A person hearing
the sentence in (43) would assume a Ph.D. in microbiology would not be a disquali-
fying factor.
(43) You must have an M.A. in microbiology if you want to be considered for the job.

Extended Meanings
Must has the following extended meanings:
· inferred probability. Must expresses inferred probability or supposition. In (44a),
the speaker draws a conclusion on the basis of something the other person just said,
and in (44b), the speaker guesses a man's age based on his appearance.
(44) a. Wow, you pronounced that perfectly! You must be French.
b. Well, judging from his appearance, he must be about 40.
Must have always signals inferred probability. In (45a), the speaker uses personal knowl-
edge to infer when a past event took place, and in (45b), speaker B makes an inference
about something that has just happened in order to answer speaker A's question.
(45) a. She said that they have been married for as long as she's known my brother.
Well, that means they must have gotten married about 20 years ago.
b. A: Look! There he is in front of us. How could he have passed us without our
having seen him?
B: He must have taken a shortcut.
· Poljte insistence. Must is used to express polite insistence in invitations and apolo-
gies. Particularly when the modal is stressed, as in (46a) and (46b), the speaker in-
tends to convey the meaning "I insist that." In these contexts, the obligation meaning
of must is extended by the speaker to urge the listener to do something. This use of
must is more common in British than in American English.
(46) a. You MUST come to dinner on Friday! George Clooney is going to be there.
b. You MUST forgive me! I'm so sorry I spilled that on you. I'll pay for the
cleaning bill, of course.
306 Chapter 14

Li竅‘M5妹Y
OF,ApVICE AND N臼〕
ESSJTY `

Pure mOC als essity ar梅눙 fo1Jovs:’；』1 ！〃

l'Should ,
：뻑
i「 adyic 긱 ；

：!
며 , /That's av 瀚
흴］rt:*xtende, me
際 ' “「《，
.

or 502t s ouldn t gave iu in more ro blems

a( h
y
.
y p

驪 J夕老

Y r 닙’:l《： ,4 貶欠 쨍 1닉』. '"

누

Tuesday, or they wi 柚end someone

t '

쇼츱 棺’蠟，一：: ',:1:l奪， 츙」；：ㅋ…；;;,

．긍，嵋 "/：驢 ?4 , , ,t

뉼t ijot leave the country. oryourparole, will be revoked ．糾｀

nitoii
쏴랙「 .，굼긺 / 」，」결 7 」 / 砂」，드1*/, j 닉 츤
ex erience to e cnsi er or
p
b sition d
df
the po

7놨

m ust e iii reat s

b
g
hape H e runs six mi es every d y
l ! a

；琵 5. 믹；휄“；ㅒ＝
nce':: l 」，긍 ,r쨍： . : , “닙긱
什 ustius we zd. / 1坤zcton tt

EXERCISE 14.2
Indicate the meaning expressed by each modal verb in italics. Some of the modals express
a basic meaning, and others express an extended meaning.
Example: Judge: You must not drive your car for three months. If you do, you will be arrested
and subject to a heavy fine.
Answer: must = prohibition
1. She must get a B on this exam if she wants to pass the class.
2. (hearing the telephone ring) That should be Mom.
3. Plumber to customer: That should take care of your hot water problem.
4. You should get some rest. You look beat.
5. Wife: You mustn't forget to take out the trash on Sunday evening.
 Modal Verbs 307

6. We should be able to see Venus on a clear night like this. Look, there it is!
7. You really should have lent him the money. He's your best friend, you know.
8. We must contact him today before he leaves for Thailand.

MARGINAL MODALS AND SEMIMODALS OF ADVICE

AND NECESSITY
With one exception (be going to), the marginal modals and semimodals discussed in
this chapter all have meanings related to necessity and advice. We start with the three
marginal modals (dare, need, ought to) and then turn to semimodals.

pare
The marginal modal dare is rare and is more typical of British than American Eng-
lish)o Dare is sometimes referred to as a nonassertive modal because it appears only
in questions and negative statements." These two contexts are associated, respectively,
with the modal's basic meaning of advice and with its extended meanings.

Advice
When it appears in questions, as in (47a), dare asks for advice. In American English,
the question in (47a) would more likely be expressed using a pure modal such as should
or would, as shown in (47b) and (47c).
(47) a. Dare I tell her?
b. Should I tell her?
c. Would it be OK to tell her?

Extended Meanings
In negative statements, dare has two extended meanings:
· Admonition. Statements with dare not that directly address someone are equivalent
to admonitions with must not or can 't. In (48), the speaker is admonishing someone
not to tell the speaker's mother about something.

(48) You dare not' tell my mother about this. It would really upset her.
imust not)
· Impossibility, in statements that are not intended as admonitions, dare not has an
impossibility meaning (i.e., "it's not possible"), which can also be expressed with
can't, as illustrated in (49).
(49) a. I dare not tell my mother about this. It would really upset her.
b. I can't tell my mother about this. It would really upset her.
In these various uses, the modal dare must be distinguished from the intransitive
verb dare, meaning "to have the courage/nerve to do something," shown in (50a),
and the transitive verb dare, meaning "to challenge someone to do something,"
shown in (50b).
(50) a. He doesn't dare (to) jump off the bridge. He knows it's too high.
b. I double dare you to try it!
308 Chapter 14

Need
The marginal modal need has the basic meaning of necessity and an extended meaning
related to advice.

Necessity
The marginal modal need expresses necessity. When directly followed by a verb, need,
like dare, appears especially in British English in questions and negative statements.
The former is shown in (51a); the latter - needn't to express that it is not necessary to
do something - is shown in (51b). Speakers of American English will usually use don't
have to instead of needn't, as shown in (Sic).12
(51) a. Need I remind you that what you are proposing is exactly
what got us into this mess? (Is it necessary for me to
remind you that what you are proposing is exactly what got
us into this mess?) British English
b. You needn't tell her. (It isn't necessary to tell her.) British English
c. You don't have to tell her. (It isn't necessary to tell her.) American English
Need is often followed by an infinitival complement, as in (52). In this case, it is con-
sidered to be a regular verb that has the same meaning of necessity.
(52) We need to speak with him right now.

Extended Meaning (Advice)

The meaning of need can also be extended to express advice. For example, in (53a),
the speaker is making a suggestion that could also be expressed with the advice modal
should, as in (53b).
(53) a. You look tired. You need to lie down and get some rest.
b. You really should lie down and get some rest.

Ought To
Ought to Is a marginal modal that conveys the same meanings as should and is inter-
changeable with it in almost all contexts, except that ought to is confined largely to
affirmative statements. As shown in (55) and (56), its use in questions and negatives
is more common in British than in American English. (In speech, ought to generally
contracts to oughta.)

Advice
In (54), ought to is interchangeable with should in giving advice.

(54) a. That's a bad cough. You SOUght to see a doctor.

∼ tsnouia ,
" `7- (niio'httnl : .. ' 1
b. You < ㅋ’＜》“ = :v 5 tell her about that.
"nouta ,
Infrequently in British English, subject-」aux inversion is applied to sentences with
ought to to create yes/no questions, as shown in (55a). These questions sound some-
what clumsy a nd overly formal to speakers of American English, who tend to use
should instead, as shown in (55b).
(55) a. Oug价 we to tell him about it? British English
b. Should we tell him about it? American English
 Modal Verbs 309

Ought to with not, used very infrequently, can either be contracted, as in (56a), or be in
an uncontracted form, as in (56b) 13 It occurs mainly in British English, with speakers
of American English preferring shouldn 't.
(56) a. You oughtn't (to) let him get away with that. British English
b. You ought not to let him get away with that. British English

Extended Meanings
The extended meanings of ought to are the same as for should:
·Inferred probability. This meaning is illustrated in (57).
一一 ' “ ' (niioJittn 쫠 1': , - -.-.-. - -
(57) a. We《 一 F.一： r 5 be able to see the EitteI ' lower trom here.
( snouia ,
b. That fought tol do it.
(SI沁zzzα ,
c. His flight fought tOl have arrived by now.
∼ ( snouia )

'Reproach or reprimand. Ought to have can express a reproach or reprimand about

something that was not done. In (58), the speaker reproaches someone for failing to
help his or her sister.

(58) You 0艸 tol have helDed her. After all, she's your sister.
snouia ,

Had Better and Had Best

Had better and had best are the two semimodals used to give advice. Had better is
more common, and for some speakers it has a wider range of meaning.

Had Better for Advice

Had better is a semimodal verb that expresses advice to someone, much as should does.
The contracted form of you had better (you'd better) is often heard in spoken English,
as in (59a); at times the subject pronoun and had are simply deleted, as in (59b).
(59) a. You'd better see a doctor about that cough. (I recommend that you see a doe-
tor about that cough.)
b. Better see a doctor about that cough.
Had better is often used to warn the listener of something, especially when the conse-
quences of not heeding the warning may be severe, as in (60a) and (60b). Had better
may also be used with a threat, as in (60c).
(60) a. You had better be careful - it's pretty icy out there.
b. You'd better not go down there. You might never come back in one piece.
c. You'd better keep your mouth shut about this, or I'll see to it that you're fired.

Had Best for Advice

Had best also expresses advice. This semimodal is often considered to be a dialectical
variant of had better, but for some native speakers, had best is not used as frequently
in the context of a warning. For these speakers, it would not be interchangeable with
had better in a sentence such as (60b), which carries the warning of dire consequences.
Both had better and had best are used in precautionary recommendations that do not
carry such warnings, as shown in (61).
310 Chapter 14

(61) You'd best take your raincoat. It looks like a big storm is sweeping in.
In (61), you'd best is used to express the idea that under the circumstances the best
course of action would be for you to take your raincoat. In conversation, contrac-
tions are common and so are deletions of the subject pronoun and had, as shown
in (62).
(62) Best take your raincoat.

〃ave ro
Have to is a semimodal that expresses the same basic and extended meanings as must.
Differences in the contexts in which the two appear, discussed later, relate to the fact
that must is a pure modal, whereas have to is a semimodal. Have to is more common in
American English than British English.14 In spoken English, it is contracted to sound
like hafla (a form not acceptable in written English).

Necessity or Obligation
The examples in (63) show the interchangeability of have to and must in expressing
necessity or obligation. Earlier we saw that in American English, lack of obligation or
necessity is typically expressed with not + have to, as illustrated in (63b).
－一 -- 1J,avpfn) -. .∼ㅗ.- ‘→＝-- －→一 ------
(63) a. You r… 一 ∼ > notitv the police right away.
"--" ' … (must j 〃 ' 닐
b. You don't have to notify the police right away.
As we also saw earlier, had to functions as the past tense of must, as illustrated in (64).
(64) He was so sick that we had to take him to the hospital yesterday.
Questions about necessity with have to require the use of do insertion, as demonstrated
in (65a), whereas subject-aux inversion occurs with must, as in (65b)'.
(65) a. Do we have to invite all of your relatives to dinner?
b. Must we invite ail of your relatives to the wedding?
Have to can be preceded by the modal will to indicate future necessity or obligation, as
shown in (66a). When preceded by a modal of possibility such as may or might, as in
(66b), the meaning is that of possible future necessity.
(66) a. You will have to get that headlight replaced, or you will get a ticket.
b. You may have to see a doctor if that wound doesn't heal soon.

Extended Meanings
Have to has the same extended meanings as must:
· Inferred probability. In (67), the second sentence supplies the grounds for the
speaker's conjecture in the first sentence.
-- -- 1J7fJ'ctflI 1 』 려，, --. . T - ' . → '1 」 .. . -. " ,
；赫쟈
(67) 1.-fe (mUst
l be over 71) years old. Look at those deep lines in his lace!
· Polite insistence. In (68), have to is used like must in an apology.
∼， , → (z,,,,,,, t-' “ 맨 ,, ' , 1 '1 』 → . ∼
(68) You ""::! " I fomive me. I'm afraid that I've forgotten your name.
" -, - (must J →
" -
 Modal Verbs 311

〃ave G아 ro
Have got to and have to have the same meaning. Have got to is often reduced in spoken
American English. Got to may be reduced to gotta (a form not , acceptable in written
English) as shown in (69). In addition, the -'ye contraction is often deleted, as shown
in (69c) and (69d).'5
(69) a. I've gotta work a lot harder.
b. John's gotta be home early.
c. I gotta read this article for the meeting tomorrow.
d. I'm telling you, you gotta see this movie! It's fantastic!

Necessity or Obligation
Like must and have to, have got to can express necessity or obligation, as shown in (70).
(has 1Z ot r(? ,
(1U) 놉ne《 has to 》 return the book to the library tomorrow. It's overdue!
( must J
Although have got to and have to have the same meaning, have got to cannot be sub-
stituted in all contexts for have to. As (71) shows, only had to can be used as the past
tense of must.'6
(71)a. I was so sick that I had to go to the hospital.
b. *1 was so sick that I had got to go to the hospital.
Furthermore, unlike have to, have got to cannot be preceded by other modals like may,
might, or will, as (72) shows.
(72) a. He's very sick. He will have to go to the hospital.
b. He's very sick. *He will have got to go to the hospital.

Extended Meanings
The extended meanings of have got to are as for must and have to:
'Inferred probability, as in (73).

(73）【Look
(73) ..23!(53!5:0180..5. 「0500
at that bruise on her ·8.7;16
cheek.
【 Boy, that
궉hasmustgot
to to hurt!
· Polite insistence, as in (74).
(74) You simply have to come with me to George's party. I can't possibly go alone.

Be Supposed To (0비igation)
Be supposed to is a semimodal that expresses obligation determined by some plan or
preconceived view, as shown in (75).
(75) a. Whenever an emergency like that arises, you're supposed to notify your su-
pervisor right away.
b. A true scientist is supposed to view the phenomena with total objectivity and
ignore any other factors such as emotional attachment to particular theories.
In (75a), the speaker uses be supposed to to express an obligation to follow established
procedures. In (75b), the speaker uses the semimodal to express an obligation to follow
a point of view dictated by a group.
312 Chapter 14

（驟 Y
,SuM?M
써너
MARGENAL M A AND SEMIMODALS OF ADVICE AND NECESSITY 'l
檄瑯nat ,a」and
纛d ＄이叭灌 n얘
sernirn odals
毓l alt have meanii嘴盼e1ated to ncessity and^ dvic.."
*" '" . 존뉴

Marginal rn여als areas fp1Iows

鞭＇ '):,:*

II탠erred probabil!ty ，』
Ths flight ought to havt arried 姃now
ch Or ieprirnai업 ;
Hey! Tizat was, a [Link]. You 0U2价 to have stovned
콥꺌S are as rouows: → ,
경緘／better and bad best . ;
걍 dv1c
.' You'd better get down from that tree. You're going to fall and get hurt.
스，」 You'd best"z締夕仇4' raincoat. It looks like lt?s going to rain.

Ha驢跡
」，간」 necessity
.' obligation
rRicardo has to finish his project by this evening.
『‘ Eric hadto. be rulzed to the hospital yesterday.
 Modal Verbs 313

. extended meanings

· inferred probability
Those kids have ro be tired. They've been running an: undαzzafternoon;
~ polite insistence
恥“ /love（》 ' see you. You have to come, visiL

什ave 공삿 to
· necessity or obligation
《〕／ top 겸γ 汰at phone bill today.
I'veg ．→
. extended meanings
" ；擊

~ inferred probability
Those kids have got to be tired. They've been＾〃＇"f"g aroundα鰕 flernoon.

, polite insistence ＊슭

Whatαgreat cake! You've got to give me the recipe,!

8· supposed to

· 야digation
You're supposed to《？ α／/ the doctor's office, j/긴you ‘
＇肖
α 紛epyour appointment.

EXERCISE 14.3
Indicate the meaning expressed by each modal verb in italics. Some of the modals express
a basic meaning, and others express an extended meaning.
Example: You needn't go into great detail. Just gi\/e us a summary of what happened.
Answer: needn't = Ia盼； of necessity
1. Wow, is it ever hot! It's gotta be at least 100 degrees in the shade.
2. We oughta tell him what happened.
3. He has a driver's license, so he has to be at least 18. I'd guess he's somewhere between
18 and 21.
4. You'd better take something to drink. It's going to be a hot day.
5. We've gotta find a way to increase our sales of tennis shoes.
6. I need to get ahold of him right now It's an emergency.
7. You have to notify the police whenever something like this happens.
8 Dareㅣ t애 him?
9. We ought to be able drive there, have lunch, and get back in time for dinner.
10. Isn't he supposed to be helping her?
11. You'd best bundle up. It's cold outside.

PURE MODALS AND SEMIMODAL FOR EXPRESSING

FUTURE TIME
Future time can be expressed with three pure modals - will, shall, and would - and the
semimodal be going to. (For more on expressing future time with and without modals,
see Chapter 16.)
314 Chapter 14

Will
Will expresses future time, including predictions about the future, and has several ex-
tended meanings.

Future Time; Prediction

Will followed by a main verb is used to talk about future time, as in (76a). Sometimes
this takes the form of making a prediction, as in the case of (76b) and perhaps also in
(76c). Will is often contracted with a preceding pronoun, as in (76b) and (76c).
(76) a. Sarah will retire in one or two years.
b. They'll go on to win the championship.
c. By this time tomorrow, we'll be in Cleveland.

Extended Meanings
In addition to generally expressing future time and to its predictive meaning, will has
the following meanings:
· Volition. Some English language teaching textbooks and grammars explain that
shall indicates volition, or strong intent, on the part of the speaker while will ex-
presses a prediction. But this contrast does not always hold up well, especially in
American English, in which shall is seldom used. The fact is that will can also be
used to express volition.
Volition springs from an internal desire of the speaker, and the decision to assign
volition to a partieular instance of a modal depends on the context. In (77a), for
instance, will seems to express a prediction, or simply a future action, not volition.
However, in (77b), the phrase no matter what you want me to do indicates that the
speaker is expressing volition with will. A speaker's internal intent to do something
may also be signaled by stress, as illustrated in (77c). Since it depends so heavily on
context, volition is largely a pragmatically determined meaning.
(77) a. I will probably leave tomorrow. future action!
prediction
b. I will leave tomorrow no matter what you want me to do. volition
c. I WILL leave tomorrow! volition
· Inferred probability. Will can be used to express inferred probability, particularly
about the immediate future. In (78), the speaker makes an informed guess based on
the knowledge of certain facts and particular circumstances.
(78) That'll be the 5:15 train.
If the speaker knows that a particular train is scheduled to arrive at 5:15 every
day and, while standing on the station platform at 5:14, hears a train whistle in
the distance, he or she may well utter the sentence above. The use of will implies
more certainty than should in this context. Here will is similar to must. Must
could substitute for will in (78) with no change in meaning - That must be the
5:15 train.
· Requests (polite alternatives to commands). Will is used to change what would
otherwise be a command into a request. Thus, (79b) is a slightly more polite version
of the command in (79a).
 Modal Verbs 315

(79) a. Step into my office for a second.

b. Will you step into my office for a second?

Shall
Shall is the least used of all the pure modals, but it is clearly used more frequently in
British English than in American English.'7 Like will, it expresses future time, inciud-
ing prediction, and has extended meanings.

Future Time
In (80a), shall is being used to express a prediction about the future. This same mean-
ing is most commonly expressed in American English with will, as in (80b).
(80) a. According to the most recent polls, I shall win in November. British English
b. According to the most recent polis, I'll win in November. American English
It is probably accurate to say that shall is becoming archaic, at least in American Eng-
lish, and is used primarily in polite requests, discussed next. However, shall can still be
heard in sentences that express future time. Furthermore, in British English shall can
impart a tone of legal and quasilegal insistence and formality, as it does in (81).18 Here,
again, American English favors will.
(81) We shall inform you of our decision within ten days.
The negative contraction shan't appears only in British English. Speakers of American
English use won't.

Extended Meanings
Shall has the following extended meanings:
· Volition. In statements, shall can be used to express strong volition. However, this
meaning usually occurs in a context like a speech or public statement that is de-
signed to express commitment and to arouse public emotion for the particular cause,
as shown in (82).
(82) a. We shall overcome these difficulties and go on to win!
b. The person who committed this terrible crime shall be punished!
· Suggestions and requests for advice. Shall is used with first person pronouns in
questions. Frequently this is a request for advice, as in (83a), but it may also be a
suggestion, as in (83b) and (83c). In American English, shall occurs more frequently
in tag questions such as (83c).
(83) a. Shall I tell him now or later?
b. The weather is beautiful today. Shall we go for a stroll?
c. Let's discuss that at our next meeting, shall we?

w이＇'d
Would can be seen as the past equivalent of will. This correspondence is reflected in
some of its meanings

Prediction in the Past; Future in the Past

Would is used to talk about future predictions made in the past and in statements about
the past that correspond to statements about the present with will, as illustrated in (84).
316 Chapter 14

(84) a. I think it will rain any minute.

b. I thought it would rain any minute.
More generally, would is used in talking about the future from the perspective of some
point in the past. This is illustrated in (85), which involves events at various points in
the past. Would is used in mentioning the events (the meetings) that occurred after the
time of the event (the dinner) mentioned in the prepositional phrase.
(85) After dinner that evening, we would meet Just three more times.

Extended Meanings
Would has the following extended meanings:
· Regular action in the past. .Would is used to describe a regularly occurring action in
the past. In (86), the speaker describes something that happened on a regular basis.
(86) He would come in here nearly every day to buy a newspaper.
· Hypothetical results. Would is the modal that indicates hypothetical results in con-
ditional sentences. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 19. An example of a hypo-
thetical conditional is shown in (87).
(87) If you went to Chicago, you would see some beautiful, modern buildings.
· Inferred probability. Like will, would can be used to express inferred probability,
as in (88), where the speaker has been expecting a friend named Fred and guesses
that he has arrived when there is a knock at the door.
(88) That would be Fred. (That's probably Fred.)
· Polite requests. Would is often used in polite requests. The request with would in
(89a) is more polite than the one with will in (89b).
(89) a. Would you please stop talking so loudly? We're trying to study.
b. Will you please stop talking so loudly? We're trying to study.

Be Going To
The semimodal be going to is the modal in addition to will that is often used to talk
about the future. A s discussed later, the two are not often used interchangeably.

Future Time: Planned Action

Be going to indicates planned future action, as shown in (90).
(90) I'm going to leave a little after seven o'clock. (= I plan to leave a little after
seven o'clock.)
In this sense of "plan to," be going to is similar to the modal will used to express future
action, predictions, and volition. Nonetheless, will and be going to are not used inter-
changeably in sentences like these, and this fact is worth teaching to students. Be going
to tends to be used when the speaker wants to talk about something that is a fairly fixed
plan. When speakers refer to future actions that are still not firm or depend on condi-
tions that are unknown or beyond their control, they tend to use will (with probably,
maybe, I think, etc.) instead of be going to, as shown in (91). The first sentence contains
be going to because the speaker is talking about a fixed, planned event. The following
sentences use will because the future activities described are uncertain.
 Modal Verbs 317

(91) Speaker: I'm going to visit Siena in October. I will probably spend some time
in the Tuscan countryside around San Gimignano. And then I think I'll go on
to Florence.
The tendency to use be going to for planned future action and will for future action that
is less certain or less controllable is just that - a tendency. Thus, you may hear native
speakers use be going to in the second and third sentences in (91). It is often claimed
that be going to is less formal than will when used to speak of future events or actions,
but this is hard to prove. While it is true that will is used more often in writing than be
going to, the fact is that will is used more frequently in speaking as well.'9

Future Time: Immediately Imminent Action

Be going to is used when speaking about an action that appears to be immediately im-
minent or has already started. If, for example, a passenger sees that the car she is rid-
ing in is about to crash into another car, she will utter (92a) rather than (92b), because
the latter does not carry this sense of imminent occurrence. (The # indicates that this
sentence does not fit its context - the preceding Look out!)
(92) a. Look out! We're going to hit that car!
b. Look out! #We'll hit that car.

PURE MODALS AND SEMIMOALS FOR

The pure modals and semirnodal fore지iessii響
珊〃
· future time; prec仇tion
She'll retire in one or r꺼心夕ears.
He'll lose in straig价 sets.
, extended rneanii뼝S
· volition
Ipromise you that we will go on to victo7y!
* inferred pr이》ab茁ty
That will be Jorge: He always airives promptly at 灸00:
· requests (polite alternatives to」 commands
Will you move your; car a令itto the left?
Shall
다uture time;. prediction ,
〃 appears that his play shall: be4great success. riti$. 4gIi幼
.extended meanings
' volition
We SHALL beat them this夕βα／/
co鮮〃
f 〃e'/
318 Chapter 14

tsuggestlonsand requests" fat a

‘쬐et's, get started,. shall we?
. *;ShallIReschedu勿ie ineetingfor next%뺘＊윅《，쵤

;;(Be.

黍， 졀；큉多'"fli

EXERCISE 14.4
Indicate the meaning expressed by each modal verb in italics. Some of the modals express
a basic meaning, and others express an extended meaning.
Example: They shall not pass!
겨nswer: V(力tion
1. Back when she was just a little kid, she would talk your ear off.
2. We shall severely punish the people who committed this heinous crime.
3. He would come in here every day and tell me how to run my business.
4. If I didn't have so much work to do, I would go to a movie tonight.
5. That'd be Alice; she said she was coming over to drop something off after dinner.
6. Shall we have tea outside on the veranda? It's such a lovely evening.
7. I'm going to take a vacation in June. I'll probably go out to California and visit my cousin.
8. My father waved good-bye as I got into the taxi. I did not realize that I would never see
him again.
 Mod낡 Ve4心S 319

PROBLEMS THAT ESL/EFL STUDENTS HAVE WITH MODALS

ESL/EFL students have two documented problems with learning English modal
verbs. The first is a syntactic problem. Students typically seek meaning correspon-
dences between English modal verbs and verbs in their own Li. When a close cor-
respondence is found, they will often transfer the Li grammar associated with that
Li verb to the corresponding English modal. This can lead to grammatical errors
like those described next for Spanish. The second problem involves choosing a modal
that does not express the meaning that the student wishes to convey. This kind of
complex, pragmatics-related problem is discussed later and is illustrated for German
and Korean speakers.

Following Modals with Infinitives (Spanish)

Spanish does not have a set of modals comparable to English modals. Verbs such
as deber, poder, and tener que have roughly the same meanings as should/ought to,
can/could, and must/have to, but they do not share their grammatical characteristics.
Deber carries a meaning roughly equivalent to the advice or recommendation mean-
ing of should in (93a), and poder carries a meaning similar to the request for permis-
sion meaning of can in (93b). Notice that in (93a) debes, the second person singular
of deber, is followed by an infinitive form, ir ("to go"), as is puedo, the first person
singular of poder in (93b). Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1966) noted long ago that
these Spanish verbs inflect for number and are followed by other verbs in the infini-
tive form.
(93) a. D沁es /r α／ <?/'＇
α dos veces α ／α semana.
you should to go to the cinema two times in the week
"You should go to the movies two times a week."
b. ,Puedo ir?
Jean togo
"Can I go?"
When learning to use English modals, Spanish speakers will frequently use an infini-
tive after the modal. The result is errors such as the one in (94).
(94) *My daughter told me, "I can't to believe that you aged so quickly."
The speaker who uttered (94) is otherwise quite fluent. Examples of this kind of error
have also been observed in the compositions of Spanish speakers who have been ad-
mitted to an American university. Two examples, taken from different compositions,
are shown in (95).
(95) a. *In all situations I hear English and I must to talk English, and the most im-
portant thing is the I must to pronounce a correct English.
b. * .. . he did not think or had in mind that provide economic support for his
family is one thing he must to do.
This error type (95), which is pervasive with Spanish speakers who have beginning or
low-intermediate proficiency, may not always disappear, even when these students be-
come more proficient and hear correct use of English modals. You will therefore have
to decide whether to use particular focus-on-form activities to show students that they
should not use infinitives after modals.
320 Chapter 14

Incorrect Use of Must Not (German)

Some ESLIEFL students incorrectly use must not to indicate that something is not nec-
essary. The German modal verb m*ssen has the same necessity meaning as must. But
m'ssen is also used to express the absence of necessity with nicht ("not") in German;
in English we use don't have to to express the absence of necessity. In (96), m'ssen is
used to express this absence of necessity meaning.
(96) Aber wir mz2ssen nicht unbedingt zu Fuji gehen.
But we must not absolutely on foot go
"But we don't really have to walk (go on foot)."
German speakers who are beginners, and perhaps at the intermediate level, frequently
make errors like those in (97), taken from a composition by an undergraduate at an
American university.
(97) New technology has made my life much easier. I must not go to work by foot, I
take the car instead. When I come home I must not warm up the room because
the heating has done it automatically.
While the sentences in (97) are perfectly grammatical, they do not express the meaning
intended by the writer.

Selecting an Appropriate Modal (Korean)

Korean speakers may often choose a modal' that does not seem appropriate for a
given context. Exactly why this happens is not clear. Sometimes it may relate to the
fact that in certain cases a single form in Korean corresponds to meanings expressed
by several English modals. For example, Korean has one form, -'hay-ya-man-hata,
that may be equivalent to the English modals should and ought to as well as must and
have to. As we have seen, native English speakers would likely interpret a sentence
such as You should do that as advice but a sentence like You must do that as an ex-
pression of strong obligation.
The context of the composition from which the sentence in (98) is taken indicates
that the Korean speaker who wrote it intended to express advice, so , one would expect
the writer to use should or ought to. Instead, the modal that was selected, must, ex-
presses obligation.
(98) In conclusion, shopping must be short and simple.
This problem requires more research. Since sentences like (98) are grammatical, it is
hard to suggest a solution, and it is often difficult to tell if the modal used does not, in
fact, express exactly what the writer or speaker intended.
A more blatant example of inappropriate choice is shown in (99), which was written by
a Korean graduate student at an american university.
(99) In conclusion, the nativeness/nonnativeness could not be the absolute criterion
in hiring English teachers if they are similar in proficiency.
From the context of the essay from which this sentence was taken, it appears that the
writer's intent was to state that it is not advisable to use the stated criterion for hiring
English teachers A native speaker would naturally have written should not to express
this meaning. The choice of couldn't is confusing, because it does not convey the idea
 Modal Verbs 321

of inadvisability, but instead seems to convey impossibility. More data from error cor-
pora produced by English language learners with other Lis would allow us to deter-
mine how prevalent this type of error is in the writing of students with other Lis. You
may want to keep an eye out for this type of error, and if you encounter it, take some
corrective action through P1 techniques.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING MODALS

The coverage of modals in English language teaching textbooks is improving, and you
may come across fairly inventive lessons in books at various levels. Many textbooks
do a reasonably good job of teaching basic meanings, in particular. Some of these
books teach modals by grouping them in a way similar to the presentation in this
chapter. There is certainly some intuitive value to this organization, since it is clearly
important that students learn to recognize various important continua of the type that
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) and Master (1996) have proposed (e.g., a
continuum of politeness in the choice of modals in requests). However, native speakers
do not always agree on the gradations within a particular continuum and the grada-
tions proposed may be8 o nuanced that they are not easily taught. Groupings of modals
may also be slightly misleading, since modals have more than one meaning. Moreover,
textbooks may omit many of the extended meanings of modals. You should therefore
look carefully at the ways modals are grouped in any textbook that you plan to use and
decide whether you agree with the author's formulation.
It is a good idea to skip very low frequency modals and, if you are teaching Amen--
can English, modals used mainly in British English. For example, you might skip
dare or even shall. In addition, you may choose to delay teaching modal meanings
that relate to grammatical constructions that you will be covering later in greater
detail. For instance, if the use of would in conditional sentences will receive in-depth
coverage at a later point in the syllabus, along with other forms used in conditional
sentences, then you may choose to skip this use of would when dealing with modals
in general.

Activity 1: Introducing Ability with Can and Could (Beginning)

You can introduce the meaning of ability with can by writing a number of professions
on the board (e.g., pilot, photographer, bus driver, artist, writer, engineer) and then ask-
ing the question, "What can a(n) ---' do?" Go around the class and ask each student
to supply a sentence such as A pilot can fly an airplane. Then ask, "Can you do that
too?" Help students answer in short answers. Choose professions that the students are
familiar with and that allow the formation of fairly easy answers. If possible, use plc-
tunes of the professions to avoid any confusion.
To introduce the use of could as the past tense version of can, begin with a pair of sen-
tences that contrasts the two modals, such as in (lOOa) and (boOb).
(100) a. When I was younger, I could swim 500 meters without stopping.
b. Now I can only swim 100 meters without stopping.
Think of other activities similar to the one in (100) that all students can relate to
(e.g., hiking a certain distance, running a course at some speed, working for so many
322 Chapter 14

hours, partying until some late hour, dancing for some length of time). Write these
on the board. Have the students suggest more activities. Then have the students pair
off and write sentences like those in (100) with the activities. Encourage them to
come up with outrageous and amusing exaggerations of how much more they can
do now than they could in the past. Then call on students to present pairs of sentences
to the class.

Activity 2: Practicing Modals of Possibility (Intermediate)

This game provides practice with modals of possibility (might, may, and could). It was
inspired by an activity by Rutherford (1974) that used "droodles," conceptual draw-
ings conceived by Roger Price, and by the "complete doze" exercise by Rinvolucri
(1984). (The Rutherford activity using "droodles" is shown in Chapter 18, Activity 5,
page 444.) The game can be done as a group activity or with the entire class led by
the teacher. It can be found in some English language textbooks. For this activity, you
will need images (101) through (104). You can find these pictures and others like them
on the Internet by searching for "optical illusions." Many sites allow you to download
these pictures.
Project an enlarged version of the drawing in
(101) using an overhead projector, or provide
students with copies of the drawing. Then ask
"What do you think this picture might be?"
Call on one of the students, who will probably
say something like "1i looks like a vase" or "It
looks like a cup." Respond by explaining that it
might be a vase or cup but that, if you look care-
fully, you can see that it might be two people.
Point out the noses, lips, and chins of the two
people facing each other in the picture.

(101)

Next, hand out a sheet of paper with pictures (101), (102), and (103) on it. Tell the stu-
dents that each of these drawings also has two possible interpretations. Ask them to
guess what these might, may, or could be. Have students work in pairs and come up
with their own interpretations and write them down (e.g., The first picture might be
α끼
（ ,but/rcould also beα （끼 ).

(102) (103)
驪 (104)
 Modal Verbs 323

Possible interpretations are: (102), a duck or rabbit; (103), a man playing a horn or a
woman looking at you; (104), the head of a man or the back of a person standing.
Richards (1999, p. 87), suggests an excellent variation on this activity. Divide the class
into pairs, and give each pair a set of pictures demonstrating various gestures ("hello,"
"be quiet," "come here," "we won," etc.). Encourage them to guess what each gesture
means. Afterwards, the students form groups and each member takes a turn acting out
a sentence using gestures of his or her own creation (e.g., "I'm hungry," "I'm scared,"
"pay attention," "please"). The rest of the group members make guesses about the
meanings of the gestures, using various modals (e g., "He might be saying, 'I'm hun-
gry' or he could be telling us to pay attention").

Activity 3: Contrasting Will with Be Going To (Intermediate)

One way to help your students distinguish the use of will (to talk about future actions
and make predictions) from the use of be going to (to talk about planned activities) is
to describe a sightseeing trip that you intend to take. For this, you might bring in a map
that shows the cities and the area you intend to visit as well as pictures of the various
attractions there.
If you choose to use the vacation to the Tuscany region of Italy described in (105),
you might give the students a map of Tuscany with the cities you plan to visit. You
can make an enlarged photocopy of a section of a map that shows Siena, Lucca,
Pisa, and Florence. Next, find small pictures of the Plaza del Campo e Palazzo
Comunale in Siena, the leaning tower of Pisa, the towers of Lucca, and attractions
in Florence such as the Uffizi gallery, the statue of David, and the Ponte Vecchio.
These pictures can most likely be obtained from a tourist agency free of charge. Cut
out the pictures, make a collage on one sheet of paper, label each attraction, and
make photocopies.
To prepare students for the activity, illustrate the difference in meaning between be
going to and will, asking a question such as "What are you going to do after class
(tomorrow at this time, etc.)?" Help students answer with going to and write their
answers on the board. Point out that we use going to when we state definite plans.
Then ask, "What are you going to do next week?" Help students who give indefinite
plans to answer using will and write their responses on the board. Point out that we
use will with words such as probably, maybe, and I think to talk about plans we are
not sure of.
Now begin describing your planned trip, as shown in (105), as the students listen and
follow along with their handouts and maps.
(105) "In June (next month/next summer), I'm going to take a trip to Tuscany. First,
I'm going to go to Florence. There are so many things to see in Florence that
I probably won't be able to see them all. I'll probably walk across the Ponte
Vecchio, and I am sure that I will see the statue of David, but I don't know
if I will be able to visit the Uffizi gallery. It's so crowded that it's hard to get
in there."
As you mention each possible sightseeing attraction, hold up your handout and point to
the picture of it. (The activity is even more effective with slides.)
324 Chapter 14

After you finish describing the things you might see in Florence, go on to say, for ex-
ample, "Next, I'm going to go to Siena," and proceed in the same manner.
Finally, assign your students the task of describing a trip that they are going to take.
Ask them to write out their itinerary of the places and attractions they plan to and
might visit. They must find pictures of some of these sights and locations and then
come back to class and describe their trip to the other students using be going to
and will.

Activity 4: Practicing Modals of Necessity (Intermediate)

Any kind of fixed procedure that involves several steps is useful for practicing the
necessity modals and their negative forms. For example, you might use the procedure
for registering at the university or the procedure for obtaining a driver's license. Try
to think of procedures that the students have already gone through or may have to go
through in the future.
Start with a procedure that the students are unfamiliar with, and describe it to them
using modals and semimodals of necessity, as in (106).
(106) First, you've got to pick up this form at the department office. Then you have to go
see your advisor. She must sign your course list. Then you have to go back to the
department office....
You can write on the board an abbreviated sequence of the things to be done (pick
up registration form, see advisor, advisor signs form, go back to department office,
etc.) and point to these as you describe the routine. Try to include at least one in-
struction that uses a modal of necessity in its negative form (e.g., "You don't have
to. . . "). Then the students pair up and have one student advise the other regarding
the procedure.
Provide the students with several routines like this. Give them the assignment of pre-
paring an explanation of a procedure they are familiar with to share with the class.

Activity 5: Focusing on Continua of Meanings (Intermediate)

One of the approaches that is used to teach continua of meaning (e.g., degrees of polite-
ness or possibility) involves giving students sentences that can be restated with modals.
For example, in what is sometimes called "the weatherman activity," one student sup-
plies a cue such as "There is a 30 percent chance of snow on Wednesday," and another
student restates the sentence using might, for example, "It might snow on Wednesday."
These kinds of activities are useful and are included in some English language teach-
ing materials.
The process can be reversed to draw students' attention to the appropriateness of
modals in different contexts. Howard Williams (personal communication), at Teachers
College, Columbia University, describes a simple but effective activity that gets stu-
dents to focus on how important pragmatic factors are in the choice of some modals.
He gives students a single sentence frame, like the one in (107), and changes the modal
within it. Then he refers to each modal, asking the students if it is appropriate, and if
not, why not.
 Modal Verbs 325

궉should( 1
(107) You had better . try one of these breath mints.
(1.7)?6
must
need to
Students will not have much trouble in seeing that, in this sort of sentence frame,
should is appropriate as an invitation. The choice of had better is likely to require some
thought, however, and, in looking at must, you may want to point out that, while this
modal has a polite insistence meaning appropriate to this context, its necessity mean-
ing renders it inappropriate.
Although this activity is intended primarily as a review, it could be used to focus on the
meanings of new modals through contrasts with modals that have already been taught.
The activity is also useful for looking at the meaning changes that occur when a modal
is substituted for others, all of which are appropriate in the context. You will have to
give some thought to creating contexts in which some modals are more or less accept-
able than others, but the payoff is worth it.

Activity 6: Practicing the Inferred Probability Meaning of Must (Intermediate)

Bowen and McCreary (1977) describe several activities that can be used to teach the
different meanings conveyed by must have + past participle. It is a tribute to the in-
genuity of these two teachers that their ideas are as fresh and as useful today as when
they proposed them. Begin by telling students that we sometimes make guesses about
things that happened, for example, "If I see my neighbor climbing into his window
instead of using the front door, I might guess, 'He must have forgotten his key." Then
ask students to guess what happened in each of the situations described in (108). This
exercise can be done in groups or as a class.
(108)
Situation 1:
John's lawn is always very tall. But the other day, when I drove by, the grass was nice
and short. ("He must have cut the grass.")
Situation 2:
Mary always takes the bus to work. But the other day she drove to work in a brand new
car. She came to work in the same car today. ("She must have bought a car.")
Situation 3:
Mustafa said that he would not have time to go visit his mother in Minneapolis this
weekend. But, when I called him several times on Saturday and Sunday, there was no
one there. ("He must have changed his mind. He must have decided to visit his mother
after all.")
Situation 4:
Ann and John have been together for the past three years. But last week I saw her three
times and she was always with another guy. She looked very happy, too. ("She must
have broken up with John.")
Situation 5:
Susan left her bike outside the post office when she went to mail a letter. She was in a
hurry, so she didn't lock it. When she came out, the bike was gone. ("Somebody must
have taken/stolen her bike.")
326 Chapter 14

Activity 7: More Practice with Inferred Probability (High Intermediate

Through Advanced)
Even better than the short contexts in Activity 6 are longer stretches of connected dis-
course, which provide reading practice and stimulate the use of modals. The mystery
story is an excellent vehicle for getting students to use modals that express inferred
probability. Present the class with a short mystery story involving some crime. An
example is shown in (109).
Have the students work in small groups to examine the statements taken by the de-
tective. Students must decide who could not and who must have stolen Mrs. Groot's
necklace, according to the statements. Tell them to examine the people's statements
and eliminate all those who they think could not have committed the crime. For each of
these people, they will say, for example, "X couldn't have stolen the necklace because
. . .," and supply the reason. When students have eliminated all other suspects, they
will be able to conclude who must have taken it ("X must have stolen the jewels / must
be the thief because. . . "). Finally, have students come together as a class and present
their conclusions about who must have committed the crime. (The identity of the thief
can be found in the Answer Key, on page 655.)
(109) Kies Groot is the president of a small company in Holland. He often travels to
other countries on business. Last year he took his wife with him on a business
trip to London. While they were staying at a famous hotel near Hyde Park, Mrs.
Groot's valuable pearl necklace was stolen. A detective from Scotland Yard ques-
tioned Mr. and Mrs. Groot about the robbery and then interviewed all of the
people who might know something about it. From the statements of the following
people, the detective was able to discover who the thief was. Who was the thief?
Mrs. Groot:
I kept the necklace in my jewelry case in the bedroom when I wasn't wearing it.
I wore it all day Tuesday and put it back in the case that evening before I went
to bed. On Wednesday morning, I took it out of the case to put it on, but before
I could, I had to go down to the lobby of the hotel to see an old friend of mine.
That was about 9:30. I left the necklace lying on the dresser. When I got back
at 10:15, it was gone. The maid was making the bed.
Mr. Groot:
On Wednesday morning, I had breakfast with my wife in our room. The waiter
brought in breakfast at about 8:15, I believe. Then Lady L., the wife of a busi-
ness associate, came to pick up my wife to go shopping with her. We were there
chatting until Mr. Zylex came to pick me up. I left with him to go look at his
new factory at about 10:00 A.M. I got back to the hotel at about 5:00. That's
when I heard about the theft.
Maid:
I always make the rooms up between 9:00 and 11:30. I don't remember exactly
when I made up the suite that the Groots were staying in. I think it was a little
after 10:00. 1 remember that I had just barely started to make the bed when
Mrs. Groot came in. She went right into the dressing room. Then she came out
and asked me if I had seen a necklace on the dressing table. When I said no,
she phoned the front desk. I was really upset. I think she believes I took the
necklace. But I didn't! I hadn't even gone into the other room yet.
 Modal Verbs 327

Room Service Waiter:

I brought their breakfast up at 8:10 and took the dishes away at 10:00.
I remember the time exactly because one of the maids in the hail asked me what
time it was, and I looked at my watch. I Just went in and rolled out the table with
the dishes on it. There was some other woman - not Mrs. Groot - in the room
at the time. She let me in when I knocked at the door. I didn't see anyone else
in the room.
Mr. Zylex:
I went up to Mr. Groot's room at about 9:45. He introduced me to Lady L. and
we talked briefly before Mr. Groot and I left to go to my factory, where we
stayed until almost 5:00. 1 do remember that the room had not been made up
when we left.
LadyL.:
I went up to pick up Mrs. Groot about 9:15. We talked about where we would
go shopping. Mr. Groot was there too. At about 9:30, Mrs. Groot excused
herself and went down to the lobby to see an old friend. She said she would be
back in a few minutes, but she hadn't come back by the time Mr. Groot's friend
arrived, a Mr. Zylex, or something. They both left at about 10:00, when the
waiter came in to take away the dishes. I waited a few more minutes until Mrs.
Groot phoned up from the lobby and said that she would be delayed. She told
me to go on to Selfridges, where she would meet me at 11:00. I remember the
maid was just about to move on to this room when I closed the door and went
down to the hall elevator. It's really surprising that things like this happen in
good hotels, isn't it?
As the groups work, walk around the room, answering any questions about vocabulary
and addressing any problems that arise. When it appears that all groups have reached a
solution, mention a character (not the real culprit) and ask a spokesperson for a group
to state and justify the group's decision about that character. Make sure that the student
uses some modals of inferred probability. Then ask another group about another char-
acter, keeping the real culprit until last. The other groups may comment during each
spokesperson's presentation.

티，ㅔ기｀JOTES
1Modal verbs are also referred to as modal auxiliaries.
요 Example is supported by Biber et al. (1999), p. 166.
3This observation is made by McCawley (1988), p. 248.
4An additional difference between modals and main verbs is that modals are not deleted in
the reduction of sentences conjoined by and This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 25.
5This observation is made by Biber et al. (1999), p. 483. The three-way classification of
modals presented here follows Biber et al. (1999) but includes additional syntactic criteria
in McCawley (1988)
6 Biber et al (1999), p. 484
7The different meanings that modals can have are often labeled as either root or epistemzc
A root meaning involves actions or events over which humans have some degree of control
For example, obligation, permission, and volition are said to be root meanings An epistemic
328 Chapter 14

meaning involves the logical status or likelihood of actions, events, or states. Possibility,
prediction, and necessity, for example, are epistemic meanings The term deontic is also used
instead of root. You may also hear root and epistemic referred to as intrinsic and extrinsic,
respectively.
8 This grouping follows the one suggested by Biber et ai. (1999), p. 485.
9From the film On the Waterfront, spoken by Marion Brando.
'o See Biber et al. (1999), p, 484
11 See Quirk et al. (1972), p. 83.
12 Huddleston and Pullum (2002), p. 206, point out that sentences with needn't and don't
have to can have different meaning when referring to past time. He needn 't have told her
conveys the meaning that he told her. He didn 't have to tell her does not.
13 See Biber et al. (1999), p. 165.
14 See Biber et al. (1999), p. 488.
'5 As a result, you may hear some native speakers use do and don 't with gotta in questions
(eg., *"Do we gotta read three chapters by Friday?"). Sentences like these are considered
ungrammatical in educated English usage.
16 There is no theoretical reason that have got to could not develop a past tense form "had got
to." Many irregular verbs develop two forms that compete for some time before one of them
predominates. A good example is the verb dive 4 and its past tense form dove, which has been
all but eliminated in favor of dived, the form with the regular past tense ending -ed. But the
history of modal verbs in English shows that each modal permits only one way of express-
ing past modality. Had to has existed as the single past tense form for must for hundreds
of years. So it seems unlikely that a form like had got to would arise and compete with the
established had to.
l7See Biber et al. (1999), p. 483.
18 See Quirk et al. (1972), p. 99.
19 See Biber et al. (1999), p. 495.

R티＝ER티 JCES

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spoken and written English. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
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terly, 11, 283-301.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The grammar book, An ESL/EFL teacher's
course. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Huddleston, R,, & Pullum, G. (2002.). The Cambridge grammar of the English language. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Master, P. (1996). Systems in English grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
McCawley, J. D. (1988). The Syntactic phenomena of English. Chicago and Londow the Urn-
versity of Chicago Press.
Quirk, R., & Greenbaum, S. (1985). A concise grammar of contemporary English. Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich: New York
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S, Leech, J,, & Svartvik, J (1972) A grammar of contemporary Eng-
lish. London, Longman.
 Modal Verbs 329

Richards, J. (1999) New interchange. English力r international communication Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Rinvolucri, M. (1984). Grammar games Cognitive, affective and drama activities for EFL slu-
dents. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rutherford, W. (1974). Pragmatic syntax in the classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 24, 205 -214.
Stockwell, R. P., Bowen, J. D, & Martin, J. W. (1966) The grammatical structures of English
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