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15 views377 pagesData Analysis Challenges with R
The document discusses statistical programming with R and outlines various challenges in data analysis such as presenting information accessibly, exploding data, and rapidly growing technologies. It then summarizes the stages of data analysis including importing and cleaning data, data visualization, fitting statistical models, and reporting results. Finally, it provides reasons for using R such as it being free, frequently updated, and having excellent graphics and data import capabilities.
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mahesh.nannepaguCopyright
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0 ratings0% found this document useful (0 votes)
15 views377 pagesData Analysis Challenges with R
The document discusses statistical programming with R and outlines various challenges in data analysis such as presenting information accessibly, exploding data, and rapidly growing technologies. It then summarizes the stages of data analysis including importing and cleaning data, data visualization, fitting statistical models, and reporting results. Finally, it provides reasons for using R such as it being free, frequently updated, and having excellent graphics and data import capabilities.
Uploaded by
mahesh.nannepaguCopyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
Statistical Programming with R
[Link]
Professor of Mathematics
J N T University Kakinada.
email: nath_vr@[Link]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 1 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
3 Fast Growing of Technologies
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
3 Fast Growing of Technologies
4 Before personal computers and the internet
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
3 Fast Growing of Technologies
4 Before personal computers and the internet
5 Now New methodologies appear daily.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
3 Fast Growing of Technologies
4 Before personal computers and the internet
5 Now New methodologies appear daily.
6 Easy Access To Computing
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
3 Fast Growing of Technologies
4 Before personal computers and the internet
5 Now New methodologies appear daily.
6 Easy Access To ComputingWith the cheap and easy access
afforded by personal computers
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
3 Fast Growing of Technologies
4 Before personal computers and the internet
5 Now New methodologies appear daily.
6 Easy Access To ComputingWith the cheap and easy access
afforded by personal computers
7 Interactive Computing
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Challenges in Data Analysis
1 Presenting information in easily accessible and digestible ways.
2 Explosion of Data
3 Fast Growing of Technologies
4 Before personal computers and the internet
5 Now New methodologies appear daily.
6 Easy Access To ComputingWith the cheap and easy access
afforded by personal computers
7 Interactive Computing
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 2 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
1 Cross-validate the model
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
1 Cross-validate the model
2 Evaluate the model fit
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
1 Cross-validate the model
2 Evaluate the model fit
5 Evaluate model prediction on new data
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
1 Cross-validate the model
2 Evaluate the model fit
5 Evaluate model prediction on new data
6 Produce report
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
1 Cross-validate the model
2 Evaluate the model fit
5 Evaluate model prediction on new data
6 Produce report
The R Package
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
1 Cross-validate the model
2 Evaluate the model fit
5 Evaluate model prediction on new data
6 Produce report
The R Package
R is a comprehensive software package ideally suited to accomplish
these goals
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Various Stages of Data Analysis
1 Import Data
2 Prepare, explore, and clean data
3 Data Visualization
4 Fit a statistical model
1 Cross-validate the model
2 Evaluate the model fit
5 Evaluate model prediction on new data
6 Produce report
The R Package
R is a comprehensive software package ideally suited to accomplish
these goals
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 3 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
3 Highly interactive
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
3 Highly interactive
4 Data Import
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
3 Highly interactive
4 Data Import
5 New Statistical Methods
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
3 Highly interactive
4 Data Import
5 New Statistical Methods
6 Excellent File Sharing System
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
3 Highly interactive
4 Data Import
5 New Statistical Methods
6 Excellent File Sharing System
7 Excellent GUI
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
3 Highly interactive
4 Data Import
5 New Statistical Methods
6 Excellent File Sharing System
7 Excellent GUI
8 Easily create source
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Why we use R?
1 R is open source and FREE
2 Updated very frequently
3 Highly interactive
4 Data Import
5 New Statistical Methods
6 Excellent File Sharing System
7 Excellent GUI
8 Easily create source
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 4 / 34
Obtaining and installing R
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 5 / 34
Obtaining and installing R
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 5 / 34
Obtaining and installing R
1 R is a language and environment for statistical computing and
graphics
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 5 / 34
Obtaining and installing R
1 R is a language and environment for statistical computing and
graphics
2 The commercial version of R is S language originally developed at
Bell Labs
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 5 / 34
Obtaining and installing R
1 R is a language and environment for statistical computing and
graphics
2 The commercial version of R is S language originally developed at
Bell Labs
Download Free
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 5 / 34
Obtaining and installing R
1 R is a language and environment for statistical computing and
graphics
2 The commercial version of R is S language originally developed at
Bell Labs
Download Free
Available from the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) at
http:// [Link]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 5 / 34
Obtaining and installing R
1 R is a language and environment for statistical computing and
graphics
2 The commercial version of R is S language originally developed at
Bell Labs
Download Free
Available from the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) at
http:// [Link]
R Studio
R is accompanied by a user interface R Studio can be downloaded at
[Link]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 5 / 34
Working with R
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
or
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
or
3 Run a set of commands from a source file.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
or
3 Run a set of commands from a source file.
4 Most functionality is created through built-in and user-created
functions known as objects.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
or
3 Run a set of commands from a source file.
4 Most functionality is created through built-in and user-created
functions known as objects.
objects
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
or
3 Run a set of commands from a source file.
4 Most functionality is created through built-in and user-created
functions known as objects.
objects
An object is basically anything that can be assigned a value
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
or
3 Run a set of commands from a source file.
4 Most functionality is created through built-in and user-created
functions known as objects.
objects
An object is basically anything that can be assigned a value (data,
functions, graphs, analytic results, and more)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Working with R
1 R is a case-sensitive, interpreted language.
2 Enter commands one at a time at the command prompt (>)
or
3 Run a set of commands from a source file.
4 Most functionality is created through built-in and user-created
functions known as objects.
objects
An object is basically anything that can be assigned a value (data,
functions, graphs, analytic results, and more)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 6 / 34
Creating the Objects
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
> sd(weight)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
> sd(weight)
[1]2.077498
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
> sd(weight)
[1]2.077498
> cor(age,weight)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
> sd(weight)
[1]2.077498
> cor(age,weight)
[1]0.9075655
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
> sd(weight)
[1]2.077498
> cor(age,weight)
[1]0.9075655
> plot(age,weight)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
> sd(weight)
[1]2.077498
> cor(age,weight)
[1]0.9075655
> plot(age,weight)
> q()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
Creating the Objects
1 x<-rnorm(5) creates an object x. It is same as rnorm(5) -> x
2 Comments are preceded by the # symbol
3 The q() function ends the session and lets you quit
A Typical R Program
> age <- c(1,3,5,2,11,9,3,9,12,3)
> weight <-
c(4.4,5.3,7.2,5.2,8.5,7.3,6.0,10.4,10.2,6.1)
> mean(weight)
[1]7.06
> sd(weight)
[1]2.077498
> cor(age,weight)
[1]0.9075655
> plot(age,weight)
> q()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 7 / 34
The help functions in R
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
apropos("foo", mode="function")
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
apropos("foo", mode="function")
data()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
apropos("foo", mode="function")
data()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
apropos("foo", mode="function")
data()
The R workspace
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
apropos("foo", mode="function")
data()
The R workspace
1 Current R working environment and any user-defined objects
(vectors, matrices, functions, data frames, and lists)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
apropos("foo", mode="function")
data()
The R workspace
1 Current R working environment and any user-defined objects
(vectors, matrices, functions, data frames, and lists)
2 We can save an image of the current workspace automatically
reloaded the next time R starts
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
The help functions in R
R Function
[Link]()
help("foo") or ?foo
[Link]("foo") or ??foo Searches the help system for instances of the
example("foo")
apropos("foo", mode="function")
data()
The R workspace
1 Current R working environment and any user-defined objects
(vectors, matrices, functions, data frames, and lists)
2 We can save an image of the current workspace automatically
reloaded the next time R starts
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 8 / 34
Organizing your work in R
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
history(#) Displays your last # commands (default = 25)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
history(#) Displays your last # commands (default = 25)
savehistory("myfile") Saves commands history (def = .Rhistory)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
history(#) Displays your last # commands (default = 25)
savehistory("myfile") Saves commands history (def = .Rhistory)
loadhistory("myfile") Reloads a commands history (def = .Rhistory)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
history(#) Displays your last # commands (default = 25)
savehistory("myfile") Saves commands history (def = .Rhistory)
loadhistory("myfile") Reloads a commands history (def = .Rhistory)
[Link]("myfile") Saves the workspace to myfile (def = .RData)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 9 / 34
Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
history(#) Displays your last # commands (default = 25)
savehistory("myfile") Saves commands history (def = .Rhistory)
loadhistory("myfile") Reloads a commands history (def = .Rhistory)
[Link]("myfile") Saves the workspace to myfile (def = .RData)
load("myfile") Loads a workspace into the current session
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Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
history(#) Displays your last # commands (default = 25)
savehistory("myfile") Saves commands history (def = .Rhistory)
loadhistory("myfile") Reloads a commands history (def = .Rhistory)
[Link]("myfile") Saves the workspace to myfile (def = .RData)
load("myfile") Loads a workspace into the current session
q() Quits R. You will be prompted to save the workspace
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Organizing your work in R
Table: Functions for managing the R workspace
getwd() Path to Present Working Directory
setwd() Sets path to new working directory
ls() Lists the objects in the current workspace
rm(objectlist) Removes (deletes) one or more objects
history(#) Displays your last # commands (default = 25)
savehistory("myfile") Saves commands history (def = .Rhistory)
loadhistory("myfile") Reloads a commands history (def = .Rhistory)
[Link]("myfile") Saves the workspace to myfile (def = .RData)
load("myfile") Loads a workspace into the current session
q() Quits R. You will be prompted to save the workspace
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Sample Code for R Work Space
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R q()
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R q()
File Input and Output
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R q()
File Input and Output
source("myscript.R") runs a set of commands
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R q()
File Input and Output
source("myscript.R") runs a set of commands
sink("filename") saves output
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R q()
File Input and Output
source("myscript.R") runs a set of commands
sink("filename") saves output
bmp("[Link]") BMP file
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R q()
File Input and Output
source("myscript.R") runs a set of commands
sink("filename") saves output
bmp("[Link]") BMP file
jpeg("[Link]") JPEG file
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Sample Code for R Work Space
Project Work
setwd("C:/myprojects/project1")
options()
options(digits=3)
x <- runif(20)
summary(x)
hist(x)
# save the source as myscript.R q()
File Input and Output
source("myscript.R") runs a set of commands
sink("filename") saves output
bmp("[Link]") BMP file
jpeg("[Link]") JPEG file
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The R packages
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The R packages
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The R packages
1 Packages are collections of R functions, data, and compiled code
in a well-defined format.
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The R packages
1 Packages are collections of R functions, data, and compiled code
in a well-defined format.
2 The directory where packages are stored on your computer is
called the library.
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The R packages
1 Packages are collections of R functions, data, and compiled code
in a well-defined format.
2 The directory where packages are stored on your computer is
called the library.
3 The function .libPaths() shows you where your library is located.
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The R packages
1 Packages are collections of R functions, data, and compiled code
in a well-defined format.
2 The directory where packages are stored on your computer is
called the library.
3 The function .libPaths() shows you where your library is located.
4 library() shows you what packages you’ve saved in your library.
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The R packages
1 Packages are collections of R functions, data, and compiled code
in a well-defined format.
2 The directory where packages are stored on your computer is
called the library.
3 The function .libPaths() shows you where your library is located.
4 library() shows you what packages you’ve saved in your library.
5 Installing a package The [Link]() command.
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The R packages
1 Packages are collections of R functions, data, and compiled code
in a well-defined format.
2 The directory where packages are stored on your computer is
called the library.
3 The function .libPaths() shows you where your library is located.
4 library() shows you what packages you’ve saved in your library.
5 Installing a package The [Link]() command.
6 Installing a package downloads it from a CRAN mirror site and
places it in your library.
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Loading and Learning the Packages
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Loading and Learning the Packages
library() To view the files. In not available and
install it.
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Loading and Learning the Packages
library() To view the files. In not available and
install it.
library(gclus) To load a package named gclus
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 12 / 34
Loading and Learning the Packages
library() To view the files. In not available and
install it.
library(gclus) To load a package named gclus
help(package="package_name") To get the help with
examples, datasets, sample code.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 12 / 34
Loading and Learning the Packages
library() To view the files. In not available and
install it.
library(gclus) To load a package named gclus
help(package="package_name") To get the help with
examples, datasets, sample code.
Sample Code
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 12 / 34
Loading and Learning the Packages
library() To view the files. In not available and
install it.
library(gclus) To load a package named gclus
help(package="package_name") To get the help with
examples, datasets, sample code.
Sample Code
library(MASS)
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Loading and Learning the Packages
library() To view the files. In not available and
install it.
library(gclus) To load a package named gclus
help(package="package_name") To get the help with
examples, datasets, sample code.
Sample Code
library(MASS)
help(package=MASS)
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Loading and Learning the Packages
library() To view the files. In not available and
install it.
library(gclus) To load a package named gclus
help(package="package_name") To get the help with
examples, datasets, sample code.
Sample Code
library(MASS)
help(package=MASS)
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Understanding datasets
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
Table: A patient dataset
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
Table: A patient dataset
PatientID AdmDate Age Diabetes Status
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
Table: A patient dataset
PatientID AdmDate Age Diabetes Status
1 10/15/2014 25 Type1 Poor
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
Table: A patient dataset
PatientID AdmDate Age Diabetes Status
1 10/15/2014 25 Type1 Poor
2 11/01/2014 34 Type2 Improved
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
Table: A patient dataset
PatientID AdmDate Age Diabetes Status
1 10/15/2014 25 Type1 Poor
2 11/01/2014 34 Type2 Improved
3 10/21/2014 28 Type1 Excellent
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
Table: A patient dataset
PatientID AdmDate Age Diabetes Status
1 10/15/2014 25 Type1 Poor
2 11/01/2014 34 Type2 Improved
3 10/21/2014 28 Type1 Excellent
4 10/28/2014 52 Type1 Poor
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Understanding datasets
A dataset is usually a rectangular array of data with rows representing
observations and columns representing variables.
Table: A patient dataset
PatientID AdmDate Age Diabetes Status
1 10/15/2014 25 Type1 Poor
2 11/01/2014 34 Type2 Improved
3 10/21/2014 28 Type1 Excellent
4 10/28/2014 52 Type1 Poor
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 14 / 34
The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
Scalar Data
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
Scalar Data
x<-250
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
Scalar Data
x<-250
y<-"Student Name"
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
Scalar Data
x<-250
y<-"Student Name"
buy<-TRUE
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
Scalar Data
x<-250
y<-"Student Name"
buy<-TRUE
object(x,250)
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
Scalar Data
x<-250
y<-"Student Name"
buy<-TRUE
object(x,250)
The assignment can be <- or -> or = or
object(objectName,objectValue)
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The R Data Structures
Scalars
1 R has a wide variety of objects for holding data
2 scalars, vectors, matrices, arrays, data frames, lists
3 We can fill the data with numeric, nominal, ordinal, logical type.
Scalar Data
x<-250
y<-"Student Name"
buy<-TRUE
object(x,250)
The assignment can be <- or -> or = or
object(objectName,objectValue)
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
1 Vectors are one-dimensional arrays that can hold numeric data,
character data, or logical data.
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
1 Vectors are one-dimensional arrays that can hold numeric data,
character data, or logical data.
2 The combine function c() is used to form the vector.
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
1 Vectors are one-dimensional arrays that can hold numeric data,
character data, or logical data.
2 The combine function c() is used to form the vector.
3 Some examples
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
1 Vectors are one-dimensional arrays that can hold numeric data,
character data, or logical data.
2 The combine function c() is used to form the vector.
3 Some examples a <- c(1, 2, 5, 3, 6, -2, 4)
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
1 Vectors are one-dimensional arrays that can hold numeric data,
character data, or logical data.
2 The combine function c() is used to form the vector.
3 Some examples a <- c(1, 2, 5, 3, 6, -2, 4)
b <- c("one", "two", "three")
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The R Data Structures
Vectors
1 Vectors are one-dimensional arrays that can hold numeric data,
character data, or logical data.
2 The combine function c() is used to form the vector.
3 Some examples a <- c(1, 2, 5, 3, 6, -2, 4)
b <- c("one", "two", "three")
c <- c(TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, FALSE)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 15 / 34
The R Data Structures
Vectors
1 Vectors are one-dimensional arrays that can hold numeric data,
character data, or logical data.
2 The combine function c() is used to form the vector.
3 Some examples a <- c(1, 2, 5, 3, 6, -2, 4)
b <- c("one", "two", "three")
c <- c(TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, FALSE)
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Matrices
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Matrices
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 16 / 34
Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 16 / 34
Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array
Each element should be of same mode (numeric, character, or
logical)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 16 / 34
Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array
Each element should be of same mode (numeric, character, or
logical)
Matrices are created with the matrix() function.
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Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array
Each element should be of same mode (numeric, character, or
logical)
Matrices are created with the matrix() function.
General R Command
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Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array
Each element should be of same mode (numeric, character, or
logical)
Matrices are created with the matrix() function.
General R Command
mymatrix <- matrix(vector, nrow=r, ncol=c,byrow=TRUE, dimnames =
list(rownames,colnames))
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 16 / 34
Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array
Each element should be of same mode (numeric, character, or
logical)
Matrices are created with the matrix() function.
General R Command
mymatrix <- matrix(vector, nrow=r, ncol=c,byrow=TRUE, dimnames =
list(rownames,colnames))
no of rows(r), no of columns(c), byrow(fills row wise), dimnames (to
give names to columns and rows)
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Creating a R Matrices
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 17 / 34
Creating a R Matrices
Example
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 17 / 34
Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 17 / 34
Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[,2]
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[,2]
[1] 3 4
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[,2]
[1] 3 4
> x[1,4]
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[,2]
[1] 3 4
> x[1,4]
[1] 7
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[,2]
[1] 3 4
> x[1,4]
[1] 7
> x[1, c(4,5)]
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[,2]
[1] 3 4
> x[1,4]
[1] 7
> x[1, c(4,5)]
[1] 7 9
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Creating a R Matrices
Example
> x <- matrix(1:10, nrow=2)
> x
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1, ] 1 3 5 7 9
[2, ] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[2,]
[1] 2 4 6 8 10
> x[,2]
[1] 3 4
> x[1,4]
[1] 7
> x[1, c(4,5)]
[1] 7 9
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Arrays in R
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
> z <- array(1:24, c(2, 3, 4), dimnames=list(dim1,
dim2, dim3))
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
> z <- array(1:24, c(2, 3, 4), dimnames=list(dim1,
dim2, dim3))
> z
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
> z <- array(1:24, c(2, 3, 4), dimnames=list(dim1,
dim2, dim3))
> z
, , C1
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
> z <- array(1:24, c(2, 3, 4), dimnames=list(dim1,
dim2, dim3))
> z
, , C1
B1 B2 B3
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
> z <- array(1:24, c(2, 3, 4), dimnames=list(dim1,
dim2, dim3))
> z
, , C1
B1 B2 B3
A1 1 3 5
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
> z <- array(1:24, c(2, 3, 4), dimnames=list(dim1,
dim2, dim3))
> z
, , C1
B1 B2 B3
A1 1 3 5
A2 2 4 6
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Arrays in R
Similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
R Command
myarray <- array(vector, dimensions, dimnames)
An Example of R Array
> dim1 <- c("A1", "A2")
> dim2 <- c("B1", "B2", "B3")
> dim3 <- c("C1", "C2", "C3", "C4")
> z <- array(1:24, c(2, 3, 4), dimnames=list(dim1,
dim2, dim3))
> z
, , C1
B1 B2 B3
A1 1 3 5
A2 2 4 6
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Data frames
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 19 / 34
Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
2 2 34
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
2 2 34
3 3 28
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
2 2 34
3 3 28
4 4 52
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
2 2 34
3 3 28
4 4 52
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
2 2 34
3 3 28
4 4 52
> patientdata[c("diabetes", "status")] Prints dataframe by variable
names
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
2 2 34
3 3 28
4 4 52
> patientdata[c("diabetes", "status")] Prints dataframe by variable
names
> patientdata$age
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Data frames
More general than a matrix in that different columns can contain
different modes of data (numeric, character, and so on). Similar to
dataset in SAS, SPSS, and Stata.
Typical Data frame
>patientdata[1:2]
patientID age
1 1 25
2 2 34
3 3 28
4 4 52
> patientdata[c("diabetes", "status")] Prints dataframe by variable
names
> patientdata$age
[1] 25 34 28 52
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Variables from Data frames
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
>attach(mtcars) correct
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
>attach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) correct
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
>attach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) correct
>detach(mtcars) correct
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
>attach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) correct
>detach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
>attach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) correct
>detach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>with(mtcars, print(summary(mpg))) correct
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
>attach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) correct
>detach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>with(mtcars, print(summary(mpg))) correct
>mpg Error msg the object mpg not found
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Variables from Data frames
R functions
attach() , detach(), with() functions
Some Examples
>data(mtcars) A dataset mtcars (with variables mpg,
disp) read
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>summary(mtcars$mpg) correct
>attach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) correct
>detach(mtcars) correct
>summary(mpg) Error msg the object mpg not found
>with(mtcars, print(summary(mpg))) correct
>mpg Error msg the object mpg not found
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
> patientdata <- [Link](patientID, age, diabetes, status)
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
> patientdata <- [Link](patientID, age, diabetes, status)
> str(patientdata)
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
> patientdata <- [Link](patientID, age, diabetes, status)
> str(patientdata)
’[Link]’: 4 obs. of 4 variables:
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
> patientdata <- [Link](patientID, age, diabetes, status)
> str(patientdata)
’[Link]’: 4 obs. of 4 variables:
$ patientID: num 1 2 3 4
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
> patientdata <- [Link](patientID, age, diabetes, status)
> str(patientdata)
’[Link]’: 4 obs. of 4 variables:
$ patientID: num 1 2 3 4
$ age : num 25 34 28 52
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
> patientdata <- [Link](patientID, age, diabetes, status)
> str(patientdata)
’[Link]’: 4 obs. of 4 variables:
$ patientID: num 1 2 3 4
$ age : num 25 34 28 52
$ diabetes : Factor w/ 2 levels "Type1","Type2": 1 2 1 1
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Factors in R
The R function factor()
Categorical (nominal) and ordered categorical (ordinal) variables in R
are called factors.
> patientID <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)
> age <- c(25, 34, 28, 52)
> diabetes <- c("Type1", "Type2", "Type1", "Type1")
> status <- c("Poor", "Improved", "Excellent", "Poor")
> diabetes <- factor(diabetes)
> status <- factor(status, order=TRUE)
> patientdata <- [Link](patientID, age, diabetes, status)
> str(patientdata)
’[Link]’: 4 obs. of 4 variables:
$ patientID: num 1 2 3 4
$ age : num 25 34 28 52
$ diabetes : Factor w/ 2 levels "Type1","Type2": 1 2 1 1
$ status : [Link] w/ 3 levels "Excellent"<"Improved"<..: 3 2 1 3
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The R Lists
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
> g <- "My First List"
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
> g <- "My First List"
> h <- c(25, 26, 18, 39)
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
> g <- "My First List"
> h <- c(25, 26, 18, 39)
> j <- matrix(1:10, nrow=5)
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
> g <- "My First List"
> h <- c(25, 26, 18, 39)
> j <- matrix(1:10, nrow=5)
> k <- c("one", "two", "three")
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
> g <- "My First List"
> h <- c(25, 26, 18, 39)
> j <- matrix(1:10, nrow=5)
> k <- c("one", "two", "three")
> mylist <- list(title=g, ages=h, j, k)
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
> g <- "My First List"
> h <- c(25, 26, 18, 39)
> j <- matrix(1:10, nrow=5)
> k <- c("one", "two", "three")
> mylist <- list(title=g, ages=h, j, k)
> mylist
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The R Lists
A list is an ordered collection of objects (components)possibly
unrelated
The R Code list()
mylist <- list(name1=object1,name2=object2,..)
names are optional
An example of List
> g <- "My First List"
> h <- c(25, 26, 18, 39)
> j <- matrix(1:10, nrow=5)
> k <- c("one", "two", "three")
> mylist <- list(title=g, ages=h, j, k)
> mylist
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 23 / 34
Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
Embed in the source
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
Embed in the source
mydatatxt <- "
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
Embed in the source
mydatatxt <- "
age gender weight
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Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
Embed in the source
mydatatxt <- "
age gender weight
25 m 166
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 23 / 34
Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
Embed in the source
mydatatxt <- "
age gender weight
25 m 166
30 f 115
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 23 / 34
Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
Embed in the source
mydatatxt <- "
age gender weight
25 m 166
30 f 115
18 f 120
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 23 / 34
Data Input
Direct Keyboard Input
Built-in Text editor edit()
mydata <- [Link](age=numeric(0)
gender=character(0), weight=numeric(0))
mydata <- edit(mydata)
Embed in the source
mydatatxt <- "
age gender weight
25 m 166
30 f 115
18 f 120
"
mydata <- [Link](header=TRUE, text=mydatatxt)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 23 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
[Link]->Names to be given to rows
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
[Link]->Names to be given to rows
[Link]->Names to be given to columns
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
[Link]->Names to be given to rows
[Link]->Names to be given to columns
[Link]=c("-9", "?") converts each -9 and ?
value to NA
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
[Link]->Names to be given to rows
[Link]->Names to be given to columns
[Link]=c("-9", "?") converts each -9 and ?
value to NA
colClasses=c("numeric", "numeric", "character",
"NULL", "numeric")
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
[Link]->Names to be given to rows
[Link]->Names to be given to columns
[Link]=c("-9", "?") converts each -9 and ?
value to NA
colClasses=c("numeric", "numeric", "character",
"NULL", "numeric")
skip=Number of lines to skipped from the top
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
[Link]->Names to be given to rows
[Link]->Names to be given to columns
[Link]=c("-9", "?") converts each -9 and ?
value to NA
colClasses=c("numeric", "numeric", "character",
"NULL", "numeric")
skip=Number of lines to skipped from the top
stringsAsFactors=Whether to convert the character
vectors to factors
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
R data input
Importing from Files
Using [Link]()
mydataframe <- [Link](file, options)
header->Whether top row contains var names
sep->spaces "", comma ",",tab delimited ""
[Link]->Names to be given to rows
[Link]->Names to be given to columns
[Link]=c("-9", "?") converts each -9 and ?
value to NA
colClasses=c("numeric", "numeric", "character",
"NULL", "numeric")
skip=Number of lines to skipped from the top
stringsAsFactors=Whether to convert the character
vectors to factors
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 24 / 34
Data Management
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Data Management
Combining Data frames
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Data Management
Combining Data frames
class(object) Gives the class of an object.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Data Management
Combining Data frames
class(object) Gives the class of an object.
mode(object) Determines how an object is stored.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Data Management
Combining Data frames
class(object) Gives the class of an object.
mode(object) Determines how an object is stored.
names(object) Gives the names of components in an
object.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Data Management
Combining Data frames
class(object) Gives the class of an object.
mode(object) Determines how an object is stored.
names(object) Gives the names of components in an
object.
c(object, object,...) Combines objects into a
vector.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Data Management
Combining Data frames
class(object) Gives the class of an object.
mode(object) Determines how an object is stored.
names(object) Gives the names of components in an
object.
c(object, object,...) Combines objects into a
vector.
cbind(object, object, ...) Combines objects as
columns.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Data Management
Combining Data frames
class(object) Gives the class of an object.
mode(object) Determines how an object is stored.
names(object) Gives the names of components in an
object.
c(object, object,...) Combines objects into a
vector.
cbind(object, object, ...) Combines objects as
columns.
rbind(object, object, ...) Combines objects as
rows.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 25 / 34
Viewing Data
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
head(object) Lists the first part of an object.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
head(object) Lists the first part of an object.
tail(object) Lists the last part of an object.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
head(object) Lists the first part of an object.
tail(object) Lists the last part of an object.
ls() Lists current objects.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
head(object) Lists the first part of an object.
tail(object) Lists the last part of an object.
ls() Lists current objects.
rm(object, object, ...) Deletes one or more
objects.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
head(object) Lists the first part of an object.
tail(object) Lists the last part of an object.
ls() Lists current objects.
rm(object, object, ...) Deletes one or more
objects.
The statement rm(list =ls()) removes most objects.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
head(object) Lists the first part of an object.
tail(object) Lists the last part of an object.
ls() Lists current objects.
rm(object, object, ...) Deletes one or more
objects.
The statement rm(list =ls()) removes most objects.
newobject <- edit(object) Edits object and saves it
as newobject.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Viewing Data
Some R functions
head(object) Lists the first part of an object.
tail(object) Lists the last part of an object.
ls() Lists current objects.
rm(object, object, ...) Deletes one or more
objects.
The statement rm(list =ls()) removes most objects.
newobject <- edit(object) Edits object and saves it
as newobject.
fix(object) Edits an object in place.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 26 / 34
Creating New Variables
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
Using attach()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
Using attach()
attach(mydata)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
Using attach()
attach(mydata)
mydata$sumx <- x1 + x2
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
Using attach()
attach(mydata)
mydata$sumx <- x1 + x2
mydata$meanx <- (x1 + x2)/2
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
Using attach()
attach(mydata)
mydata$sumx <- x1 + x2
mydata$meanx <- (x1 + x2)/2
detach(mydata)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
Using attach()
attach(mydata)
mydata$sumx <- x1 + x2
mydata$meanx <- (x1 + x2)/2
detach(mydata)
Using transform()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Creating New Variables
mydata<-[Link](x1 = c(2, 2, 6, 4), x2 = c(3, 4, 2, 8))
Using $
mydata$sumx <- mydata$x1 + mydata$x2
mydata$meanx <- (mydata$x1 + mydata$x2)/2
Using attach()
attach(mydata)
mydata$sumx <- x1 + x2
mydata$meanx <- (x1 + x2)/2
detach(mydata)
Using transform()
mydata <- transform(mydata,sumx = x1 + x2,meanx = (x1 + x2)/2)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 27 / 34
Recoding Variables
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
The R function
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
The R function
variable[condition] <- expression
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
The R function
variable[condition] <- expression
leadership$agecat[leadership$age > 75] <- "Elder"
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
The R function
variable[condition] <- expression
leadership$agecat[leadership$age > 75] <- "Elder"
leadership$agecat[leadership$age >= 55 &
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
The R function
variable[condition] <- expression
leadership$agecat[leadership$age > 75] <- "Elder"
leadership$agecat[leadership$age >= 55 &
leadership$age <= 75] <- "Middle Aged"
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
The R function
variable[condition] <- expression
leadership$agecat[leadership$age > 75] <- "Elder"
leadership$agecat[leadership$age >= 55 &
leadership$age <= 75] <- "Middle Aged"
leadership$agecat[leadership$age < 55] <- "Young"
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Recoding Variables
Recoding involves creating new values of a variable conditional on the
existing values
The R function
variable[condition] <- expression
leadership$agecat[leadership$age > 75] <- "Elder"
leadership$agecat[leadership$age >= 55 &
leadership$age <= 75] <- "Middle Aged"
leadership$agecat[leadership$age < 55] <- "Young"
leadership <- within(leadership, agecat <- NA agecat[age > 75] <-
"Elder" agecat[age >= 55 & age <= 75] <- "Middle Aged" agecat[age <
55] <- "Young" )
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 28 / 34
Renaming the Variables
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
Click on the variable name and change it
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
Click on the variable name and change it
Programmatically
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
Click on the variable name and change it
Programmatically
>names(mydata)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
Click on the variable name and change it
Programmatically
>names(mydata)
If we want to change the third variable
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
Click on the variable name and change it
Programmatically
>names(mydata)
If we want to change the third variable >names(mydata)[3]<-newVar
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
Click on the variable name and change it
Programmatically
>names(mydata)
If we want to change the third variable >names(mydata)[3]<-newVar
names(leadership)[6:10] <- c("item1", "item2", "item3", "item4",
"item5")
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Renaming the Variables
We can change the variable names either interactively or
programatically
Interactively
fix(mydata)
Click on the variable name and change it
Programmatically
>names(mydata)
If we want to change the third variable >names(mydata)[3]<-newVar
names(leadership)[6:10] <- c("item1", "item2", "item3", "item4",
"item5")
We can use paste() function to generates names vector
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 29 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
3 Recode the missing value as NA
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
3 Recode the missing value as NA
leadership$age[leadership$age == 99] <- NA
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
3 Recode the missing value as NA
leadership$age[leadership$age == 99] <- NA
4 Exclude the missing values in options [Link]=TRUE
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
3 Recode the missing value as NA
leadership$age[leadership$age == 99] <- NA
4 Exclude the missing values in options [Link]=TRUE
5 Exclude the records that contain missing values
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
3 Recode the missing value as NA
leadership$age[leadership$age == 99] <- NA
4 Exclude the missing values in options [Link]=TRUE
5 Exclude the records that contain missing values
newdata <- [Link](leadership)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
3 Recode the missing value as NA
leadership$age[leadership$age == 99] <- NA
4 Exclude the missing values in options [Link]=TRUE
5 Exclude the records that contain missing values
newdata <- [Link](leadership)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
Missing or Faulty values
Steps to taken
1 Missing values are represented by NA
2 [Link]() tests whether the object has missing values
3 Recode the missing value as NA
leadership$age[leadership$age == 99] <- NA
4 Exclude the missing values in options [Link]=TRUE
5 Exclude the records that contain missing values
newdata <- [Link](leadership)
Sometimes NA values will be replaced by the average of the available
values. In case of categorical variables they are replaced by mode.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 30 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
2 2 10/28/08 US F 40 3 5 2 5 5
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
2 2 10/28/08 US F 40 3 5 2 5 5
3 3 10/01/08 UK F 25 3 5 5 5 2
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
2 2 10/28/08 US F 40 3 5 2 5 5
3 3 10/01/08 UK F 25 3 5 5 5 2
4 4 10/12/08 UK M 39 3 3 4 NA NA
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
2 2 10/28/08 US F 40 3 5 2 5 5
3 3 10/01/08 UK F 25 3 5 5 5 2
4 4 10/12/08 UK M 39 3 3 4 NA NA
5 5 05/01/09 UK F NA 2 2 1 2 1"
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
2 2 10/28/08 US F 40 3 5 2 5 5
3 3 10/01/08 UK F 25 3 5 5 5 2
4 4 10/12/08 UK M 39 3 3 4 NA NA
5 5 05/01/09 UK F NA 2 2 1 2 1"
leadership<-[Link](header=TRUE, text =
leadershiptxt)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
2 2 10/28/08 US F 40 3 5 2 5 5
3 3 10/01/08 UK F 25 3 5 5 5 2
4 4 10/12/08 UK M 39 3 3 4 NA NA
5 5 05/01/09 UK F NA 2 2 1 2 1"
leadership<-[Link](header=TRUE, text =
leadershiptxt)
newdata <- [Link](leadership)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-1
Observe The Output
leadershiptxt<-"
manager date country gender age q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
1 1 10/24/08 US M 32 5 4 5 5 5
2 2 10/28/08 US F 40 3 5 2 5 5
3 3 10/01/08 UK F 25 3 5 5 5 2
4 4 10/12/08 UK M 39 3 3 4 NA NA
5 5 05/01/09 UK F NA 2 2 1 2 1"
leadership<-[Link](header=TRUE, text =
leadershiptxt)
newdata <- [Link](leadership)
newdata
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 31 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
detach(leadership)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
detach(leadership)
sorts the rows into female followed by male, and
youngest to oldest within each gender.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
detach(leadership)
sorts the rows into female followed by male, and
youngest to oldest within each gender.
Finally,
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
detach(leadership)
sorts the rows into female followed by male, and
youngest to oldest within each gender.
Finally,
attach(leadership)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
detach(leadership)
sorts the rows into female followed by male, and
youngest to oldest within each gender.
Finally,
attach(leadership)
newdata <-leadership[order(gender, -age),]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
detach(leadership)
sorts the rows into female followed by male, and
youngest to oldest within each gender.
Finally,
attach(leadership)
newdata <-leadership[order(gender, -age),]
detach(leadership)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
R Lab Exercise-2
Observe The Output
attach(leadership)
newdata <- leadership[order(gender, age),]
detach(leadership)
sorts the rows into female followed by male, and
youngest to oldest within each gender.
Finally,
attach(leadership)
newdata <-leadership[order(gender, -age),]
detach(leadership)
sorts the rows by gender
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 32 / 34
Merging datasets
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by=c("ID","Country"))
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by=c("ID","Country"))
rbind()
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by=c("ID","Country"))
rbind()
To join two data frames (datasets) vertically
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by=c("ID","Country"))
rbind()
To join two data frames (datasets) vertically
total <- rbind(dataframeA, dataframeB)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by=c("ID","Country"))
rbind()
To join two data frames (datasets) vertically
total <- rbind(dataframeA, dataframeB)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by=c("ID","Country"))
rbind()
To join two data frames (datasets) vertically
total <- rbind(dataframeA, dataframeB)
cbind()
To join two data frames horizontally
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Merging datasets
To add columns (variables) and rows (observations) to a data frame.
merge()
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by="ID")
total <- merge(dataframeA, dataframeB, by=c("ID","Country"))
rbind()
To join two data frames (datasets) vertically
total <- rbind(dataframeA, dataframeB)
cbind()
To join two data frames horizontally
total <- cbind(A, B)
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 33 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
Selects col 1 to col 5. Leaving the row blank selects all rows
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
Selects col 1 to col 5. Leaving the row blank selects all rows
Selecting Variables from Large Set
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
Selects col 1 to col 5. Leaving the row blank selects all rows
Selecting Variables from Large Set
myvars <- c("q1", "q2", "q3", "q4", "q5")
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
Selects col 1 to col 5. Leaving the row blank selects all rows
Selecting Variables from Large Set
myvars <- c("q1", "q2", "q3", "q4", "q5")
newdata <-leadership[myvars]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
Selects col 1 to col 5. Leaving the row blank selects all rows
Selecting Variables from Large Set
myvars <- c("q1", "q2", "q3", "q4", "q5")
newdata <-leadership[myvars]
paste() function
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
Selects col 1 to col 5. Leaving the row blank selects all rows
Selecting Variables from Large Set
myvars <- c("q1", "q2", "q3", "q4", "q5")
newdata <-leadership[myvars]
paste() function
myvars <- paste("q", 1:5, sep="")
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
Subsetting datasets
Selecting Variables
To select and exclude variables, observations or both.
Excluding Variables from Large Set
newdata <- leadership[, c(6:10)]
Selects col 1 to col 5. Leaving the row blank selects all rows
Selecting Variables from Large Set
myvars <- c("q1", "q2", "q3", "q4", "q5")
newdata <-leadership[myvars]
paste() function
myvars <- paste("q", 1:5, sep="")
newdata <- leadership[myvars]
VRNath (JNTU KAKINADA) UG-STAT 34 / 34
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