SECTION-III

BIODIVERSITY
CHAPTER-6
THE
KINGDOM
PROKARYOTAE
(MONERA)
BACTERIA ( GR= BAKTERIA, LITTLE STICK)
• Bacteria is an unicellular prokaryotic living organism.
• In which each cell contains a single DNA molecule coiled in
a loop and not enclosed in a nucleus.
DISCOVERY:
Bacteria was first time discovered by Antony Van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch microscpist in
1676, but started work from 1673, which is finished in 1677.

STRUCTURE:
• Bacteria are considered as the smallest living organisms with a definite cellular shape.
• They are microscopic, their size is 2-5µ in diameter or 2µ in breadth and 2-10µ in
length.
• A generalized bacterial cell consists of flagella, pilli, capsule, cell wall, cell membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleoid, plasmids, mesosomes and storage bodies
1. FLAGELLA:
Flagella are the locomotory organs of bacteria. These are
thread-like structures and arise from the outer surface of
bacterial cells. Flagella are found in bacilli and spirilli bacteria.
It originates from the basal body and is made up of special protein Flagellin.
2. PILLI:
These are hollow, filament-like structures present on their body. Pilli do not take
part in locomotion. They are involved in the process of conjugation (reproduction).
It is made up of special protein “Pilin”.
3. CAPSULE:
It is the outer additional protective layer present
around the cell wall. It is made of Polysaccharides.
It is found only in some bacteria.
4. CELL WALL:
It is the layer around a bacterial cell. It protects the inner parts
of cell and also provides a definite shape to bacterial cell.
It is composed of sugar, amino acids and chitin. Cellulose is absent. The cell wall
has a compound, called peptidoglycan. It provides strength to bacterial cell and
helps to maintain the shape.
5. CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA MEMBRANE):
On the inner side of cell wall, around the cytoplasm,
cell membrane is present. It is semi-permeable and
control the osmotic properties of the cell.
Cell membrane is composed of proteins and lipids.
6. CYTOPLASM:
The inner substance of bacterial cell is called cytoplasm. It contains granules of
glycogen and fats, and proteins as reserved food. It does not have endoplasmic
reticulum, Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, plastids etc., but it contains ribosomes for
protein synthesis
7. MESOSOME:
This is invagination of cell membrane. It is folded
structure and arises from the inner side of cell membrane.
It has many functions such as
i- Enzyme secretion ii- Cell division
iii- DNA replication iv- Respiration
8. NUCLEOID:
In bacterial cell, there is no proper or complete nucleus. It is prokaryotic cell. The
nuclear material consists of a thick body, called Nucleoid. It is also called chromatin
body or bacterial chromosome. It does not contain nuclear membrane,
nucleoplasm or nucleolus.

9. PLASMID:
This is the additional genetic material of minute size in bacterial cell. It is in the
form of ring-like structure. It does not play any role in bacterial activity, but it can
be used as vector to transfer a gene in the process of genetic engineering.
FORMS (SHAPE):
There are four shapes of bacteria
• Cocci (Kokkos; Berry, rounded):
• These are spherical and nonflagellated bacteria. These are further classified
• Monococcus:
• Single rounded bacteria
• Diplococci:
• These are in groups of two rounded bacteria
• Tetrads:
• When bacteria are in the group of four cells, called Tetrad.
• Sarcina:
• When bacteria are in the group of eight cells called octant or sarcina
• Strepto-cocci:
• These bacteria are arranged in chain like manner.
• Staphlyo-cocci:
• These bacteria are present in the groups or cluster like grapes.
• Bacilli (Bakulus; A rod):
• These are rod like bacteria. They may be flagellated.
• These are also of different types.
• Mono-bacilli:
• Single rod-shaped bacteria.
• Diplo-bacilli:
• Group of two rod-shaped bacteria.
• Strepto-bacilli:
• Chain-like, rod-shaped bacteria.
• Staphylo-bacilli OR PALISADE:
• Groups of many rod-shaped bacteria.
• Pseudomonas is a generalized rod shape bacteria.
• Acetobactor another type of Bacillus
• Spirilla (Speira; A Coil):
• These are spiral-shaped bacteria. They are never found
in groups. They are single bacteria and not further classified.
Example Spirochaeta

• Vibrio (Commas):
• They are comma shape. They are also not found in groups. They are single
bacteria and not further classified. They may be flagellated. Example Vibrio
Cholera.
DIVERSITY IN BACTERIA:
On the basis of flagella, bacteria are divided into the following groups.
i-ATRICHOUS (A = NOT, TRICHOME=FLAGELLA)
These bacteria have no flagella e.g. Beggiatoa, Cocci
ii. MONOTRICHOUS (MONO= ONE, TRICHOME= FLAGELLA)
These bacteria contain one flagellum e.g. Vibrio cholerae.
Iii- LOPHOTRICHOUS ( LOPHO = BUNCH, TRICHOUS= FLAGELLA)
These bacteria contain a group of flagella at one pole. E.g. Escherichia coli.
iv. AMPHITRICHOUS: ( AMPHI= DOUBLE(BOTH SIDES), TRICHOUS= FLAGELLA)
These bacteria contain a groups of flagella at both poles
e.g. alcaligenes faecalis cause meningitis
V- PERITRICHOUS ( PERI= AROUND, TRICHOME, FLAGELLA)
These bacteria contain flagella around the cell.e.g. Bacillus subtilis
GRAM POSITIVE AND GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA:
Hans Christian Gram developed a method to classify bacteria.
He treated bacteria with crystal violet. When bacteria are treated
with a violet dye (a chemical substance), then some bacteria accept
this violet dye and some bacteria do not accept it, so bacteria are of two types on
this basis.
i- Gram Positive Bacteria: These bacteria accept the dye and show violet colour.
Ii- Gram Negative Bacteria: These bacteria do not accept the violet colour. Then
they are treated with safranine and appear pink.
ARCHAEBACTERIA AND EUBACTERIA:
ARCHAEBACTERIA: This is a small group of ancient bacteria.

EUBACTERIA: This is the large group of true bacteria

• RHODOBACTER
• Photosynthetic Bacteria.
• Photosynthetic Bacteria: These Bacteria have chlorophyll dispersed in the cytoplasm.
They utilize the atmospheric CO2 and get energy from sunlight and perform the process
of photosynthesis, but they use Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) instead of water to get
Hydrogen, thus they release Sulphur instead of Oxygen. The two types of chlorophyll
are use in bacteria the bacterio-chlorophyll and chlorobium-chlorophyll.
𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• CO2 + 2H2S 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙> (CH2O) n + H2O + 2S
CHEMOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA:
These bacteria get energy by the oxidation and reduction
process of various inorganic compounds, such as nitrates,
ammonia, Sulphur etc., so they are known as chemosynthetic bacteria
N + O2 NO2
2H + S H 2S
2-HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIA:
These bacteria take their food from other living or non-living substances. These
are of two types.
i- PARASITE ii- SAPROPHYTES
i- PARASITE:
These bacteria obtain their food from the body of living
organisms. They are fully dependent on the host.
These bacteria cause disease in the host and sometimes death occurs.
Ii- SAPROPHYTES:
They obtain their food from dead organic substances.
The bacteria change these compounds into simpler ones and
get energy by this process.

SYMBIOTIC BACTERIA:
Some bacteria form an association with another organism and both get benefits
from each other, such bacteria are called symbiotic bacteria, for example
Rhizobium radicicola bacteria live in the roots of leguminous plant (e.g. Pea plant).
These bacteria convert Nitrogen into its compounds, Nitrites and Nitrates. This
process is called Nitrogen fixation. As a result of this process, bacteria get food
material from plants.
RESPIRATION IN BACTERIA:
• According to respiration, there are two types of bacteria.
• Aerobes: These bacteria need Oxygen for respiration.
• These are of two types
Obligate aerobes: These bacteria need Oxygen and
cannot survive without Oxygen
• Facultative aerobes: These bacteria can live with
or without Oxygen.
• Microaerophilic: When bacteria require very little amount of Oxygen,
they are called micro aerophilic bacteria
• Anaerobes: These bacteria do not take O2 for respiration.
Anaerobes bacteria are of two types.
• Obligate Anaerobes: These bacteria do not need O2.
They die in the presence of O2
Facultative Anaerobes: These bacteria do not need O2
but they can survive in its presence.
LOCOMOTION IN BACTERIA:
In bacteria, locomotion takes place by flagella.
There are fine thread-like structures, present outer surface
of bacterial cell.
Some bacteria have single flagellum and some have many flagella. Mostly Bacilli bacteria
contain flagella and cocci do not contain flagella.
Bacteria usually move towards their food material. According to their movement, there
are three types of bacteria.
i-Phototactic bacteria:
These bacteria move due to light, either towards or away from light.
ii. Chemotactic bacteria:
These bacteria move due to any chemical substances, present in their surrounding.
They usually move away from chemical substances.
iii. Magnetotactic bacteria
These bacteria move due to the presence of magnetic field, away from magnetic field.
 GROWTH IN BACTERIA:
In bacteria, there is very rapid growth. It depends upon suitable
temperature, nutrition, pH and presence of certain ions.
There are different stages of growth in bacteria.
• 1. Lag Phase 2. Log Phase 3. Stationary Phase 4. Decline Phase or Death Phase
• Lag Phase: This is initial but inactive phase. In which bacteria is
prepare themselves for reproduction and accumulate certain
substances like water and proteins which help in growth.
It is also known as preparatory stage.
• Log Phase: It is the most active phase of growth.
The bacteria increase their number very rapidly and their metabolic activities are maximum.
Their rate of growth is rapid, and rate of death is minimum.
• Stationary Phase: When there is shortage of food, the growth of bacteria becomes slow. There
is equal rate of reproduction and death of bacteria, so the number of bacteria remains almost
constant i.e. no increase and no decrease. Due to unchanged number of bacteria, the stage is
called stationary phase.
• Decline or Death Phase: When there is acute shortage of available food, the growth is very
slow and rate of death is rapid, their number decreases rapidly, so it is decline phase.
Ultimately, they disappear completely from the place, and then it is called death phase.
REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA:
In bacteria, there are three types of reproduction
1- Binary Fission 2- Endospore formation 3- Genetic recombination
1- Binary fission (Binary; Two Fission; to break):
• It is a simple type of reproduction and takes place in favorable conditions. In this
process, bacterial cell divides into two cells. First, the nucleus divides into two
nuclei, and then cytoplasm also divides into two parts by a partition wall. Each
part of cytoplasm contains a nucleus. Finally, two separate independent cells of
bacteria are formed.
2- ENDOSPORE FORMATION (ENDO = INSIDE, SPORE =
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE UNITE):
This process takes place during unfavourable conditions.
In this process, the protoplasm shrinks and forms a rounded mass.
It is covered by thick wall. It is known as endospore. The endospore remains
inactive during unfavourable conditions. It may remain so, for a long time. Under
favourable condition, the endospore germinates into a single bacterial cell.
3- GENETIC RECOMBINATION (SEXUAL REPRODUCTION):
There is no sexual reproduction in bacteria in a true sense,
but a combination of two genetic materials take place in certain
methods, these are considered as sexual reproduction.
These methods are of three types
(i) Conjugation (ii) Transduction (iii)Transformation
i) Conjugation: in this type, genetic material of a
bacterium is transferred to another bacterium
through a cytoplasmic bridge known as conjugation tube.
It is formed by the union of Two Pilli or when
two bacteria are kept together, their genetic materials
are combined through a conjugation tube and form
new bacteria. The process is called conjugation.
Conjugation method was reported by two scientists,
Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in 1946.
ii) TRANSDUCTION:
In this type, genetic material of a bacterium is transferred to
another bacterium through third party that is virus. Or in this process,
the genetic material of one bacterial cell is transferred into
another cell through bacteriophage (bacterial virus). This process was reported by
Lederberg and Zinder in 1952.
iii) TRANSFORMATION:
In this type, transfer of genetic material from one bacterium
to another bacterium, causing it to transform or when certain
bacteria are grown in the presence of killed cells,
obtained from related or different bacteria, they gain some
of the characters of these bacteria and change their nature. This process is called
transformation. Fred Griffith performed the experiment of transformation in
bacteria in 1928.
IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA:
Bacteria have both positive and negative importance.
They play important role in the life of human beings.
Positive importance:
1. Decaying of dead bodies: Bacteria decompose the dead remains of plants, animals and human beings
into simpler compounds. In this way, they help to clean the world.
2. Bacteria in Industries:
i. Bacteria are used in dairy industry. They change milk into curd.
ii. They are used in the formation of butter and cheese from milk.
iii. From certain bacteria, antibiotics are obtained, e.g. Terramycin, Streptomycin and Neomycin etc.
iv. Bacteria are used in the preparation of alcohol and vinegar.
v. Bacteria are also used in leather industry.
[Link]: Certain bacteria are present in the intestine of man and help in the digestion of
• Cellulose.
4. Fertility of soil: Bacteria increase the fertility of soil by adding organic substances due to the
• decomposition of dead bodies.
5. Nitrogen Fixation: Bacteria also take part in nitrogen fixation. i.e. they convert Nitrogen into its
compounds like nitrites and nitrates. These compounds are used by the plants.
•Negative importance:

1. Spoilage of Food: Bacteria spoil our food stuff in large amounts by chemical
processes. It is a great loss.
2. Disease in Man: Bacteria cause various diseases in man and other animals, such
as Tuberculosis (T.B.), Pneumonia, Cholera and Typhoid. Tetanus, Syphilis,
Diphtheria etc.

3. Diseases in Plants: Bacteria also cause disease in various plants, such as Citrus
Canker, Fire blight of apple, ring disease of potato, wilt of Solanaceae plants etc.
CONTROL OF BACTERIA
The different methods to control the infections of micro-organisms are as follows
1. Infected persons should be properly treated by effective medicine
2. Persons in a population should be treated by immunization and vaccination.
3. In epidemic condition, the infected persons should be kept in quarantine to avoid the spread of
infection to healthy persons.
4. At different possible stages, the life cycle of pathogen should be disrupted, so it cannot cause the
infection.
5. The host bodies of pathogen should be identified and treated well to control the disease.
6. By different ways, Knowledge and awareness about diseases and infection of pathogen should be
provided to the public.
7. Many methods should be used to kill or inhibit the
infection of pathogen. Such as
a. High temperature treatment.
b. By ultraviolet rays.
c. Using antiseptics.
d. Using antibiotics
e. By chemotherapy (Chemical treatment)
IMMUNIZATION AND VACCINATION:
IMMUNIZATION
The process in which resistance against the disease is developed in the body by the help of
vaccination is called Immunization. Or it is the process of induction of specific immunity by
injecting antigens, antibodies or immune cells.
VACCINATION:
It is an inoculation of host with inactive or weakened pathogens or pathogenic products to
stimulate protective immunity. Vaccination is the use of antibiotic medicines to control many
diseases. A vaccine is either used orally e.g. Polio vaccine or taken into the body by syringe e.g.
Tetanus Vaccine.
The procedure of vaccination is very effective and beneficial for human beings because it
helps to control many dangerous diseases such as measles, diphtheria. When large proportion of
population is immune, then the disease spread poorly throughout the population.
USE AND MISUSE OF ANTIBIOTICS:
Antibiotics are chemical substances, which are used to
kill micro-organisms that cause various diseases.
These are produced by certain micro-organisms and prevent the activity of other
micro-organisms.
The first antibiotic is Penicillin which was isolated from Penicillium fungus in
1940. After that, a great work has been done in this field and many antibiotics have
been isolated or synthesized for the treatment of infectious diseases.
USE OF ANTIBIOTICS:
Some antibiotics have their effect against one bacterium and other
antibiotics are effective against various bacteria i.e. they have widespread effect.
• Antibiotics are used to control the infection or disease, caused by micro-
organisms.
• They are also used for vaccination and to improve immune system.
• Antibiotics are also used in agriculture to kill different organisms. These are also
used in animal feeds to provide growth- promoting substances.
MISUSE OF ANTIBIOTICS:
• By extensive use of antibiotics, more resistance is developed in pathogenic
microorganisms, after that they cause more serious infection in the body.
• Antibiotics have many side effects. Other organs of the body may be damaged.
• Antibiotics may react with human metabolism and in severe cases death of
person may occur.
• Some antibiotics such as penicillin, cause allergy in the body.
CYANO BACTERIA
• These are also called blue green algae or cyanophyte.
• These are aquatic living organism.
• They are prokaryotic, contain incomplete nucleus
• The body is filamentous i.e. consists of thread-like structure, called filament.
• They contain blue (phycocyanin) and green (chlorophyll a) pigments.
• They are autotrophs means manufactures own food.
• Only take place asexual reproduction by hormogonia, zoospore, akinetes and
fragmentation.
• Example: Nostoc
NOSTOC:
Nostoc belongs to the group Cyanophyta of kingdom Monera.
It is blue green algae. It is found in fresh
water ponds, streams and lakes etc.
STRUCTURE:
The body of Nostoc is called thallus. It is
a simple body and consists of many
thread-like structures, called filaments.
Each filament is composed of many rounded cells which are arranged in chain-like
manner or in beaded form. All the cells are similar. The whole filament is covered
by a gelatinous sheath.
In the filament, some cells are larger in size and thick-walled, called heterocyst.
These cells perform two functions, reproduction and nitrogen fixation. In Nitrogen
fixation, Nitrogen is converted into simple Nitrogenous compounds, which are used
by the plant.
STRUCTURE OF A CELL:
Each cell of Nostoc is rounded in shape. It is covered by
an outer cell wall. The protoplasm of the cell consists
of two parts:
i- CHROMOPLASM:
It is the outer coloured part along the cell wall. It contains blue-green pigments(
Phycocyanin). It also prepares food material due to the presence of chlorophyll
pigments.
ii- CENTROPLASM OR CENTRAL BODY:
It is the inner colourless part of the cell. It contains stored food granules. It also act
as a nucleus.
The cell of Nostoc does not contain a true nucleus.
The central body performs the function of nucleus.
It has no nuclear membrane or nucleolus,
so it is called incipient nucleus. i.e. incomplete nucleus.
 REPRODUCTION:
In Nostoc there is only asexual reproduction take place,
which of following three types
1) By Hormogonia:
The filament of Nostoc breaks up into many pieces,
called hormogonia. Each hormogonium grows into a
new filament by repeated cell division.
2) By Arthrospores/Akinetes:
It is a kind of asexual reproduction found in Nostoc during
unfavorable conditions, some cells of Nostoc filament
become enlarged and they are covered by thick wall,
they are called akinetes or Arthrospores or resting spores.
They also store food material. They germinate during
favorable conditions into new filament.
3) By Heterocyst:
At the time of reproduction, the heterocysts are separated from
Nostoc filament. These heterocysts are changed into a normal
reproductive cell. By the process of cell division,
it is converted into a new filament.
NUTRITION IN NOSTOC:
Nostoc contains chlorophyll, so it can manufacture its own food.
IMPORTANCE OF CYANOBACTERIA:
• Cyanobacteria (Blue-green Algae) use CO2 and release O2 during
photosynthesis, so environment becomes fresh and O2 is used by
aquatic animals.
• They take part in nitrogen fixation.
• MCQS
• 1- B 2- C 3- A 4- C 5- C 6. C 7- B
VERY SHORT QUESTIONS
[Link] Mesosomes and describe their functions.
• This is invagination of cell membrane. It is a folded structure and arises from the inner side of
cell membrane. It has many functions such as:
• Enzyme secretion (ii) Cell division (iii) DNA replication (iv) Respiration
2. Define Plasmid
• A) It is the additional genetic material of minute size in bacterial cell. It is in the form of a ring
like structure. It does not play any role in bacterial activity, but it can be used as vector to
transfer a gene in the process of genetic engineering.
• Define Phototactic and Magnetotactic movement in Bacteria.
• A) Phototactic Bacteria: These bacteria move due to light, either towards or away from light.
• Magnetotactic Bacteria: These bacteria move due to the presence of magnetic field, away
magnetic field.
Name the different phases of growth in bacteria.
A) The different phases of growth in bacteria are: (i) LAG phase (ii) LOG phase (iii)
STATIONARY phase
(iv) DEATH OR DECLINE phase
What are types of Bacteria according to the number of flagella OR shapes
A) The types of Bacteria according to flagella are (i) Atrichous (ii) Monotrichous (iii)
Amphitrichous
(iv) Lophotrichous (v) Peritrichous
According to shape : (a) Cocci (b) Bacilli (c) Vibrio or coma shape (d) Spirilla
[Link] the types of Genetic recombination and define any one
A) Genetic Recombination : It is of following types (i) Conjugation (ii) Transduction
(iii) Transformation
Conjugation: in this type, genetic material of a bacterium is transferred to
another bacterium through a cytoplasmic bridge known as conjugation tube. It is
formed by the union of Two Pilli or when two bacteria are kept together, their
genetic materials are combined through a conjugation tube and form new bacteria.
The process is called conjugation. Conjugation method was reported by two
scientists, Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in 1946.
4. Name three diseases caused by Bacteria in humans
A) The Bacterial diseases in humans are Typhoid, Tetanus and food-poisoning.
What are Vaccination and Immunization
A) Immunization and Vaccination: The process in which resistance against the
disease is developed in the body by the help of vaccination is called Immunization.
Or it is the process of induction of specific immunity by injecting antigens,
antibodies or immune cells.
Vaccination: It is an inoculation of host with inactive or weakened pathogens or
pathogenic products to stimulate protective immunity. Vaccination is the use of
antibiotic medicines to control many diseases. A vaccine is either used orally e.g.
Polio vaccine or taken into the body by syringe e.g. Tetanus
• Draw a labeled diagram of bacteria.
• A)
• Classify bacteria based on form
• A) Bacteria classified in four categories based on forms or shapes, which are as follows.
1. Cocci (Kokkos; Berry, rounded): These are spherical and nonflagellated bacteria. These are
further classified
i. Monococcus: Single rounded bacteria
ii. Diplococci: These are in groups of two rounded bacteria
iii. Tetrads: When bacteria are in the group of four cells, called Tetrad.
iv. Sarcina: When bacteria are in the group of eight cells called octant or sarcina
v. Strepto-cocci: These bacteria are arranged in chain like manner.
vi. Staphlyo-cocci: These bacteria are present in the groups or cluster like grapes.
2. Bacilli (Bakulus; A rod): These are rod like bacteria. They may be flagellated.
These are also of different types.
i. Mono-bacilli: Single rod-shaped bacteria.
ii. Diplo-bacilli: Group of two rod-shaped bacteria.
[Link]: Group of four rod-shaped bacteria
[Link]-bacilli: Chain-like, rod-shaped bacteria.
v. Staphylo-bacilli: Groups of many rod-shaped bacteria.
[Link] is a generalized rod shape bacteria.
3. Spirilla (Speira; A Coil): These are spiral-shaped bacteria. They are never found in
groups. They are single bacteria and not further classified. Example Spirochaeta
4. Vibrio (Commas): They are comma shape. They are also not found in groups.
They are single bacteria and not further classified. They may be flagellated.
Example Vibrio Cholera.
• Define photosynthetic Bacteria.
• A) Photosynthetic Bacteria: These Bacteria have chlorophyll
dispersed in the cytoplasm. They utilize the atmospheric CO2
and get energy from sunlight and perform the process of
photosynthesis, but they use Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) instead
of water to get Hydrogen, thus they release Sulphur instead of
Oxygen. The two types of chlorophyll are use in bacteria the
bacterio-chlorophyll and chlorobium-chlorophyll.
𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• CO2 + 2H2S > (CH2O) n + H2O + 2S
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙
•
• Describe Respiration in Bacteria:
• A) Respiration in Bacteria
• According to respiration, there are two types of bacteria.
i. Aerobes: These bacteria need Oxygen for respiration.
• These are of two types
a. Obligate aerobes: These bacteria need Oxygen and cannot survive without
Oxygen
b. Facultative aerobes: These bacteria can live with or without Oxygen.
• When bacteria require very little amount of Oxygen, they are called micro
aerophilic bacteria
i. Anaerobes: These bacteria do not take O2 for respiration. Anaerobe's bacteria
are of two types.
a. Obligate Anaerobes: These bacteria do not need O2. They die in the presence
of O2
• b. Facultative Anaerobes: These bacteria do not need O2 but they can
survive in its presence.
• Write four distinct phases of Bacterial growth.
• A) Phases Of Growth In Bacteria: In bacteria, there is very rapid growth. It depends upon
suitable temperature, nutrition, pH and presence of certain ions. There are different stages of
growth in bacteria.
• 1. Lag Phase 2. Log Phase 3. Stationary Phase 4. Decline Phase or Death Phase
1. Lag Phase: This is initial but inactive phase. In which bacteria is prepare themselves for
reproduction and accumulate certain substances like water and proteins which help in growth.
It is also known as preparatory stage.
2. Log Phase: It is the most active phase of growth. The bacteria increase their number very
rapidly and their metabolic activities are maximum. Their rate of growth is rapid, and rate of
death is minimum.
3. Stationary Phase: When there is shortage of food, the growth of bacteria becomes slow. There
is equal rate of reproduction and death of bacteria, so the number of bacteria remains almost
constant i.e. no increase and no decrease. Due to unchanged number of bacteria, the stage is
called stationary phase.
4. Decline or Death Phase: When there is acute shortage of available food, the growth is very
slow and rate of death is rapid, their number decreases rapidly, so it is decline phase.
Ultimately, they disappear completely from the place, and then it is called death phase.
• Write a note on Binary fission in Bacteria.
• A) Binary fission (Binary; Two Fission; to break):
• It is a simple type of reproduction and takes place in favorable conditions. In this
process, bacterial cell divides into two cells. First, the nucleus divides into two
nuclei, and then cytoplasm also divides into two parts by a partition wall. Each
part of cytoplasm contains a nucleus. Finally, two separate independent cells of
bacteria are formed.
• Write importance of Bacteria.
• A) Importance of bacteria: Bacteria have both positive and negative importance. They play important role in the
life of human beings.
• Positive importance:
1. Decaying of dead bodies: Bacteria decompose the dead remains of plants, animals and human beings into
simpler compounds. In this way, they help to clean the world.
2. Bacteria in Industries:
i. Bacteria are used in dairy industry. They change milk into curd.
ii. They are used in the formation of butter and cheese from milk.
iii. From certain bacteria, antibiotics are obtained, e.g. Terramycin, Streptomycin and Neomycin etc.
iv. Bacteria are used in the preparation of alcohol and vinegar.
v. Bacteria are also used in leather industry.
3. Digestion: Certain bacteria are present in the intestine of man and help in the digestion of
• Cellulose.
4. Fertility of soil: Bacteria increase the fertility of soil by adding organic substances due to the
• decomposition of dead bodies.
5. Nitrogen Fixation: Bacteria also take part in nitrogen fixation. i.e. they convert Nitrogen into its compounds like
nitrites and nitrates. These compounds are used by the plants.
• Negative importance:
1. Spoilage of Food: Bacteria spoil our food stuff in large amounts by chemical
processes. It is a great loss.
2. Disease in Man: Bacteria cause various diseases in man and other animals, such
as Tuberculosis (T.B.), Pneumonia, Cholera and Typhoid. Tetanus, Syphilis,
Diphtheria etc.
3. Diseases in Plants: Bacteria also cause disease in various plants, such as Citrus
Canker, Fire blight of apple, ring disease of potato, wilt of Solanaceae plants etc.
• What are the measures to control Bacteria?
• A) Control Of Bacteria: The different methods to control the infections of micro-organisms are as follows
1. Infected persons should be properly treated by effective medicine
2. Persons in a population should be treated by immunization and vaccination.
3. In epidemic condition, the infected persons should be kept in quarantine to avoid the spread of infection to
healthy persons.
4. At different possible stages, the life cycle of pathogen should be disrupted, so it cannot cause the infection.
5. The host bodies of pathogen should be identified and treated well to control the disease.
6. By different ways, Knowledge and awareness about diseases and infection of pathogen should be provided to the
public.
7. Many methods should be used to kill or inhibit the infection of pathogen. Such as
a. High temperature treatment.
b. By ultraviolet rays.
c. Using antiseptics.
d. Using antibiotics
e. By chemotherapy (Chemical treatment)
• Write salient features of Cyanobacteria.
• A) The salient feature of Cyanobacteria is as follows.
I. These are also called blue green algae or cynophyta.
II. These are aquatic living organism.
[Link] are prokaryotic, contain incomplete nucleus
[Link] body is filamentous i.e. consists of thread-like structure, called filament.
V. They contain blue (phycocyanin) and green (chlorophyll a) pigments.
[Link] are autotrophs means manufactures own food.
[Link] take place asexual reproduction by hormogonia, zoospore, akinetes and
fragmentation.
• Example: Nostoc
•
• Give different methods of reproduction in Nostoc/ Define Akinetes.
• A) In Nostoc there is only asexual reproduction take place, which of following three
types
1. By Hormogonia: The filament of Nostoc breaks up into many pieces, called
hormogonia. Each hormogonium grows into a new filament by repeated cell division.
2. By Arthrospores/Akinetes: It is a kind of asexual reproduction found in nostoc during
unfavorable conditions, some cells of Nostoc filament become enlarged and they are
covered by thick wall, they are called akinetes or arthrospores or resting spores. They
also store food material. They germinate during favourable conditions into new
filament.
3. By Heterocyst: At the time of reproduction, the heterocysts are separated from Nostoc
filament. These heterocysts are changed into a normal reproductive cell. By the
process of cell division, it is converted into a new filament.
• Give the importance of Cyanobacteria.
• A) The importance of cyanobacteria is as follows
i. Cyanobacteria (Blue-green Algae) use CO2 and release O2 during photosynthesis, so
environment becomes fresh and O2 is used by aquatic animals.
ii. They take part in nitrogen fixation.
• 1. Bacteria are found
• a. every where b. moist condition
• c. hot condition d. cold condition
• 2. Bacteria were first time discovered by
• a. Iwanowsky b. Ross
• c. Boyed d. Leeuwenhoek
• 3. Cellulose is not found in cell wall of
• a. neem tree b. bacteria
• c. maple leaf d. pea leaf
• 4. In bacteria cell membrane helps in
• a. digestion b. excretion
• c. respiration d. circulation
• 5. In bacteria DNA is found in concentrated structure called
• a. nuclear bodies b. polysomic bodies
• c. Golgi bodies d. chromatin bodies
• 6. Bacteria with round shape are called
• a. coccus b. spirilla
• c. bacilli d. none of them
• 7. Rod shaped bacteria is called
• a. coccus b. bacilli
• c. spirilla d. cristae
• 8. Corkscrew shaped bacteria is called
• a. coccus b. bacilli
• c. spirilla d. sarcina
• 9. Bacteria as symbionts helps in fixation of
• a. oxygen b. carbon dioxide
• c. hydrogen d. none of them
• 10. Bacteria cell measures in breadth is
• a. 0.2-0.3 b. 0.2-2
• c. 0.2-4  d. 2-4
• 11. Bacteria cell measures in length is
• a. 0.2-0.3 b. 0.2-2 
• c. 2-10  d. 4-6 
• 12. Pilli are all except
• a. Hollow filamentous appendages b. smaller than flagella
• c. Help in locomotion d. help in conjugation
• 13. Which one of the following is not concerned with flagella
• a. Thin appendages b. originate from basal body
• c. Help in locomotion d. help in conjugation
• 14. Bacteria with capsule are
• a. Harmful b. harmless
• c. A & B d. none of them
• 15. Slime capsule of bacteria is chemically composed of
• a. Disaccharide b. polysaccharide
• c. Monosaccharide d. proteins
• 16. Christian gram developed the technique of gram stain dividing bacteria into
• a. 4 groups b. 6 groups
• c. 2 groups d. 5 groups
• 17. Cell wall of most bacteria have a unique macromolecule
• a. glycoside b. peptidoglycan
• c. glycolycin d. protein
• .18 Cell wall of most bacteria contain an acid called
• a. acetic acid b. malic acid
• c. teichoic acid d. fumaric acid
• 19. Which one of the following is the most primitive bacteria
• a. eubacteria b. archaebacteria
• c. bacteria d. cyanobacteria
• 20. Mesosomes are invagination of
• a. cell membrane b. cell wall
• c. Golgi bodies d. vacuole
• 21. Mesosomes perform all the functions except
• a. DNA replication b. cell division
• c. nutrition d. respiration
• 22. In bacteria besides chromatin bodies a small fragment of external chromosomal
circular DNA is also found called
• a. coil b. plasmid
• c. plastid d. cristae
• 23. When spherical bacteria are eight in number the condition is called
• a. diplococcus b. streptococcus
• c. sarcina d. staphylococcus
• 24. The curved bacteria are called
• a. coccus b. spirilla
• c. bacillus d. vibrio
• 25. Bacteriochlorophyll & chlorobium – chlorophyll help bacteria to get food
• a. by living organisms b. by decay
• c. by photosynthesis d. none of them
• 26. Photosynthetic bacteria discovered by
• a. Von Neil b. Leeuwenhoek
• c. Singer d. Nicholson
• 27. Bacteria which are aerobic respire with the help of
• a. oxygen b. carbon dioxide
• c. hydrogen d. H2S
• 28. Photosynthetic bacteria discovered in
• a. 1898 b. 1850
• c. 1930 d. 1831
• 29. In bacteria for photosynthesis instead of oxygen one of the following gas is released
• a. sulphur b. He
• c. Nitrogen d. Hydrogen
• 30. During photosynthesis bacteria instead of water used
• a. SO2 b. H2S
• c. Cl2 d. CO
• 31. Bacteria which respires without oxygen called
• a. aerobes b. aerated
• c. anaerobes d. oxygenated
• 32. Those bacteria which respires with or without oxygen are called
• a. aerobes b. anaerobes
• c. A & B d. facultative
• 33. Some bacteria require a low concentration of O2 for growth called
• a. micro aerobes b. facultative bacteria
• c. micro-aerophilic d. aerophilic
• 34. Some bacteria requires free oxygen environment other wise killed in
presence of O2 called
• a. obligate anaerobes b. obligate aerobes
• c. facultative anaerobes d. facultative aerobes
• 35. There are some bacteria which can survive only in the presence of oxygen
called
• a. obligate anaerobes b. obligate aerobes
• c. facultative anaerobes d. facultative aerobes
• 36. There are some bacteria which can survive in presence of oxygen but also
survive in absence of oxygen called
• a. obligate anaerobes b. obligate aerobes
• c. facultative anaerobes d. facultative aerobes
• 37. The most common method of bacterial reproduction
• a. fission b. transduction
• c. endospore d. conjugation
• 38. The fission in bacteria completes within
• a. 30 – 40 minutes b. 10 – 20 minutes
• c. 20 – 30 minutes d. 40 – 60 minutes
• 39. Condition of asexual reproduction found in unfavourable period in bacteria is
• a. endospore b. aplanospore
• c. zoospore d. endospores
• 40. Which one is not involved in sexual reproduction in bacteria
• a. conjugation b. transcription
• c. transduction d. transformation
• 41. When genetic material transfer from one bacterium to another through carrier the condition is
called
• a. conjugation b. transduction
• c. transformation d. transpiration
• 42. The process of conjugation was observed in 1946 by
• a. Laderberg & Tatum b. Laderberg & Zinder
• c. Griffith & Tatum d. Singer & Nicholson
• 43. The process of transmitting genetic material from one bacterium to another directly is called
• a. transduction b. conjugation
• c. transformation d. transcription
• 44. Griffith performed experiment on bacteria called
• a. rhizobium b. Clostridium
• c. Escherichia Coli d. None of then
• 45. The process of transduction was observed in 1952 by
• a. Laderberg & Tatum b. Laderberg & Zinder
• c. Griffith & Tatum d. Zinder & Tatum
• 46. The process of transformation was observed in 1928 by
• a. . Laderberg & Tatum b. Laderberg & Zinder
• c. Griffith & Tatum d. Griffith
 [Link] & Tatum performed experiments on bacteria called
• a. Rhizobium b. Clostridium
• c. Escherichia Coli d. Pneumococcus
[Link] is a vitamin produced from
• a. Clostridium b. Rhizobium
• c. Azobacter d. Escherichia Coli
49. In Cyanophyceae the colour of pigments are
• a. blue-green b. red & blue
• c. green & red d. none of the
• [Link] nostoc protoplasm is differentiated into
• a. Chromoplasm and centroplasm b. chloroplast and nucleoplast
• c. Leucoplast & chloroplast d. none of them
• [Link] contains various pigments in which found
• a. Chlorophyll ‘a’ & phycocyanin b. chlorophyll ‘b’ & phycocyanin
• c. Chlorophyll ‘c’ & xanthophylls d. chlorophyll ‘a’ & xanthophylls
• [Link] ball like structure of nostoc is called
• a. Round b. coenobium
• c. Football d. coenocyte
• 53. A single filament of nostoc is called
• a. Filamentous b. layer
• c. trichome d. all of them
• 54. The large colourless or yellowish structure heterocyst is found in
• a. nostoc b. spirogyra
• c. Chlamydomonas d. volvox
• 55. In nostoc the place where nitrogen is fixed called
• a. centroplasm b. chromoplasm
• c. endocyst d. heterocyst
• 56. Hormogonia is a type of reproduction found in
• a. nostoc b. Ulothrix
• c. spirogyra d. Chlamydomonas
• 57. Which one is not a member of protoctista
• a. spirogyra b. Chlamydomonas
• c. euglena d. nostoc
• 58. Which one of the following show asexual reproduction seen in nostoc during unfavourable conditions
• a. hormogonia b. akinetes
• c. endospore d. zoospore
• 59. Chemosynthetic bacteria
• a. are autotroph b. use sunrays to acquire energy
• c. oxidize compounds to acquire energy d. both A & C
• 60. There are some bacteria which can survive in presence or absence of oxygen called
• a. obligate anaerobes Bacteria b. obligate aerobes Bacteria
• c. facultative anaerobes Bacteria d. facultative aerobes Bacteria
• 61. Bacteria move toward chemicals called
• a. chemotaxis b. phototactic
• c. thermotactic d. magnetotactic
• 62. Bacteria moves toward light called
• a. chemotaxis b. phototactic
• c. thermotactic d. magnetotactic
• 63. When bacteria detect earth magnetic field, the condition called
• a. chemotaxis b. phototactic
• c. thermotactic d. magnetotactic
• 64. Bacteria get food rapidly from environment through
• a. diffusion & active transport b. osmosis & diffusion
• c. osmosis & active transport d. phagocytosis & pinocytosis
• 65. Bacteria having single polar flagellum
• a. monotrichous b. amphitrichous
• c. atrichous d. peritrichous
• 66. The phases of growth in bacteria are
• a. 3 b. 4
• c. 5 d. 2
• 67. The phase in which bacteria prepare themselves for division is
• a. LOG phase b. stationary phase
• c. Decline phase d. LAG phase
• 68. The phase in which bacteria grow and multiply very rapidly is
• a. stationary phase b. decline phase
• c. LOG phase d. LAG phase
• 69. The phase in which bacterial multiplication is equal to death rate is called
• a. LAG phase b. Stationary phase
• c. decline phase d. LOG phase
• 70. The phase in which bacterial mortality rate increases than natality rate is
• a. LAG phase b. stationary phase
• c. decline phase d. LOG phase
• 71. Gram positive bacteria stained
• a. Purple b. pink
• c. Blue d. green
• 72. Gram negative bacteria stained.
• a. Purple b. pink
• c. Blue d. green