Politische Ikonographie 3/2010 - 1

Michael Ranta

Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art

During the last few decades, narratology has become also occur in implicit renderings of nature's and the
a growing field of interest within the humanities, most seasons' cyclic processes, of man's ontogenetic and
notably among literary analysts, linguists, and semioti­ phylogenetic development, of cultural and historic
cians who chiefly have focused upon verbal dis­ situations as related to other contexts or even the
courses, whether in written or oral form, though also present (i.e. the context in which the picture has been
on cinema films and television. However, the ability of created), and so on. Furthermore, in National Socialist
static pictures to represent actions and to narrate art, as in artworks from other historical periods, cer­
stories (or meta-stories) seems to have received much tainly also ideal actions or action structures are fre­
less attention in art theory contexts. 1
quently rendered, which, like those of general action
Thus in this presentation, I intend to approach sequences (or parts of action sequences), are based
some aspects of pictorial historical narration, more upon the cognitive demands and presuppositions of
specifically with regard to National Socialist art and its the intended beholders, although the mental repres­
implicit rendering of temporal and historical pro­ entations referred to in these cases involve goal-re­
cesses. Certainly in many artworks from that period a lated or normative ideals.
future orientation, towards an ideal political, social
and ethnic (or racial) state of affairs, seems to have
been prevalent, partially by rendering present states I
or actions pointing to or enhancing its fulfilment. How­
ever, the realization of this utopian state is frequently Within traditional art history, it is far from uncommon
supposed to receive its legitimacy by referring to an to treat artworks as symptomatic of a cultural climate
assumed historical (or rather mythologized) past, e.g. or a world view, that is, formulate statements sug­
Antiquity or the Middle Ages. Thus past, present and gested by the work in this respect. According to e.g.
future become to some extent interrelated, though still Erwin Panofsky, such a so-called iconological mea­
revealing a linear image of time considered to be uni­ ning level is “apprehended by ascertaining those un­
directional and irreversible. derlying principles which reveal the basic attitude of a
Now, pictorial narration, I believe, is frequently nation, a period, a class, a religious or philosophical
based upon the existence and activation of mentally persuasion – unconsciously qualified by one persona­
stored action and scene schemas on part of the be­ lity and condensed into one work…[T]hese principles
holders. These mental schemas are usually consti­ are manifested by…both ‘compositional methods’
tuted out of earlier experiences of action series and and ‘iconographical significance’.”2 Now, although
events, either due to the beholders' previously ac­ this iconological approach towards works of art is
quired, direct familiarity with them, or due to the be­ well-known and prominent among art historians, it
holders' acquaintance with written, oral, and of has not been accepted unanimously, but has been
course pictorial descriptions of certain events (e.g. re­ criticized for a number of reasons. Most notably, per­
ligious or mythological tales). Pictorial narration, we haps, the world view-concept (and its cognates) is not
might assume, consists of representing (more or less very precise and can be used in several senses. Thus
significant) components of action sequences familiar it cannot only overlap with (or result in) specific philo­
to the beholders, sometimes only by rendering a spe­ sophical doctrines, but also religious, epistemic, poli­
cific, arrested moment which can activate a wider, tical, moral or otherwise ideological convictions, inte­
mentally imagined event schema. Moreover, narrative rests and desires as well as patterns of behavior. Mo­
and temporal aspects in pictorial representations may reover, the term is not only applied to groups of per­
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 2

sons as well as periods and epochs, but sometimes other two (i.e. the past, the present, or the future). A
also to certain individuals. 3
future orientation seems to be predominant in Jewish,
Still, speaking in very loose terms, a world view Christian and modern Western societies. Perhaps
may, as suggested by the anthropologist Michael Ker­ most notable in this respect are societies influenced
ney, perhaps be outlined as a “way of looking at reali­ by Calvinist thinking with their underlying theory of
ty, [which] …consists of basic assumptions and predestination, that is, the doctrine that God has de­
images [i.e. mental representations] that provide a creed from eternity that part of mankind shall have
more or less coherent, though not necessarily accura­ eternal life and part eternal punishment (which our
te, way of thinking about the world.” 4 According to success, or lack of success, in this life is indicative
Kearney, in order to make any cross-cultural compari­ of). In many Latin American and Mediterranean socie­
sons of world views possible, it seems fruitful to esta­ ties, however, the future is apparently seen as quite
blish at least a minimal set of general characteristics uncertain and unreal; there the temporal focus seems
of any world view. He claims that we might distinguish to lie on the present. A strong orientation to the past
between at least four aspects or “diagnostic catego­ appears to have been manifested in traditional Chine­
ries” which should be taken into consideration. 5 (i) se culture as well as in Mormon societies (the latter
First, a necessary requirement for something to be a being concerned with the historical past of their religi­
world view is, apart from a conception of a “cosmic on and genealogy, i.e. their family trees).10
totality” or universe, the awareness and distinction Apart from such varying orientations to specific
between the Self and the Other, that is, the surroun­ areas of Time, there also seem to be different ways of
ding environment as well as other individuals. 6 (ii) Se­ looking at the process of time. In relatively simple,
cond, world views can be characterized by their ways preliterate societies, without any tradition of historio­
of categorizing reality. The process of classification, graphy, a tendency towards an oscillating image of
that is, naming objects and conceptually subsuming time appears to have been prevalent. 11 This means
them under larger more general groupings, appears to that time is regarded as something as a zig-zag
be a universal phenomenon in all societies, although, rhythm, swinging back and forth between recurrent
of course, a wide variety of classifications schemes events or states of affairs, such as night and day, the
exist.7 (iii) Third, a basic feature of any world view ap­ seasons, drought and flood, life and death or the suc­
pears to be the notion of causality, that is, the relati­ cession of generations, certain festivals and ceremo­
onship between acts or causes and their (desired) nies, and so on. Such an image of time has fre­
ends or effects. Although the very concept of causali­ quently, though somewhat misleadingly, been referred
ty seems to be a cross-culturally universal phenome­ to as a cyclical, completely repetitive sense of time. In
non, its concrete manifestations may of course vary few societies, if any, seems this very strict view, im­
considerably. For example, in societies or individuals plying no changes whatsoever, have been prevalent.
with a relatively weak distinction between the Self and On a higher level, it is of course also conceivable to
the Other, it is more likely that personal thoughts and think of the emergence, rise and fall of entire civilizati­
feelings are attributed to the external world, such as ons or societies in a similar oscillating way. A linear
will and volition as causes of events such as weather image of time, however, considers time to be unidi­
conditions or accidents. (iv) Forth, as suggested by
8
rectional and irreversible. Indicative of such a view is
Michael Kearney, the notions of Space and Time obviously the grammar of numerous Indo-European
might also be considered to be basic characteristics languages, where verbs in every sentence have to be
of world-views.9 In the present context, I intend to fo­ expressed in a tense, such as past, present and future
cus upon the temporal aspects which world views as (which actually is not the case in all languages). This
transmitted by works of art may imply or suggest, time image has been predominant in ancient Hebrew
more specifically in National Socialist art. and Christian societies, but perhaps most notably
According to Kearney, it seems that various cultu­ modern Western societies, with an especially well-de­
res put emphasis on one area of time rather than the veloped historiography. Quite obviously, a linear view
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 3

of time appears to be correlated or at least compati­ trology, women, dogs and I do not know what else...
ble with a future orientation of time. It should further almost any English person would accept ‘bully’ as a
be noted that oscillating and linear time images do synonym for ‘Fascist’.”14
not necessarily have to be mutually exclusive; both Also the historian Gilbert Allardyce, for example,
views seem to have been common in all societies, de­ launched in his article, “What Fascism is Not:
pending on the context – thus we probably should Thoughts on the Deflation of a Concept” from 1979, a
conceive them as a matter of prevalence or degree vehement attack on the use of the term by postwar
rather than a matter of kind. 12
historiography. Certainly, so he claims, it should not
be used as a generic concept applicable to political
movements beyond Mussolini’s Italy.15
II However, since the 1990’s an increasing con­
sensus concerning the use of “fascism” seems to
Now, which views of temporality or historical progress have been emerging among some political scientists
seem to have been prevalent within National Socialist and historians such as e.g. Robert Paxton, Stanley
or, if we may generalize, fascist world views? First of Payne, Roger Eatwell and Roger Griffin. 16 According to
all, we may note that it has sometimes been claimed their point of view, this concept may very well be stip­
that the term “fascism”, stemming from the Italian ulated as a generic one with certain core tenets, at
term “Fascismo”, should be restricted to the specific least for pragmatic and comparative reasons. Perhaps
national form of “authoritarian” or “totalitarian” regime attempts to find a definition of that concept by finding
or political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to essential, i.e. necessary and jointly sufficient condi­
1943 under Mussolini's leadership. Some scholars tions for something to be a member of that category
have argued that there are substantial differences might be unsuccessful (just as in the case of many
between Italian fascism, German National Socialism other concepts, such as e.g. the concept of “art”!).
and other varieties of ‘fascist’ movements. 13
In Italy, However, many categories, psychologically speaking,
for example, several centers of power existed side by are not experienced as having clear-cut boundaries,
side during that period, such as the military, the Cath­ but rather as possessing a graded structure. This
olic Church and the bureaucratic apparatus, and the means that there are certain category members who
monarchy was actually not formally abolished before are experienced as cognitive reference points (or the
1946. Moreover, the National Socialist movement clearest cases of category membership), while other
seems to have put much stronger emphasis on racial members gradually deviate from them, although they
issues than its Italian counterpart. Apart from pointing still belong to the category in question. In other
to such differences between various totalitarian move­ words, categories are formed around their most rep­
ments, also outside Italy and Germany, some scholars resentative instances, which have something like a
have also stressed the frequent use of the term “fas­ prototypical character. The more attributes an item
cism” as an epithet, as a value-laden, derogatory ex­ shares with other members in a category, and the
pression, devoid of any substantial or explanatory fewer attributes it shares with members of contrast
meaning. Actually very few political groups would categories, the higher is its degree of family resemb­
nowadays call themselves “fascist”, at least not expli­ lance (in a Wittgensteinian sense) and thus typicality
citly. And as already George Orwell wrote in 1944: supposed to be.17 A similar line of reasoning might
“...the word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely meaningless. certainly also be applicable to the concept of “fas­
In conversation, of course, it is used even more wildly cism”.
than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers, shop­ Although numerous differences among various
keepers, Social Credit, corporal punishment, fox- forms of authoritarian movements can be discerned,
hunting, bull-fighting, the 1922 Committee, the 1941 there still seems to exist a cluster of similar constitu­
Committee, Kipling, Gandhi, Chiang Kai-Shek, homo­ ents among some of them which are said to justify
sexuality, Priestley's broadcasts, Youth Hostels, as­ subsuming them under the concept “fascism”. Some
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 4

candidates in this respect are, for example, the follo­ which justifies any action against the group’s en­
wing ones: emies, internal as well as external.
- Anticommunism […]
- Antiliberalism 5. An enhanced sense of identity and belonging, in
- Anticonservatism (i.e. against tradition, preservation which the grandeur of the group reinforces individual
and/or gradual change, though temporary alliances self-esteem.
with conservative groups may occur) […]
- Antimodernism 7. The beauty of violence and of will, when they are
- Antirationalism devoted to the group’s success in a Darwinian
- Creation of a new nationalist authoritarian state not struggle.”19
based on traditional models or principles Social Darwinism undoubtedly played an important
- Positive evaluation of and willingness to use viol­ role in fascist thinking. First, a hierarchical, evolutiona­
ence and war ry chain is stressed: neither are humans born equal,
- Social Darwinism nor are they essentially rational. In nature man was
- Emphasis on the aesthetic structure of meetings, fundamentally a savage until being civilized by power­
symbols, and political liturgy, stressing emotional and ful leaders; man needed to be bonded within a new
mystical aspects community, having a less materialistic set of goals. A
- Extreme stress on the masculine principle and domi­ traditional, male-dominated family would be at its
nance core, although also strong emphasis is put on youth
- A specific tendency towards an authoritarian, charis­ and its organizations, thus somewhat undermining the
matic style of command or leadership18 autonomy of the family. Thus fascism sought to re­
construct man, not least in a more martial and ag­
All these core tenets of fascism have of course been gressive way.
given various degrees of emphasis in different fascist Second, the Darwinian idea of evolution as survival
movements or do not even necessarily always occur of the fittest was applied to society and history in gen­
side by side. Many scholars have also stressed fas­ eral. Furthermore, fascist views on historical changes
cism’s ideological or theoretical incoherence and the could perhaps be understood as a cyclical or oscillat­
lack of “great texts” – compared to, for example, ing view on temporality. Thus, seemingly in contradis­
Marxism – and the great variety of its practical mani­ tinction to liberal or Marxist linear views on history as
festations. Still, although these aspects or features do a progressive development, fascism thought of his­
not provide necessary and sufficient conditions for tory as an unending struggle of groups and civiliza­
the concept “fascism”, and thus are not all-inclusive, tions which rose and fell with frequent regularity. His­
they certainly hint at some characteristics which fre­ tory certainly supported Darwinian biological laws and
quently are associated with the core of this concept. taught a whole series of sociological lessons. The fall
Its theoretical weakness and heterogeneity certainly of ancient Rome was by Italian fascists considered as
stems from its generally anti-intellectual approach, its an important example of how decadence and lack of
focus upon activity, and its emphasis on feelings or discipline led to the domination by people having
“mobilizing passions”. Some of these mobilizing pas­ more strength and energy, despite being less sophist­
sions – which function in fascist movements to recruit icated and more primitive. In order to shape destiny
followers and “weld” its followers to its leader - can, and bring about significant changes a political elite
as suggested by Robert Paxton, perhaps be outlined consisting of extraordinary men exercising power and
as follows: vision would be needed. 20
“1. The primacy of the group, toward which one has However, to treat fascist thinking as a completely
duties superior to every right, whether universal or in­ fatalist cyclical philosophy would be somewhat mis­
dividual. leading. Roger Griffin’s work on fascism as a generic
2. The belief that one’s group is a victim, a sentiment concept has by numerous scholars been described as
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 5

one of the conceptually and methodologically most III

sophisticated approaches in fascist studies. Accord­
ing to Griffin, we might very well characterize a “fas­
cist minimum” as “palingenetic populist ultra-national­ Now, I would like to show some examples of how this
ism”.21 The term “palingenesis” stems, etymologically line of thinking seems to have been manifested in fas­
seen, from the Greek terms “palin” (again, anew) and cist art, more specifically in National Socialist art
“genesis” (creation, birth) and is used by Griffin as re­ which more outspokenly than in Fascist Italy seems to
ferring to a core myth within fascist thinking. The idea have expressed some kind of palingenetic ultra-na­
of renewal, rebirth or regeneration is of course by no tionalism. In Italy, the regime’s policy regarding high
means peculiar to fascism, but also essential within culture remained rather ambivalent. No clearly defined
Christianity, most notably with the resurrection of Je­ ‘state art’ was set out, and the cultural situation then
sus Christ himself, the Renaissance view on the was more pluralistic, although numerous examples
West’s cultural history, Marxist thinking, just to men­ can be found which are in line with fascist thinking as
tion a few examples. And as an archetype myth it is here outlined. 23
In the Third Reich, however, the artist­
not even restricted to the Western world. Certainly, as ic production was more strictly regulated, not least
Griffin claims, the idea of and striving for a new birth due to Hitler’s own personal dedication to the arts
occurring after a period of perceived decadence lies and to architecture. National Socialism’s aversion to­
at the heart of fascism. The term “populist ultra-na­ wards modernist art was at first not self-evident. As
tionalism” is referred to as a very specific sub-cat­ late as 1934 the minister of propaganda, Joseph
egory of “nationalism”. First, fascist movements de­ Goebbels, proclaimed that art also in a National So­
pend, even if they are led by small elites, in practice cialist state should be free from any restrictions, and
or in principle on the support of the public or larger he praised the sound intentions of expressionism, as
groups of people. Second, they reject anything com­ a truly innovative German art.24 However, not least be­
patible with liberal institutions or pluralist representat­ cause of Hitler’s personal intervention, this situation
ive governments, they favor prevalently charismatic changed, most notably in 1937 when an exhibition
forms of politics, and they endorse a concept of the with “Aryan/German” art was shown in Munich, simul­
nation as a “higher” racial, historical spiritual or organ­ taneously with a counter-exhibition under the heading
ic reality which includes all the members of ethnical “Entartete Kunst” (degenerated art) which represented
community who belong to it. Fascism’s mobilizing vis­ artists such as Pablo Picasso, Wassily Kandinsky,
ion is that of the national community rising phoenix- Paul Cézanne, Marc Chagall, Emil Nolde, Edward
like after a period of intruding decadence which all but Munch, Paul Gauguin, Oskar Kokoschka, just to men­
destroyed it. tion some few examples. According to Hitler, art
Although a palingenetic political myth could be in­ should be easily recognizable and interpretable; it
terpreted as a backward-looking nostalgia for a res­ should be realistic and non-problematic. Goebbels
toration of the past, the repetition of the same, it later on required art as a political uplifting means of
would be a mistake, according to Roger Eatwell, to showing a social utopia, as promising and inspiring.
simplify fascist thinking as endorsing a strictly cyclical As a consequence of this new policy, the possibilities
view on historical changes. Indeed, the palingenetic
22
of artists to work and to exhibit their works became
vision embraces the idea of revolutionary progress, strictly regulated or rather repressed. Modernist art
and the new order will be created within a linear his­ was rejected as non-Aryan, Jewish, Bolshevist, as de­
torical time. The past, as e.g. Ancient Rome (Mus­ generate art which reflected a degenerate society and
solini) or the Holy Roman Empire (Hitler), may be racial conditions which certainly were incompatible
looked at with great sympathy and as giving guidance with the National Socialist utopia. Hitler’s inauguration
for the current political program - its exact reproduc­ speech at the House of German Art in July 1937 may
tion, though, is by no means fascism’s goal. be put forward as a clear illustration of this line of
thinking:
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 6

“ […A]nd what do you fabricate? Deformed to render ideal ‘Aryan’ men and women is, ideologic­
cripples and cretins, women who inspire nothing ally speaking, far from being inoffensive, but indeed
but disgust, human beings that are closer to an­ implies an extremely contemptuous view on humans
imals than human beings, children who, if they deviating from this ‘racial’ standard.27
would live like this, could be nothing than a Now, although National Socialist art hardly can be
curse of God! And these cruelest of dilettantes claimed to be completely homogeneous, there are
dare to present this to today’s world as the art common denominators and inspirational sources, as
of our time, i.e. as the expression of what our required by the regime, such as antiquity, neoclassi­
time produces and of what gives it its stamp. cism, romanticism and salon and history painting from
Let no one say these artists see it like this. the 19th century. Many of the painters who received
Among the paintings submitted for this exhibi­ official commissions belonged to an older generation
tion I have seen some works, that would actually having been active long before 1933, but whose
lead us to believe that there are people who see works had become more or less obsolete during the
things differently than they are, i.e. that there rise of the avant-gardes. Common for them was per­
really are men who see the present-day shapes haps most notably the rejection of Modernist abstrac­
of our people only as degenerate cretins, who tion and non-figurative art. Prevalent influences came
fundamentally perceive, or, as they would say, from Italian and Flemish painting of the 16th and 17th
experience meadows as blue, skies as green, centuries, German renaissance painters (such as Al­
and clouds as sulphur yellow... [But] in the name brecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach, Albrecht Altdorfer), and
of the German people, I […] mean to forbid not least German painting from the 19th century (e.g.
these pitiable unfortunates, who clearly suffer Carl Spitzweg, Caspar David Friedrich, Hans von
from visual disorders, from attempting to force Marées, Hans Thoma), who were especially admired
the results of their defective vision of the world by Hitler himself.28
onto their fellow human beings as reality or, in­ According to official ideology, art should be easy
deed, from presenting it as ‘art’ ”.25 understandable and ‘realistic’, a means of expressing
Perhaps some of the most repulsive examples which the (timeless) German essence and racial superiority
should illustrate the decadence and degeneration of as well as forecasting a political and social utopia.
modernist art may be found in the work Kunst und Everyday life is usually rendered in a non-problematic
Rasse (Art and Race), published by the architect Paul and idyllic way. Humans seem to live in a preindustrial
Schultze-Naumburg in 1928, in which he argued that society, a cultural environment consisting of crafts­
only "racially pure" artists could produce a healthy art men and peasants with close contact to nature and
which upheld timeless ideals of classical beauty, while within an ‘unspoiled’ social order (see illustrations 2
racially "mixed" modern artists evidenced their inferi­ and 3).29 About 20% of the paintings produced before
ority and corruption by producing distorted artwork. 1939 were actually showing idyllic renderings of coun­
As evidence of this, he reproduced examples of Mod­ try life (see illustration 4). 30 Other groups of artworks
ernist art next to photographs of people with deform­ consisted of topics taken from ancient mythology,
ities and diseases, graphically reinforcing the idea of such as Leda and the swan, Prometheus, Diana etc,
modernism as some kind of sickness (see illustration rendered in a usually simplified and unsophisticated
1).26 Undoubtedly, a juxtaposition such as this clearly classicist manner (see illustration 5).31 Male and espe­
reveals and exemplifies the contemptuous, indeed ag­ cially female nudes were quite prominent, showing
gressive, and in my view certainly repugnant attitude idealized and racially superior human beings. Men are
held among National Socialist representatives to­ frequently depicted as heroic and muscular, women
wards people considered to be weak, mentally ill, or as sexually attractive and potentially reproductive,
racially inferior – and towards art seen as symptomat­ sometimes with as quasi-pornographic appearance,
ic of such ‘defects’. Moreover, this illustration might or as mothers, as preservers of the race (see illustra­
also help to show that National Socialist art intended tions 6, 7, and 8).32 Another category of paintings was
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 7

concerned with family life, usually rendering small clearly might be regarded as having given expression
families indicating a feeling of social comfort and to a certain world view as outlined above, more speci­
solidarity (see illustration 9).33 Numerous works dealt fically to a view on (ideal) historical change as a linear
with large scale architectural and industrial projects, progress which is in line with the idea of palingenetic
such as construction sites of ‘autobahn’ bridges and ultra-nationalism. The past, a pre-industrial way of life,
motorways, industrial facilities, and monumental offi­ is rendered as an idyllic world functioning as a (time­
cial buildings, thereby hinting at a grandiose future less) source of inspiration for the future; racially per­
which had yet to come, but which certainly was in fect men and women are depicted, partially stemming
progress. The absence of individuals with identifiable from an ideal ancient past. Still, these renderings are
working tasks, rather than the implicit or explicit visu­ seemingly not intended to suggest the exact repro­
alization of collective activities, is striking, as well as duction or restoration of the past; rather, they point to
the sometimes occurring anachronistic use of prein­ the ongoing as well as future sanitation and beautifi­
dustrial working aids, such as shovels or horses with cation of the German race and homeland. Renderings
carriages (see illustrations 10, 11, and 12). 34
After of construction projects and war scenes show us fur­
1939, the production of art with military topics in­ thermore that this historical and political development
creased, also indicating Germany’s struggle for vic­ is in progress. The past may very well have had nu­
tory and its endeavors to accomplish a political merous advantages compared to the ‘decadent and
change. However, far from only emphasizing the inferior present’, as experienced by National Socia­
heroic aspects of military life, many works stressed lists - but indeed, the really ‘perfect world’ had yet to
the comradeship of the soldiers as well as the horrors come...
of war (see illustrations 13 and 14).35 One last group
of artworks which deserves mentioning consists, not
surprisingly, of portraits and idealizing depictions of
party officials, not least Hitler himself (see illustration
15).36
In summing up, then, we might thus distinguish bet­
ween some main groups of artworks produced and
officially sanctioned between 1933 and 1945, having
the following topics:
1. Landscapes, showing the beauty and ‘eternal’ es­
sence of the German homeland
2. The simple, idyllic life of peasants and craftsmen
3. The security and comfort provided by the family
4. Workers in a pre-industrial society
5. Women as mothers or sexually reproductive, pre­
servers of the race
6. Racially worthy (Nordic, Aryan) humans, sometimes
from a (mythologized) ancient/antique past
7. Construction sites (e.g. of high ways, bridges, [ad­
ministrative] buildings)
8. Party officials (not least Hitler himself)
9. War scenes, often idealizing the comradeship and
(heroic) death of soldiers.

Now, in concluding this article, I would like to claim

that National Socialist art as here described, quite
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 8

Illustration 1: Examples of Modernist painting juxtaposed to photo­

graphs of deformed or diseased persons (Paul Schultze-Naumburg,:
“Kunst und Rasse“, 1928)

Illustration 2: Sepp Hilz, “Peasant Trilogy – Cornucopia” (c. 1941)

Illustration 3: Karl Mader, “Harvesters resting” (date unknown)"

Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 9

Illustration 4: Werner Peiner, “Autumn Countryside in the Eifel” (date

unknown)

Illustration 6: Paul Mathias Padua, “Leda and the Swan” (1936)

Illustration 5: Ivo Saliger, “The Judgment of Paris” (date unknown)

Illustration 7: Fritz Mackensen, “Baby (at the breast)” (date unknown)

Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 10

Illustration 10: Paul Herrmann, “Extension Work on the new Reich

Chancellery
in Berlin” (1938)

Illustration 8: Josef Thorak, “Comradeship” (German pavilion at the

Paris World Fair 1937)

Illustration 11: Rud. Schwarz, “Construction” (date unknown)

Illustration 9: Heinrich Pforr: “Under the Lamp” (date unknown)

Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 11

Illustration 14: Paul Mathias Padua, “May 10 1940” (date unknown)

Illustration 12: Ferdinand Staeger, “Labour Service” (date unknown)

Illustration 15: Hubert Lanzinger, “Portrait of Hitler as the ‘Protector of

German art’ “ (date unknown)

Illustration 13: Reinhold Launer, “Comrades” (date unknown)

Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 12

Endnotes References

1. This article is a revised version of a paper given at the annual Ades, Dawn; Elliott, David; Benton, Tim; Whyte, Ian Boyd & Hobs­
conference of the NORDIC SOCIETY OF AESTHETICS, ”Aesthe­ bawn, E. J. (eds.): ”Art and Power: Europe Under the Dictators 1930-
tics and the Aesthetic: Historical and Contemporary Perspecti­ 45”, London: Thames & Hudson, 1995
ves”, May 29th to June 1st 2008, Uppsala, Sweden.
2. Panofsky (1962), p. 7. Brantl, Sabine; Gaβner, Hubertus & Schwenk, Bernhart: “Haus der
3. Cf. Hermerén (1969), p.134 ff. Kunst 1937-1997 – Eine historische Dokumentation”, München: Haus
4. Kearney (1984), p. 41. der Kunst München, 1997
5. Ibid., pp. 65 - 68.
6. Ibid., pp. 68 - 78. Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland 1933-1945 – Eine wis­
7. Ibid., pp. 78 – 84. senschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 1:
8. Ibid., pp. 84 – 89. Skulpturen”, Tübingen: Grabert Verlag, 1988
9. Ibid., pp. 89 - 106.
10. Ibid., pp. 95 – 97. Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland 1933-1945 – Eine wis­
11. Such an image of time has frequently, though somewhat mislea­ senschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1:
dingly, been referred to as a cyclical, completely repetitive sense Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert Verlag, 1991
of time. In few societies, if any, seems this very strict view, imply­
ing no changes whatsoever, have been prevalent. Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland 1933-1945 – Eine wis­
12. Ibid., pp. 99 – 102. senschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 2/2:
13. Cf. Kallis (2003), pp. 45 – 56, pp. 191 – 248; Stanley G. Payne, A Malerei R-Z”, Tübingen: Grabert Verlag, 1992
History of Fascism 1914 – 1945; London: UCL Press, 1995, pp.
441 – 61 (reprinted in Griffin & Feldman [2004], pp. 55 – 75). Eatwell, Roger: “Towards a New Model of Generic Fascism”, Journal
14. George Orwell, ’As I Please’ 17 [What is Fascism?], Tribune, 24 of Theoretical Politics, vol. 4, pp. 161 – 94, 1992
March 1944 (reprinted in Griffin & Feldman [2004], p. 51)
15. Gilbert Allardyce, ”What Fascism is Not: Thoughts on the Deflati­ Eatwell, Roger: “On Defining the ‘Fascist Minimum’ “ – The Centrality
on of a Concept”, American Historical Review, 84 (1979) pp. 367 of Ideology”, Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 1, pp. 303 – 19,
– 398; partly reprinted in Kallis (2003), pp. 49 - 56 1996a
16. Cf. Paxton (1998), Payne (1995), Eatwell (1992, 1996a, 1996b),
Griffin (1993), Griffin & Feldman (2004). Eatwell, Roger: “Fascism – A History”, London: Vintage, 1996b
17. Research within cognitive psychology seems to suggest that nu­
merous common taxonomic categories are acquired after en­ Griffin, Roger: “The Nature of Fascism”, London: Routledge, 1993
countering several particular instances of the category in questi­
on, after which relevant characteristics are extracted and integra­ “Fascism – Critical Concepts in Political Science, vol. 1 (The Nature of
ted into category knowledge. Put in another way, categories are Fascism)”,Griffin, Roger & Feldman, Matthew (eds.), London/New
formed around their most representative instances, so-called York: Routledge, 2004
prototypes. Moreover, Wittgenstein's notion of family resemblan­
ces may be treated as a general psychological principle of cate­ Hermerén, Göran: “Representation and Meaning in the Visual Arts - A
gory formation: "...[M]embers of a category come to be viewed Study in the Methodology of Iconography and Iconology”, Lund:
as prototypical of the category as a whole in proportion to the Scandinavian University Books/Läromedelsförlagen, 1969
extent to which they bear a family resemblance to (have attribu­
tes which overlap those of) other members of the category. Con­ “The Fascism Reader”,Kallis, Aristotle A. (ed.), London: Routledge,
versely, items viewed as most prototypical of one category will 2003
be those with least family resemblance to or membership in
other categories" (Rosch & Mervis [1975], p. 575). Cf. also Rosch Kearney, Michael: “World View”, Novato, Calif.: Chandler & Sharp Pu­
(1975, 1994); Rosch & Mervis (1975), Rosch & Lloyd (1978), Ran­ blishers, 1984
ta (2000), pp. 187-207, (2007).
18. Cf. Payne (1980): ”Fascism as a ’Generic’ Concept”, reprinted in Panofsky, Erwin: “Studies in Iconology – Humanistic Themes in the
Kallis (2003), pp. 82 – 88. Art of the Renaissance”, New York: Harper Torchbooks, (1939) 1962
19. Paxton (1998), reprinted in Griffin & Feldman (2004), p. 308.
20. Cf. Eatwell (1992), reprinted in Kallis (2003), p. 74f. Paxton, Robert O.: “The Five Stages of Fascism”, Journal of Modern
21. See e.g.. Griffin (1993), pp. 32 - 39, reprinted in Kallis (2003), pp. History, vol. 70, pp. 1 – 23, 1998
174 – 181.
22. Cf. Eatwell (1992), reprinted in Kallis (2003), p. 74. Payne, Stanley G.: “A History of Fascism 1914 – 1945”, London: UCL
23. For an overview, see e.g. Ades et al. (1995), pp. 130 – 136. Press, 1995
24. Cf. ibid., p. 271; Davidson (1988), pp. 9ff.
25. My translation. Original printed in Völkischer Beobachter , No. Ranta, Michael: “Mimesis as the Representation of Types - The Histo­
200, 19.7. 1937; reprinted in e.g. Brantl et al. (1997), p. 83. rical and Psychological Basis of an Aesthetic Idea“ (diss., Stockholm:
26. Illustration from Schultze-Naumburg (1928), p. 98f. Stockholm University, ISBN 91-7265-049-4), 2000
27. I would like to emphasize that I had considerable doubts as to
the inclusion of this illustration into this paper, not least for ethi­ Ranta, Michael: “Implied World Views in Pictures: Reflections from a
cal reasons. However, my decision is based upon the epistemic Cognitive Psychological and Anthropological Point of View”, Contem­
value it might have for the reader as an artistic and ideological porary Aesthetics, vol. 5, 2007
counterexample of what National Socialist art was supposed to ([Link]
endorse. But I would certainly like to distance myself from any
evaluative, ethical or otherwise ideological standpoints implied in Rosch, Eleanor: “Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories”,
this illustration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 104, pp. 192 - 233,
28. Cf. Davidson (1991), p. 30f. 1975
29. Illustrations from ibid., pictures 559, 840.
30. Ibid., p. 32. Illustration from ibid., picture 970. Rosch, Eleanor: “Categorization”, Encyclopedia of Human Behavior,
31. Illustration from Davidson (1992), picture 1148. vol. 1, Academic Press, Inc., pp. 513 - 523, 1994
32. Illustrations 6 and 7 from Davidson (1991), pictures 936, 839. Il­
lustration 8 from Davidson (1988), picture not numbered. Rosch, Eleanor & Mervis, Carolyn B.: “Family Resemblances: Studies
33. Illustration from Davidson (1991), picture 1050. in the Internal Structure of Categories”, Cognitive Psychology, vol. 7,
34. Illustration 10 from ibid., picture 553. Illustrations 11 and 12 from pp. 573 - 605, 1975
Davidson (1992), pictures 1253 and 1323.
35. Davidson (1991), p. 34. Illustrations from ibid., pictures 782 and “Cognition and Categorization”,Rosch, Eleanor & Lloyd, Barbara B.
938. (eds.), Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publis­
36. Illustration from ibid., picture 781. hers, 1978
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 13

Schultze-Naumburg, Paul: “Kunst und Rasse“, München: J. F. Leh­ Illustration 12: Ferdinand Staeger, “Labour Service” (date un­
manns Verlag, 1928 known). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland
1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst
Illustrations im Dritten Reich, Band 2/2: Malerei R-Z”, Tübingen: Grabert
Verlag, 1992; picture 1323.
Illustration 1: Examples of Modernist painting juxtaposed to
Illustration 13: Reinhold Launer, “Comrades” (date
photographs of deformed or diseased persons. From Schult­
unknown). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutsch­
ze-Naumburg, Paul: “Kunst und Rasse“, München: J. F. Leh­
land 1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der
manns Verlag, 1928, p. 98f.
Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen:
Grabert Verlag, 1991; picture 782.
Illustration 2: Sepp Hilz, “Peasant Trilogy – Cornucopia” (c.
1941). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland
Illustration 14: Paul Mathias Padua, “May 10 1940” (date un­
1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst
known). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland
im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert
1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst
Verlag, 1991; picture 559.
im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert
Verlag, 1991; picture 938.
Illustration 3: Karl Mader, “Harvesters resting” (date un­
known). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland
Illustration 15: Hubert Lanzinger, “Portrait of Hitler as the
1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst
‘Protector of German art’ “ (date unknown). From Davidson,
im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert
Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland 1933-1945 – Eine wis­
Verlag, 1991; picture 840.
senschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst im Dritten Reich,
Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert Verlag, 1991; pic­
Illustration 4: Werner Peiner, “Autumn Countryside in the Ei­
ture 781.
fel” (date unknown). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in
Deutschland 1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopä­
die der Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tü­
bingen: Grabert Verlag, 1991; picture 970.
Summary
Illustration 5: Ivo Saliger, “The Judgment of Paris” (date un­
known). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland
1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst In this paper, I intend to outline and discuss some
im Dritten Reich, Band 2/2: Malerei R-Z”, Tübingen: Grabert
Verlag, 1992; picture 1148.
aspects of pictorial historical narration, more specifi­
cally with regard to National Socialist art and its impli­
Illustration 6: Paul Mathias Padua, “Leda and the Swan”
(1936). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland
cit rendering of temporal and historical processes.
1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst Certainly in many artworks from that period a future
im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert
Verlag, 1991; picture 936. orientation, towards an ideal political, social and eth­
nic (or racial) state of affairs, seems to have been pre­
Illustration 7: Fritz Mackensen, “Baby (at the breast)” (date
unknown). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutsch­ valent, partially by rendering present states or actions
land 1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der pointing to or enhancing its fulfilment. Still, the realiza­
Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen:
Grabert Verlag, 1991; picture 839. tion of this utopian state is frequently supposed to re­
ceive its legitimacy by referring to an assumed, more
Illustration 8: Josef Thorak, “Comradeship” (German pavilion
at the Paris World Fair 1937). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: or less constructed historical past, e.g. Antiquity or
“Kunst in Deutschland 1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche the Middle Ages. Hence past, present and future be­
Enzyklopädie der Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 1: Skulptu­
ren”, Tübingen: Grabert Verlag, 1988; picture not numbered. come to some extent fused, though revealing a linear
image of time considered to be unidirectional and irre­
Illustration 9: Heinrich Pforr: “Under the Lamp” (date un­
known). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland versible. Influenced by e.g. the works of Roger Griffin,
1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst I shall suggest that fascism, of which National Socia­
im Dritten Reich, Band 2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert
Verlag, 1991; picture 1050. lism can be seen as a subcategory, might be circums­
cribed as some kind of ‘palingenetic populist ultra-na­
Illustration 10: Paul Herrmann, “Extension Work on the new
Reich Chancellery in Berlin” (1938). From Davidson, Morti­ tionalism’. Officially sanctioned art produced during
mer G.: “Kunst in Deutschland 1933-1945 – Eine wissen­ the Third Reich seems, as I will attempt to show in
schaftliche Enzyklopädie der Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band
2/1: Malerei A-P”, Tübingen: Grabert Verlag, 1991; picture concluding this paper, to be in line with the idea of
553. palingenetic populist ultra-nationalism.
Illustration 11: Rud. Schwarz, “Construction” (date Although I have attempted to treat and examine these
unknown). From Davidson, Mortimer G.: “Kunst in Deutsch­ topics as value neutral and ‘clinical’ as possible
land 1933-1945 – Eine wissenschaftliche Enzyklopädie der
Kunst im Dritten Reich, Band 2/2: Malerei R-Z”, Tübingen: (which probably is required by a serious academic pa­
Grabert Verlag, 1992; picture 1253.
Michael Ranta Narrativity and Historicism in National Socialist Art [Link] 3/2010 - 14

per), this should by no means be interpreted as an Title

(implicit) attempt to legitimize National Socialist ideo­
logy. My aim is certainly not to belittle or palliate the Michael Ranta, Narrativity and Historicism in National
seriousness of the matter, nor indeed the actual atro­ Socialist Art, in: [Link], Politische Ikonogra­
cities committed by the Nazi regime and its followers. phie, Nr. 3, 2010 (14 Seiten), [Link].
Neither should the quite repugnant and despicable
implications of National Socialist ideology in its cultu­
ral manifestations, such as in works of art, be undere­
stimated. Thus I, as the author, clearly wish to distan­
ce myself from any of the standpoints put forward by
various representatives of National Socialist thinking,
as here outlined.

Author

Michael Ranta holds a Ph.D. in the History of Art from

Stockholm University and is living in Stockholm, Swe­
den. Achievements include research in cognitive psy­
chology, art history, and aesthetics. His publications
include academic writings on aesthetic and art histori­
cal issues as well as art criticism. Major publications:
“Mimesis as the Representation of Types - The Histo­
rical and Psychological Basis of an Aesthetic Idea“
(diss., Stockholm 2000; ISBN 91-7265-049-4)
- “Theories and Observations in the History of Art - A
Comment on a Central Issue within the Philosophy of
Science“ (Konsthistorisk tidskrift , 1-2/2001)
- “Categorization Research and the Concept of Art -
An Empirical and Psychological Approach“ (Nordisk
estetik tidskrift/ Journal of Nordic Aesthetics, 25-
26/2002)
- "Narrativity and Time in Static Pictures" (Congress
Anthology: XVth International Congress of Aesthetics,
Tokyo/Japan, 2001/2002)
- ”Implied World Views in Pictures: Reflections from a
Cognitive Psychological and Anthropological Point of
View”, Contemporary Aesthetics, vol. 5, 2007
([Link]
ges/[Link])
- “Art, Narratives, and Morality – Is Kokoschka’s The
Prometheus Triptych a ‘Good’ Work of Art?” (Con­
gress Anthology: XIIth International Congress of Aes­
thetics, Ankara, Turkey, 2007)