Indian Landscape

UNIT 2 INDIAN LANDSCAPE

Structure

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Physical Features
2.1.1 The Himalayas
2.1.2 The Plains of Northern India
2.1.3 The Indian Plateau
2.1.4 The Coastal Lowlands
2.2 Vegetation
2.3 Soils
2.4 Perceptions of Landscape
2.5 Summary
2.6 Exercises
2.7 Suggested Reading

2.0 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed in the preceding Unit the contours of nature-human
relationship in the historical context and have found that a detailed
understanding of the Indian landscape is an inescapable [Link]
therefore intend to familiarise you, in the present Unit, with the Indian
Landscape and discuss in detail the complexity of the relationship that
exists between physiographic features of a place and its society. The
focus here is on the evolution of settlement patterns in India and the
emergence of ecologically sensitive zones.

India is a vast geographical region and assumes the scale of a sub-

continent. It has diverse climatic and bio-geographic features sustaining
a wide pattern of human [Link] patterns of living, material
culture and consumption behaviour of these settlements differ in response
to diverse ecological [Link] is therefore, worthwhile to examine the
landscape features in India in relation to patterns of human settlements.

2.1 PHYSICAL FEATURES

A detailed description of the physical features of India will enable you
to understand better the visible differences in the topography of the
different parts of the [Link] will also help you see the underlying
environmental factors that also determine the relationship between the
physical geography of any region and its settlement [Link] location
and expanse of India’s landforms (plains, plateaus, hills and mountains)
have played a significant role in influencing her past [Link]
associated features such as climate, land-use, means of transportation,
distribution of population, etc. directly relate to history the study of
physical features in relation to man and his needs is vital.
17
Studying Ecology & India can be divided into the following four major physiographic divisions:
Environment:
An Introduction
l A high mountain barrier formed by the Himalayas in the north and the
Eastern Highlands in the east;
l The Plains of Northern India or the Ganga-Yamuna Doab;

l The Plains of Peninsular India, south of the North Indian plains, also
known as the Indian Plateau; and

l The Coastal Lowlands fringing the Plateau of Peninsular India.

These four regions are distinctly different from one another in respect
of their surface configuration. The Himalayas are young fold mountains
with great rise, highly uneven surface, very steep slopes, little level land
and young river valleys. Against that Peninsular India is an old shield
block having plain areas, relict mountains and old river valleys. The
Plains of Northern India are flat and alluvial without much local relief
except bluffs of the old banks of the rivers and are of recent origin. The
Coastal Lowlands are flat with deltas and land generally rolling.

2.1.1 The Himalayas

The Himalayas form a highly rugged and continuous stretch of high
mountainous country, which flanks northern India for a considerable
length and runs from the Brahmaputra gorge in the east to the Indus in
the west. They cover an area of nearly 2,500 km. in length and 150 to
400 km. in width. Rising abruptly from the plains, the Himalayas rest
against Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir and the Tibetan Plateau in
the form of an arc-like rim. They are one of the youngest fold mountains
on the earth. Uplift of the Himalayas, at irregular intervals has helped
rejuvenate the [Link] Himalayas exhibit practically all those land
forms which develop when strata is intensely folded. However,
intermontane plateaus and large-sized basins are conspicuously absent
in these intensely folded mountains. The Vale of Kashmir, about 135
km. long and 40 km. broad, is the only large level strip of land in the
Himalayas. In general, the Himalayas consist of three main ranges – the
Siwalik Range along the southern margin, the Great Himalaya along the
Tibetan border and in between these two is the Lesser Himalaya.
Additionally there is a range in the east known as the Eastern Highlands.

The Siwalik Range

This range has low parallel ridges made up mainly of boulder and clay
and these ridges are the foot-hills of the Himalayas. From a breadth of
nearly 50 km. in the west, it narrows gradually towards east and loses its
identity in the Bengal Duars. The height of these ridges usually does not
exceed 1,220 [Link] of these ridges had formed after the formation
of the Himalayas, thus they obstructed the courses of the rivers draining
to the south and west and created temporary lakes in which debris brought
by those rivers was deposited. As the rivers had cut their courses through
the Siwalik Range, the lakes were drained leaving behind plains called
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Duns. One such plain formed as a result of the draining of lakes is Indian Landscape
Dehra Dun (600 metres above sea-level), in Uttaranchal.

The Lesser Himalaya

These ranges rise north of the Siwalik Range and being deeply cut by
rivers are highly rugged and ill [Link] are more clearly defined in
their expanse towards west where they are known as the Dhaola Dhar,
the Pir Panjal and Nag Tiba. The Mahabharat Range (Nepal) and the
Mussorie Range (Kumaun Himalayas) are two other ranges of the Lesser
Himalaya that run as continuous ranges for long distances. These ranges
vary a lot in height but are generally less than 3050 metres above sea-
level. Some of their peaks rise to heights of even more than 4570
metres particularly branches closer to the Great Himalaya and are also
known as Himachal. The Lesser Himalaya are about 80 km. in breadth.

The Great Himalaya

Also known as Himadri, it is the longest continuous range among the

Himalayas. It is also the highest range in the world with an average
height of 6100 meters. The top of this range, about 25 km. wide, is
dotted with numerous snowy peaks. The highest peak of the world, the
Mount Everest (8848 metres), is situated at the northern border of Nepal.
The other notable peaks in descending order are Kanchenjunga (8598
metres), Makalu (8481 metres), Dhaulagiri (8172 metres) and Nanga
Parbat (8126 metres). In the north-west the Great Himalaya ends in
Nanga Parbat (8126 metres) whereas in the east it culminates in Namcha
Barwa (7756 metres) close to the Brahmaputra in Tibet (Brahmaputra is
known as the Dihang, in this section of the Himalayas). The Great
Himalaya is snow-bound throughout the year and creates glaciers which
descend to a height of 2440 meters above the sea-level in Jammu and
Kashmir and about 3960 metres in the east. At their lowest limits,
glaciers melt and ensure continuous supply of water to the rivers of
North India. During early summer when there is no rain in the plains, the
water in these rivers has a particular significance as it is tapped for
irrigating the parched land during the dry months.

Being snowbound for larger part of the year, this range is forbidding and
can be crossed only by a few passes. These passes also become
inaccessible during winters when the range is snow-bound. Journey
through these passes is hazardous and strenuous as they are generally
higher than 4570 metres above sea-level. Pack animals like mules, yaks
and goats were used earlier in the absence of metalled roads for carrying
goods across these passes. The Burzil Pass and the Zoji La in Jammu
and Kashmir the Bara Lacha La and the Shinki La in Himachal Pradesh,
the Thaga La, the Niti Pass and the Lipu Lekh Pass in Uttar Pradesh and
the Nathu La and the Jelep La in Sikkim are some of the prominent
passes to cross the Great Himalaya. This range has served as a natural
barrier between India and Tibet (China).In addition to its being an
insurmountable barrier, this range shuts off almost completely the icy
cold-winds of inner Asia in winter and confines, again on account of its
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Studying Ecology & formidable height, the moisture laden monsoon winds for the benefit of
Environment:
An Introduction India.

In the northern part of Jammu and Kashmir there is another high mountain
range called the Karakoram. It is a trans-Himalayan range, which runs
roughly in the east-west direction. Some of the peaks of this range rise
above 4620 metres. The second highest peak in the world, K-2 (8611
metres), which happens to be the highest peak in the territory of India,
rises majestically like a cone in the midst of other slightly less high
peaks of the Karakoram Mountains. This range merges in the Pamir
Knot in the west. This bleak, desolate, lofty mountain waste, snow-
covered throughout the year like the Great Himalaya, protects India
from the very dry winds of Central Asia.

The Eastern Highlands

These mountains consist of hill ranges which pass through the north-
eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh and run in north-south direction in
the form of a crescent. To the north lies a high mountainous land called
the Dapha Bum (highest point 4578 metres). From the southern end of
the Dapha Bum starts the Patkai Bum. It forms the international boundary
between India and Burma for some distance southwards and then it
merges into the Naga Range. Saramati (3926 metres) is the highest peak
of the Naga Range. The Patkai and the Naga ranges form a watershed
between India and Burma. Further south, this mountainous belt is called
the Manipur Hills (generally less than 2500 metres in elevation) in
Manipur State, the Mizo Hills in the state of Mizoram and the Tripura
Hills in Tripura State. The ranges are folded and alternate with valleys.
This range and valley character of the topography has developed a special
drainage pattern known as trellised drainage. Simply speaking it is a type
of multichannel drainage which criss-cross to form a lattice pattern. The
ranges and the valleys run generally in north-south direction. They are
covered with thick forests and are difficult to cross. Passes are very
few.

The sources of the three important rivers of India, namely, the

Brahmaputra, the Sultej and the Indus have their sources near Lake
Manasarowar (Tibet) situated to the north of the Great Himalaya. The
source of these rivers varies in height from 4570 to 4875 metres. The
Great Himalaya which is about 1.5 km. higher than the level of the river
sources is cut across by these rivers to form very deep narrow gorges.
According to the view of some geographers and geologists, these rivers
are older than the mountains they cross. These rivers began entrenching
their courses in these mountains when they began to rise slowly. Gorges
deeper than 3 km. are not uncommon. The deepest gorge (5180 metres
deep) is found in the course of the Indus where it crosses the Himalayas
near Nanga Parbat. A few other rivers such as the Bhagirathi, the
Alakananda, the Karnali, the Gandak, the Arun Kosi, the Tista and the
Manas have completely cut back their courses in the Great Himalaya and
have thus formed very deep gorges. These rivers, for some distance, run
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parallel to the mountain ranges before they descend on the Plains of Indian Landscape

Northern India. Along the river courses at some places occur river
terraces, which show that the uplift of the Himalayas at intervals has
rejuvenated the rivers.

2.1.2 The Plains of Northern India

These plains stretch in the east-west direction between the Himalayas in
the north and the Deccan Plateau of Peninsular India in the south. They
form a continuous stretch of alluvium land varying in width from 500
km. (Punjab and northern Rajasthan) to 240 km. (east Bihar Plain). The
Sutlej Plain in the west, the Ganga Plain in the middle, and the Ganga
Delta and the Brahmaputra Valley in the east constitute these plains. The
desert in the west of the Aravalli Range being largely a plain is also
included in the Plains of Northern India. These plains continue to the
west beyond the Punjab and Rajasthan and converge with the Indus Plain
in Pakistan. Measuring about 650,000 square km., these are amongst the
largest plains of the world and they account for one-fifth of the area of
India. These are primarily level plains without any interruption except
for a few outliers of the Aravalli Range. The most prominent of these
outliers can be seen in the vicinity of Delhi. They form isolated low
hills or ridges and emerge out of the surrounding alluvium as islands.
This region was formerly a deep trench, six to eight km. in depth, which
was formed as a foredeep when the Himalayas rose as fold-mountains.
Uniformity in the level of these plains is mainly due to two facts (a)
deposition took place in water and (b) no earth movement disturbed
their flatness later. In the drier parts of the western fringe of Haryana
and neighbouring parts of Rajasthan, deposition of windblown dust
accounts, to some extent, for the formation of these level plains.
Numerous ravines turning the fertile alluvial land into unusable lands
break the southern fringe of the Ganga Plain, particularly between the
Chambal and the Son.

The courses of the rivers in these plains create several meanders. In the
rain deficient parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh these rivers
have been tapped for irrigation without which famines could not have
been eliminated from this densely peopled plain tract. Along with canal
irrigation, hydroelectric power has also been developed for power supply
to industries and for domestic use. The rivers are liable to sudden and
disastrous floods during the rainy season. Owing to flatness of the plains
and large loops of meanders, the rivers are sluggish and fail to carry
away water quickly after heavy continuous rain, which leads to a situation
of severe and sudden [Link] some areas of high water-table, the flood
waters may stand for a few months and thus impede the sowing of rabi
crops. In winter, the volume of water is so small that the rivers appear
misfits.

2.1.3 The Indian Plateau

It is also called the Plateau of Peninsular India as it stretches south of 21
Studying Ecology & the alluvial Plains of Northern India. It looks like a large triangle with
Environment:
An Introduction its apex in the south at Kanya [Link] is far older than the Himalayan
mountain ranges and is formed essentially of the ancient igneous rocks.
The earth movements have brought some changes in the landscape of
this otherwise stable block of the earth’s crust. These movements were
vertical and resulted in the formation of faults along which some areas
sank forming faulted basins or rift valleys. This occurred sometime
during the Gondwana period when drainage of the adjoining area flowed
into these basins, deposited sandstones, clays and shales (finely stratified
stone) which subsequently turned into sinking of the basins, and formed
the coal beds and lay preserved. The valleys of the Damodar, the Mahanadi
and the Godavari roughly mark the position of the Gondwana region. The
Narmada and the Tapti valleys leading to the Arabian Sea are rift valleys
formed long after the Gondwana period. The Narmada Rift valley
continues to the north-east and is occupied by the river Son. North of
the Narmada-Son is the Malwa Plateau, which extends to the Aravalli
Range in the west and Bundelkhand region in the north-east. The Malwa
Plateau is inclined towards the north and is formed by horizontally bedded
sandstones, limestones and shales laid down during the pre-Gondwana
period. It is suggested that during this era the Malwa Plateau was
submerged under the sea.

South of the Satpura Range, the peninsula is called the Deccan Plateau.
It is believed that large-scale volcanic eruptions took place in the
Cretaeous period which spread far and wide over the Indian Plateau
covering completely the land forms existing at that time. Repeated flows
of melted basalt from fissures built up a basaltic plateau. The basalt so
deposited has, however, been eroded away by rivers from a large area
and is visible only in Maharashtra, southern Malwa Plateau and large
parts of Kathiawar and covers an area of 520,000 square km. at
[Link] sub-regions of the Indian Plateau are described below.

The Aravalli Range

It runs in the northeast-southwest direction from Delhi to the north-

eastern fringe of Gujarat State. Between Delhi and Ajmer, it can be
characterised by a chain of detached and discontinuous ridges running
also in the northeast-southwest direction and forms basins of inland
drainage here and there. The range is almost continuous south of
[Link] highest peak of the Aravalli Range is situated in Mount Abu.

The Vindhya Range

The Narmada Valley is flanked in the north by a steep sided escarpment

(long steep face of plateau) formed due to presence of the Malwa Plateau.
This escarpment, considered wrongly as a mountain sometimes, is known
as the Vindhya Range and runs roughly north-eastwards along the northern
fringe of the Narmada-Son for about 1200 km. The height of the
escarpment generally averages less than 610 metres. The western part of
this range is covered with lava. The eastern part of this range, not covered
22
with lava, is known as the Kaimur Hills.
The Satpura Range Indian Landscape

It starts from the West Coastal Plain and runs eastwards between the
Narmada and the Tapti-Purna rivers and continues up to Amarkantak
covering about 900 kms. Its western extremity is known as the Rajpipla
Hills and the easternmost part as the Amarkantak Plateau and in the
middle we can find the Mahadeo Hills. Throughout its length, the Satpura
Range has steep sided plateaus of elevations varying from 600 to 900
metres. The eastern part of the Amarkantak Plateau known as the Maikala
Range overlooks the Chhattisgarh Plain. Dhupgarh near Pachmarhi is the
highest point of the Satpura Range. The Rajpipla Hills and the Pachmarhi
Plateau are deeply dissected with a strong local relief. This range is
covered mostly with thick layers of basalt. It has two important gaps;
one can be reached by the Bhusawal Khandwa rail section and the other
can be reached by Jabalpur Balaghat rail section.

The Chhattisgarh Plain

It is a basin drained by the Upper Mahanadi. It lies to the east of the

Maikala Range and low Khairagarh Plateau separates it from the
Wainganga Valley. The basin is laid with nearly horizontal beds of
limestone and shales and is enclosed by hills or plateaus. It is a large
area measuring about 73,000 square km.

The Chota Nagpur Plateau

It lies to the east of the Rihand. It includes the Bihar Plateau and the
adjoining eastern fringe of Madhya Pradesh with Purulia district of West
Bengal. The Ranchi Plateau in the south, the Hazaribagh Plateau in the
north along with the Rajmahal Hills in the north-east constitute important
physiographic sections of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. In the same region,
the Ranchi Plateau lies to the south of the Damodar. It is in fact a group
of plateaus elevated to different heights. The surface of the plateau,
which is mostly rolling, is occasionally interrupted by conical hills.
Parasnath in the eastern part is the highest point. The north-eastern edge
of the Chota Nagpur Plateau is termed as the Rajmahal Hills and it runs
in the north-south direction. Consisting mostly of basalt, these hills
have been dissected into separate plateaus.

Other Sub-Regions

In addition to the above we can trace the rocks of the Indian Plateau in
Meghalaya where it forms a rectangular block known as the Shillong
Plateau or the Meghalaya Plateau. The western part of this plateau is
called the Garo Hills whereas the central part is known as Khasi-Jaintia
Hills and the eastern part as Mikir [Link] central part of the Khasi
Hills is a table-land and Shillong town is situated on it. This table-land
is the highest part of the Meghalaya Plateau. Moving to the central India,
we can locate Tapti Valley which lies to the south of the Satpura Range.
To the south of the Tapti Valley is another east-west range commonly
23
Studying Ecology & known as the Ajanta Range, which again is formed of basalt and has an
Environment:
An Introduction appearance, at the top, of that of a plateau.

The eastern side of the Indian Plateau is bounded by the hills called the
Eastern Ghats. Several rivers break these Ghats from the East Coast,
namely the Mahanadi, the Godawari, the Krishna and the Penner, before
they fall into the Bay of Bengal. The Nallamala Hills between the Penner
and the Krishna and Bastar-Orissa Highlands between the Mahanadi and
the Godavari are prominent blocks of the region. South of the Krishna,
height of the Eastern Ghats is generally less but north of the Godavari,
it is higher and rises to 1680 metres near Vishakhapatnam district.
Mahendra Giri in Orissa with the height of 1501 metres is the second
highest point. The Deccan is fringed in the west by the Western Ghats
also known as the Sahyadari, which run from the lower Tapti Valley to
the south as a continuous range and merges with the Eastern Ghats in the
Nilgiri Hills. The Western Ghats rise abruptly from the western coastal
lowlands and rise to an average height of 920 metres in Maharashtra and
above 1000 metres in Karanataka State with Doda Betta as the highest
peak of the Nilgiri Hills.

As the Deccan plateau slopes gently towards the east consequently the
rivers Godavari, Krishna, Penner and Cauvery flow to the east. These
rivers and their tributaries have carved broad valleys leaving highlands
between them. These highlands form long low ranges particularly in the
Deccan region of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and northern Karnataka.
The range lying to the north of the upper Godavari valley is called the
Ajanta Range whereas one lying between the Bhima-tributary of the
Krishna, and the upper Godavari is called the Balaghat Range. These
ranges provide in between, broad valley plains extending about 450
metres.

In the extreme south are the Cardamom Hills. These hills are gneisses
(Coarse-grained rocks of quartz, mica and felspar) and schists a (foliated
rock presenting layers of different minerals) and separated from the
Nilgiri by a gap called the Palghat Gap. The Cardamom Hills’ prominent
peaks are named as the Palni Hills and the Anaimalai Hills to the east.
The Anaimalai Hills with Anai Mudi the highest peak at 2695 metres
above sea-level are the highest in South India. These hills end almost
abruptly in the Plains on either side.

2.1.4 The Coastal Lowlands

The Plateau of Peninsular India is fringed with narrow coastal lowlands.
Raised beaches and wave-cut platforms above the high water mark signify
that these lowlands are essentially the emerged floors of the seas adjacent
to the land. After the emergence of these lowlands, fluctuations in sea-
level, though limited to small areas, have brought some changes in the
general surface features of the littoral (shore areas). The west and east
coastal lowlands are described below:
24
West Coastal Lowlands Indian Landscape

The physiography of West coastal lowlands is varied. It contains marshes,

lagoons, mud-flats, peninsulas, creeks, gulfs and islands. The Rann of
Kutch, the peninsulas of Kutch and Kathiawar and the Gujarat Plain are
the major physiographic regions.

The Rann of Kutch lies to the north of Kutch. Earlier a gulf and now a
vast desolate lowland it was formed due to the deposition of silt brought
mainly by the Indus in the past. Its surface is only slightly above sea-
level and is interspersed with mudflats, marshes and [Link] is covered
with shallow water during the rainy season and is being continuously
filled up by the silt brought by the rivers. There are a few islands in the
Rann, with Bela, Khadir and Pachham islands as the only ones of
significant size.

Kutch, once an island, lies to the south of the Rann of Kutch. It is an arid
area with generally broad sandy terrain along the coast and the Rann of
Kutch and bare low rocky ridges in the interior. Kathiawar is located to
the south of Kutch. It is hilly in the central part and elsewhere it is a
rolling plain. Gorakhnath in the Girnar Hills in Junagadh is the highest
peak in Kathiawar. The Gir Hills extending in the east-west direction lie
to the south of Kathiawar and are connected with a broad hill-mass lying
further north in the central part of Kathiawar which runs north-south
forming a low narrow dissected range. In the north-east there is a belt
of low country which is marked by Lake Nal and Marshes.

Along with several small rivers, long rivers like, the Tapti, the Narmada,
the Mahi and the Sabarmati deposit enormous load of sediments in the
Gulf of Cambay leading to siltation of the gulf. This has resulted in the
creation of a broad fertile alluvial plain north of Daman extending towards
north up to the Aravalli Range and termed as the Gujarat Plain. South of
Daman, the coastal lowland narrows to a width of around 50 km, which
occasionally broadens by a few kilometres at places where streams have
gnawed back into the steeply rising Western Ghats. Between Daman and
Goa the western littoral is called the Konkan. Coastal lowlands of Goa
and the Konkan, to the south of Bombay are marked with the low hills
separated by river courses which form creeks near the sea. The fact that
the drowning of the lower courses of the rivers has taken place clearly
suggests that there has been some recent submergence, though on a
small-scale, of the coast, north of Marmagao.

Coastal plain in the vicinity of the Palghat Gap and in the south of
Kerala is relatively broad reaching to a width of 96 km. Off-shore bars
have enclosed lagoons which run parallel to the coast in southern Kerala
and are known as Kayals. These lagoons receive water of a large number
of rivers before discharging that to the sea with which they are connected
by narrow openings. Formation of lagoons and off-shore bars indicate 25
Studying Ecology &
Environment:
An Introduction
INDIAN LANDSCAPE

Different Colours Indicate Various Landscape features

26
 Indian Landscape

MOUNTAIN RANGES

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Studying Ecology &
Environment:
An Introduction

INDIAN FORESTS

Different Colours Indicate Various Types of Forests

28
 Indian Landscape

INDIAN – SOILS

Different Colours Indicate Various Types of Soils

29
Studying Ecology & that there has been a slight emergence of southern coastal plain not in
Environment:
An Introduction the very distant past.

The West coastal lowland south of Surat is drained by several small

rivers, which become torrents during the monsoon. In the normal course
these torrents should have formed deltas. However, as at this time strong
sea-waves also develop due to south-west monsoon winds and these
waves having an unusually great scouring power, the mouths of the rivers
are desilted and thereby impede the formation of deltas on the west
coast. Instead of deltas, long off-shore bars which enclose lagoons,
particularly in the south, develop as suggested above.

East Coastal Lowlands

East coastal lowlands is broad compared to the western lowlands and it

is broadest in Tamil Nadu where its width ranges from 100 to 120 km.
North of the Godawari Delta the coastal lowland is narrow as the Eastern
Ghats closes on the sea. At some places it is as narrow as 32 km. in
width. Since the Plateau of Penninsular India, especially of the Satpura
Range, is tilted to the east, all rivers of the Deccan with the exception
of the Tapti flow eastwards and reach the Bay of Bengal. These rivers
have spread alluvium over almost whole of this plain and have built large
deltas at several places. Sea waves being far less furious than those
impinging on the west coast, the sediments brought by large rivers – the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have formed deltas.
These deltas being fertile and properly irrigated are densely peopled. At
some places spits, lagoons and off-shore bars have also developed along
the coast. The coast is fringed at some places with dunes. Mangrove
forests grown along the seaward front of the deltas have been a major
characteristic. As the sea is shallow near the emerged lowland coasts,
deep natural harbours except Bombay and Marmagao are absent along
both the coasts.

2.2 VEGETATION
The Indian sub-continent has been witness to a very long period of human
activity. During the course of this activity the vegetation cover present
in the earliest time has been considerably modified. As a matter of fact,
little trace of this vegetation except on the higher reaches of the
mountains is to be seen today. If one has to imagine the features of the
natural original vegetation, one would most definitely be struck by the
fact that it essentially was a tree vegetation or forest cover. Over several
millennia of human activity involving clearance and degradation of this
forest cover, today only about one fifth of the total area of India is
regarded as under the forest, treated as the protected forest. Half of the
protected forest area has been designated as the reserved forest where
all kinds of degrading activity are prohibited. In any case the least
degenerated forests in India have to be found in the Himalayan region
30
and one of the chief reasons for their preservation is the inaccessible Indian Landscape

terrain.

The situation described above was not the same in historical [Link]
is evidence to suggest that central Panjab and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab
was covered with vast forest at the time of Alexander’s campaign.A
notable feature of Indian forest, according to spate and Learmonth, is
that “the floral landscape is rarely marked by an absolute preponderance
of one species or even an assemblage of species”. Further “(the) nearest
approaches to this condition are the Himalayan rhododendron belts (a
tree having flowers of blood-red colour), the semi-desert vegetation of
the northwest, and bamboos locally in the south and the northwest, usually
on old clearing” [O.H.K. Spate & A.T.A. Learmonth, India and Pakistan:
A General and Regional Geography, Indian Edition, New Delhi, 1984,
p.74].

The vegetation cover of India has been classified on the basis of the
types of trees [Link], it has been divided into the following
five categories:

l Moist Tropical Types

l Dry Tropical Types
l Montane Subtropical Types
l Montane Temperate Types
l Alpine Types.

This classification is based on the study conducted by H.G. Champion

in 1936 and slightly modified subsequently [see India and Pakistan,
p.77].

Moist Tropical Type

The forest of this type is basically the rain forest that is wet and evergreen
or semi-evergreen. It is found in the high rainfall areas where the dry
season is short. In places where the dry season is either intermittent or
more prolonged the forest becomes semi-evergreen. The tree cover in
the forest of this type is very dense and very high. It is found along the
Western Ghats to the south of Mumbai and in Assam. Perhaps, in the
past, the coastal areas in Orissa and Bengal were also covered with this
kind of forest, but have been denuded now.

Dry Tropical Types

This type grows in areas which have moderate rainfall and that too
concentrated in a short period of [Link] remaining dry season that is
fairly prolonged harbours the growth of this [Link] area occupied by
the forest of this kind extends in central and Peninsular India as also
along the Siwaliks in Himachal Pradesh. The trees grow up to a medium
height and permit the undergrowth of shrubs and spiny vegetation.

31
Studying Ecology & Montane Subtropical Type
Environment:
An Introduction
The subtropical types are rain forests having a stunted growth. The two
main areas where they are found are the Nilgiris and Anaimalai-Palani
Hills in the south. It may have covered the Satpura and Maikal Hills and
Mount Abu in the past, though most of it has now vanished.

Montane Temperate Type

This type of forest extends in the lower reaches of Himalaya where the
rainfall is moderate though regular. The main trees found are oaks,
chestnuts and laurels. It also grows pines, cedars, silver firs and spruces.
Rhododendrons and some varieties of bamboo are also seen in good
numbers in this forest.A notable feature of this type of forest is that it
supports exportation of timber [Link] is also prone to frequent fires.

Alpine Type

This type grows in the middle levels of Himalaya. The main types of
trees and vegetation are silver firs, juniper, pines, rhododendrons and
birches. The forest types in India and their geographical distribution has
been depicted in the map appended here.

2.3 SOILS
Soils support vegetation as also agriculture and have therefore been of
vital importance in giving Indian landscape a definite view. The traditional
classification of the soils in India, as noted by Spate and Learmonth, was
in four main categories: alluvium, regur (black cotton soils), red soils
and laterite. We have already taken note of heavy alluvium deposits in
the Indo-Gangetic plains as a result of erosion and river floods occurring
at frequent intervals. An early attempt to classify soil types was made by
the Russian scientist Z. J. Schokalskay in 1932. This was essentially an
attempt at synthesising the existing knowledge and its value lay in the
fact that it prepared ground for systematic soil study. In India a Soil
Survey was set up in the year 1956, and it has been working since then
to map the soil distribution pattern in India. We have given here a map
on the pattern of soil distribution in India but it is based on Schokalskay’s
study as the Soil Survey of India work has not been completed.

Soil conservation has been an important environmental concern as it

sustains vegetation and agriculture both. Many human activities have
directly and indirectly resulted in soil erosion in a major way causing in
some cases an irreparable loss of the soil for posterity. Since
consolidation has to precede conservation, the task becomes more
difficult as persuasive measures requiring cooperation on larger scale
need to be adopted. Soil fertility and soil productivity are other related
issues but they need to be addressed by scientists primarily.

2.4 PERCEPTIONS OF LANDSCAPE

32 The description of the physical features of India provides the ideal
backdrop to examine the social perception of landscape as it evolved Indian Landscape
since ancient times. The beginning of civilisation in India is traced to
the semi-arid region of Sind. The river valleys of the arid region provided
suitable conditions for the emergence and growth of a society based on
agriculture. At that time the ‘technological constraints’ forced humans
to notventure to the densely forested areas of Ganga-Yamuna Doab and
the foothills of the Himalayas. It is only in the early Vedic literature that
glimpses of the expansion of human settlement from the north-western
India towards the Ganga-Yamuna Doab are provided in ample measure.
A shift from the semi-arid region to more wet regions of Ganga-Yamuna
Doab was a clear manifestation of the different needs of the settlers.
The nomadic character of the new settler necessitated movement towards
a greener region and with the ‘advent of iron’ settlement in the densely
forested region became a reality. This was also the beginning of an
assault on the forest frontiers. Gradually the agriculture spread, forests
shrank and empires began to take [Link] period also witnessed the
establishment of republics along with monarchical kingdoms. It is
interesting to note that whereas the monarchies were concentrated in
the Ganga plain, the republics, most of which pre-dated the monarchies,
were ranged round the northern periphery of these kingdoms in the
foothills of the Himalayas, perhaps due to the fact, that it was easier to
clear the wooded low-lying hills than the marshy jungles of the plain. It
also suggests that there had been continuous interaction between the
settled agriculture and the adjoining forest areas, a fact substantiated by
Kautilya. He visualised forests and mountains as providing effective
barrier against the enemies. He also supported management of forests
to generate revenue as well. Thus we can suggest that forests and
mountains were perceived in terms of their economic and strategic
significance.

It should be noted that the landscape was visualised not only in terms of
the economic and strategic significance but also its aesthetic value that
was appreciated. Ancient literature is full of references where landscape
has been eulogised in terms of the bounty it provided and the visual
pleasure it offered. In the ancient Tamil poetry, love of man and woman
is taken as the ideal expression of ‘inner’ self as well as outer world.
The moods of separation and union are described by borrowing certain
attributes from the wider natural world and placed within the rituals of
the poetry. There are four kinds of “place”; each is presided over by a
deity and named for a flower or tree characteristic of the region:

l Mullai, a variety of jasmine, stands for the forests overseen by Mayon,

the dark-bodied god of herdsmen;

l Kurinci (pronounced Kurinji), a mountain flower, for the mountains

overseen by Murukan, the red-speared god of war, youth and beauty;

l Marutam, (pronounced Marudam), a tree with red flowers growing

near the water, for the pastoral region, overseen by Ventan, the rain-
god; and
33
Studying Ecology & l Neytal (pronounced Neydal), a water flower for the sandy sea shore
Environment:
An Introduction overseen by the Wind God.

A fifth region, palai or desert-waste, is also mentioned. Palai is given

no specific location, for it is said that any mountain or forest may be
parched to a waste land in the heat of [Link] is named for Palai,
supposedly an ever-green tree unaffected by drought. (A.K. Ramanujan,
The Interior Landscape: Love Poems from a Classical Tamil Anthology,
Delhi, undated).

Information about landscape is also available for the medieval period.A

close examination of the Persian sources of the medieval period reveals
that the region of Ganga-Yamuna Doab then had a different landscape.
During Alauddin’s reign, the region between Delhi and Badaun was densely
forested unlike the vast expanse of agriculture spanning the area today
with only sparsely wooded areas in [Link] had given orders
for clearing the forest to make the passage safe for the merchants in
particular and travellers in general. However, it seems the vanishing act
suffered by the forest here, began in the thirteenth century. Munhta
Nainsi, the seventeenth century courtier of the Marwar state, while
describing the mountains of Mewar region specially mentions the
availability of water on mountains. Similarly, we have information on the
political boundary of states defined along the courses of rivers. An
interesting landscape detail can be seen in the following example. In the
medieval period the territory between the two warring states of Mewar
and Marwar were defined according to the cultivation of specific [Link]
anwla plantation was seen as demarcating the Mewar region whereas
Marwar was identified with the babool tree, suggesting a broad division
of the territory in terms of the semi-arid and wet regions.

Landscape was visualised not only in terms of the kind of agriculture it

could sustain, but also in terms of the animal the region could harbour.
Historical works of ancient, medieval and even British period carry
sufficient references to suggest that certain landscapes were defined in
terms of the wild animals found there. Books like Man-eaters of
Kumaon, tend to project a particular image of the region based on the
availability of certain species of animals in the region. Francis
Zimmerman, in his seminal work, Jungle and the Aroma of Meats, has
constructed the details of the landscapes on the basis of the type of
animals found in various regions.

The landscape experienced a different kind of change with the beginning

of the colonial period. India’s biological diversity was scientifically
documented by the British. But it is also true that the policies of the
colonial rulers greatly altered the character of the Indian landscape.
Demand of timbre, initially for the ship-industry and later on for making
the sleepers for the fast expanding railways, forced an unmanageable
demand on the wood. Interior landscapes were penetrated to secure wood.
When the impact of this reckless act became imminent, the cutting of
34
diversified natural forests was compensated by the cultivation of Indian Landscape

monoculture of commercially viable species. This penetration and

promotion of commercial varieties changed the entire landscape of the
region. Similarly, propagation of plantation economy in the southern and
north-eastern part of the country led to extinction of natural forest cover
replaced again by the monoculture of the commercial plants.

It is not only the forest cover, which provides a glaring testimony to the
alteration in the landscape of the region. Creation of canal networks in
parts of upper India and eastern India led to drastic change in the landscape
of these regions. Rohan D’Souza has pointed out the changes in the
Orissa delta due to construction of canals in the initial phase and later
on railways to protect the imperial interests.

2.5 SUMMARY
The general features of Indian landscape and the changes in these features
in the historical period have determined the types of human settlements
in different areas and their subsequent growth. Annual deposition of rich
alluvial soil in Indus gave rise to civilization and settlements that lasted
in that region for nearly two thousand years. It was only when the need
for expanding the agricultural base of the settlement was felt that a shift
to the forested region of Doab [Link] was then an expansion in
the agricultural frontier and a simultaneous contraction in the forested
areas. Unlike this the more settled South India saw the emergence of
more clearly demarcated environmental regions in the form of Mullai,
Kurinji, Neytal and Marutam. In a scenario of this kind the colonial
control ushers in a process of major change in the landscape. The
priorities change dramatically and development overtakes all other
considerations. The landscape changes and often results in irreversible
losses of vegetation forms. The lesson for us is: developmental priorities
of a democratic country like ours should be decided keeping the concerns
of environmental conservation and factors giving rise to degradation in
the foreground.

2.6 EXERCISES
1) Trace the northern boundary of India and name the passes, which connect
India with Tibet along with their location.

2) Name the major physiographic divisions of India and give an account

of the surface features of the Himalayas. Describe the main surface
features and drainage of (i) the Plains of Northern India and (ii) the
Indian Plateau.

3) How does the surface configuration of the east coastal lowland differ
from that of the west coastal lowland?

4) Describe the vegetation of India with special reference to the forest.

35
Studying Ecology &
Environment: 2.7 SUGGESTED READING
An Introduction

Daniel B. Botkin, Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the Twenty-

first Century, New York, 1990.

Gopal Singh, A Geography of India, Delhi, 2003.

R.L. Singh (ed.), Regional Geography of India, Delhi,2003.

Romila Thapar, History of India, Vol I, Penguin, 1966.

D.K. Bhattacharya, Ecology and Social Formation in Ancient History,

Calcutta, 1990.
(We gratefully acknowledge that the source of the maps given in this Unit is O.H.K. Spate
and A.T.A. Learmonth, India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography, Indian
Edition, 1984, New Delhi.)

36