292 ● CHAPTER 7 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Consider the initial-value problem 63. Appropriately modify the procedure of Problem 62 to
find a solution of
y  6y  9y  t sin t, y(0)  2, y(0) 
1.
y  3y
4y  0,
Load the Laplace transform package. Precisely reproduce
y(0)  0, y(0)  0, y (0)  1.
and then, in turn, execute each line in the following
sequence of commands. Either copy the output by hand 64. The charge q(t) on a capacitor in an LC series circuit is
or print out the results. given by
diffequat  y[t]  6y[t]  9y[t]  t Sin[t]
transformdeq  LaplaceTransform [diffequat, t, s] /. d 2q
 q  1
4  (t
)  6  (t
3),
{y[0]  ⬎ 2, y[0]  ⬎ 1, dt2
LaplaceTransform [y[t], t, s]  ⬎ Y} q(0)  0, q(0)  0.
soln  Solve[transformdeq, Y] // Flatten
Y  Y/.soln Appropriately modify the procedure of Problem 62 to
InverseLaplaceTransform[ Y, s, t] find q(t). Graph your solution.

7.5 THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION

INTRODUCTION In the last paragraph on page 261, we indicated that as an immediate conse-
quence of Theorem 7.1.3, F(s)  1 cannot be the Laplace transform of a function f that is piecewise
continuous on [0, ) and of exponential order. In the discussion that follows we are going to intro-
duce a function that is very different from the kinds that you have studied in previous courses. We
shall see that there does indeed exist a function—or, more precisely, a generalized function—whose
Laplace transform is F(s)  1.

UNIT IMPULSE Mechanical systems are often acted on by an external force (or
electromotive force in an electrical circuit) of large magnitude that acts only for a
very short period of time. For example, a vibrating airplane wing could be struck by
lightning, a mass on a spring could be given a sharp blow by a ball peen hammer, and
a ball (baseball, golf ball, tennis ball) could be sent soaring when struck violently by
some kind of club (baseball bat, golf club, tennis racket). See Figure 7.5.1. The graph
of the piecewise-defined function


0, 0  t  t0
a
1
$a (t
t0 )  , t0
a  t  t0  a (1)
2a
0, t  t0  a,

a  0, t 0  0, shown in Figure 7.5.2(a), could serve as a model for such a force. For a
small value of a, d a (t
t 0 ) is essentially a constant function of large magnitude that is
“on” for just a very short period of time, around t 0 . The behavior of da (t
t 0 ) as a : 0
is illustrated in Figure 7.5.2(b). The function da (t
t 0 ) is called a unit impulse,
FIGURE 7.5.1 A golf club applies a because it possesses the integration property 0 $a (t
t0 ) dt  1.
force of large magnitude on the ball for a
very short period of time
DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION In practice it is convenient to work with another type of
unit impulse, a “function” that approximates da (t
t 0 ) and is defined by the limit

$ (t
t0 )  lim $a (t
t0 ). (2)
a: 0
 7.5 THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION ● 293

y 2a
The latter expression, which is not a function at all, can be characterized by the two
1/2a properties

t0 − a t0 t0 + a t (i) $ (t
t0 )   0,, t  t0
t  t0
and (ii) 0
$ (t
t0 ) dt  1.
(a) graph of 웃a(t
t0)
The unit impulse d(t
t 0 ) is called the Dirac delta function.
It is possible to obtain the Laplace transform of the Dirac delta function by the for-
y mal assumption that
{$ (t
t0 )}  lim a : 0
{$a (t
t0 )}.

THEOREM 7.5.1 Transform of the Dirac Delta Function

For t 0  0,
{$ (t
t0 )}  e
st0. (3)

PROOF To begin, we can write da (t
t 0 ) in terms of the unit step function by

virtue of (11) and (12) of Section 7.3:
1
$a (t
t0 )  [ (t
(t0
a))
 (t
(t0  a))].
2a
By linearity and (14) of Section 7.3 the Laplace transform of this last expression is
1 e
s(t0
a) e
s(t0a) esa
e
sa
 
t0 t

{$a (t
t0 )} 
 e
st0 . (4)
2a s s 2sa
(b) behavior of 웃a as a 씮 0
Since (4) has the indeterminate form 0
0 as a : 0, we apply L’Hôpital’s Rule:
FIGURE 7.5.2 Unit impulse

e
e
sa

sa

{$ (t
t0 )}  lim
{$a (t
t0 )}  e
st 0 lim  e
st 0.
a:0 a:0 2sa

Now when t 0  0, it seems plausible to conclude from (3) that

{$ (t)}  1.
The last result emphasizes the fact that d(t) is not the usual type of function that we have
been considering, since we expect from Theorem 7.1.3 that ᏸ{ f (t)} : 0 as s : .

EXAMPLE 1 Two Initial-Value Problems

Solve y  y  4d(t
2p) subject to

(a) y(0)  1, y(0)  0 (b) y(0)  0, y(0)  0.
The two initial-value problems could serve as models for describing the motion of a
mass on a spring moving in a medium in which damping is negligible. At t  2p the
mass is given a sharp blow. In (a) the mass is released from rest 1 unit below the
equilibrium position. In (b) the mass is at rest in the equilibrium position.

SOLUTION (a) From (3) the Laplace transform of the differential equation is
s 4e
2 s
s2Y(s)
s  Y(s)  4e
2 s or Y(s)   2 .
s 1 s 1
2

Using the inverse form of the second translation theorem, we find

y(t)  cos t  4 sin (t
2)  (t
2).
Since sin(t
2p)  sin t, the foregoing solution can be written as

y(t)  cos t,
cos t  4 sin t,
0  t  2
t  2 .
(5)
294 ● CHAPTER 7 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

y In Figure 7.5.3 we see from the graph of (5) that the mass is exhibiting simple
harmonic motion until it is struck at t  2p. The influence of the unit impulse is to
increase the amplitude of vibration to 117 for t  2p.
1
(b) In this case the transform of the equation is simply
−1 2π 4π t
4e
2 s
Y(s)  ,
s2  1

and so y(t)  4 sin (t
2)  (t
2)

FIGURE 7.5.3 Mass is struck at t  2p
 0,4 sin t, 0  t  2
t  2 .
(6)
y
The graph of (6) in Figure 7.5.4 shows, as we would expect from the initial conditions
that the mass exhibits no motion until it is struck at t  2p.

1
2π 4π t
REMARKS
−1

(i) If d(t
t 0 ) were a function in the usual sense, then property (i) on page 293
would imply  0 $ (t
t0 ) dt  0 rather than  0 $ (t
t0 ) dt  1. Because the
Dirac delta function did not “behave” like an ordinary function, even though its
FIGURE 7.5.4 No motion until mass users produced correct results, it was met initially with great scorn by mathe-
is struck at t  2p maticians. However, in the 1940s Dirac’s controversial function was put on a
rigorous footing by the French mathematician Laurent Schwartz in his book
La Théorie de distribution, and this, in turn, led to an entirely new branch of
mathematics known as the theory of distributions or generalized functions.
In this theory (2) is not an accepted definition of d(t
t 0 ), nor does one speak
of a function whose values are either or 0. Although we shall not pursue this
topic any further, suffice it to say that the Dirac delta function is best character-
ized by its effect on other functions. If f is a continuous function, then

0
f(t) $ (t
t0 ) dt  f(t0 ) (7)

can be taken as the definition of d(t
t 0 ). This result is known as the sifting
property, since d(t
t 0 ) has the effect of sifting the value f (t 0 ) out of the
set of values of f on [0, ). Note that property (ii) (with f (t)  1) and (3) (with
f (t)  e
st ) are consistent with (7).
(ii) The Remarks in Section 7.2 indicated that the transfer function of a
general linear nth-order differential equation with constant coefficients is
W(s)  1
P(s), where P(s)  an sn  an
1 sn
1   a0. The transfer
function is the Laplace transform of function w(t), called the weight function
of a linear system. But w(t) can also be characterized in terms of the discus-
sion at hand. For simplicity let us consider a second-order linear system in
which the input is a unit impulse at t  0:
a2 y  a1 y  a0 y  $ (t), y(0)  0, y(0)  0.
Applying the Laplace transform and using
{$(t)}  1 shows that the trans-
form of the response y in this case is the transfer function

Y(s) 
1

1
a2 s2  a1s  a0 P(s)
 W(s) and so y 

1
1
P(s)
 w(t).  
From this we can see, in general, that the weight function y  w(t) of an nth-order
linear system is the zero-state response of the system to a unit impulse. For this
reason w(t) is also called the impulse response of the system.
 7.6 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ● 295

EXERCISES 7.5 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-12.

In Problems 1 – 12 use the Laplace transform to solve the is free at its right end. Use the Laplace transform to
given initial-value problem. determine the deflection y(x) from
d 4y
1. y
3y  d(t
2), y(0)  0 EI  w0 $x
12 L,
dx 4
2. y  y  d(t
1), y(0)  2
where y(0)  0, y(0)  0, y (L)  0, and y (L)  0.
3. y  y  d(t
2p), y(0)  0, y(0)  1
14. Solve the differential equation in Problem 13 subject to
4. y  16y  d(t
2p), y(0)  0, y(0)  0 y(0)  0, y(0)  0, y(L)  0, y(L)  0. In this case
( ) (
5. y  y  $ t
12   $ t
32  , ) the beam is embedded at both ends. See Figure 7.5.5.
y(0)  0, y(0)  0 w0
6. y  y  d(t
2p)  d(t
4p), y(0)  1, y(0)  0
7. y  2y  d(t
1), y(0)  0, y(0)  1 x
L
8. y
2y  1  d(t
2), y(0)  0, y(0)  1 y
9. y  4y  5y  d(t
2p), y(0)  0, y(0)  0 FIGURE 7.5.5 Beam in Problem 14
10. y  2y  y  d(t
1), y(0)  0, y(0)  0
Discussion Problems
11. y  4y  13y  d(t
p)  d(t
3p),
y(0)  1, y(0)  0 15. Someone tells you that the solutions of the two IVPs
12. y
7y  6y  et  d(t
2)  d(t
4), y  2y  10y  0, y(0)  0, y(0)  1
y(0)  0, y(0)  0 y  2y  10y  $ (t), y(0)  0, y(0)  0
13. A uniform beam of length L carries a concentrated load are exactly the same. Do you agree or disagree? Defend
w0 at x  12 L. The beam is embedded at its left end and your answer.

7.6 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

REVIEW MATERIAL
● Solving systems of two equations in two unknowns

INTRODUCTION When initial conditions are specified, the Laplace transform of each equation
in a system of linear differential equations with constant coefficients reduces the system of DEs to a
set of simultaneous algebraic equations in the transformed functions. We solve the system of
algebraic equations for each of the transformed functions and then find the inverse Laplace trans-
forms in the usual manner.

COUPLED SPRINGS Two masses m1 and m2 are connected to two springs A and
B of negligible mass having spring constants k1 and k 2, respectively. In turn the two
springs are attached as shown in Figure 7.6.1. Let x1(t) and x 2 (t) denote the vertical
displacements of the masses from their equilibrium positions. When the system is in
motion, spring B is subject to both an elongation and a compression; hence its net
elongation is x 2
x1. Therefore it follows from Hooke’s law that springs A and B
exert forces
k1 x1 and k 2 (x 2
x1), respectively, on m1. If no external force is
impressed on the system and if no damping force is present, then the net force on m1
is
k1 x1  k 2 (x 2
x1). By Newton’s second law we can write

d 2 x1
m1 
k1 x1  k2 (x2
x1).
dt2