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with answer
30 hours extra
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on contemporary
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380 hours of
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Additional 30
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dealing with out-
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Every unit concludes 15 tests including

with a test and personal personal feedback
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GEOGRAPHY (Optional)

OCEANOGRAPHY CLASS NOTES

By HIMANSHU SHARMA
111, Ist Floor, 4-B, Grover Chamber, Karol Bagh Metro Station, Delhi-05
011-45586829, 9718793363
Visit us: [Link]
 G
GEOGRA
APHY (Optiona
al)
OCE
EANOGRAPHY
Y SYLLA ABUS

 B
Bottom topography of the Atlanticc, Indian and
d Pacific Occeans

 T
Temperatur
re and salinity of the occeans

 H
Heat and saalt budgets, Ocean depo
osits

 W
Waves, currrents and tiides

 M
Marine reso
ources: biotic, mineral aand energy resources

 C
Coral reefs, coral bleacching

 S
Sea-level ch
hanges

 l of the ssea and marrine pollutio

law on.
 G
GEOGRAAPHY (Optiona
al)
PREVIO
OUS YE
EARS Q
QUESTIOON: OC
CEANOG
GRAPHY

2014 1. Illustrate the origgin and natu

ure of Sargasso Sea and
d lagoon. (15
50 words, 10
1 Marks)
2. Give a critical acccount of reasons and co
onsequencees of marinee pollution. (15 Marks)
3. Give aan account of recent observation
o s on coral bleaching w
with referen
nce to Clivee
Wilkin
nson’s Repo
ort. (15 Markks )
1. Differentiate Storrm Surges aand Seiches. (150 wordss, 10 Marks)
2. “Offsh
hore Acoustic Study helped
h the developmeent of the concept of sea floorr
spread
ding.” (2
250 words, 2
20 Marks)
2013
3. Comp
pare the Subsidence and Glacial control theeories on the formatio
on of corall
reefs?? (400 words, 25 Markss)
1. Different layers of ocean water
w above abyssal p
plain Discusss. 20.(150 words, 12
2
Markss)
2012
2. “Atolls present tthe most ch
hallenging explanation
e in the evo
olution of co
oral reefs”,,
Discusss. (250 wo
ords, 20 Marks)
1. Salinitty patterns iin Indian Occean. (150 w
words, 12 Marks)
M
2. “Temp
perature, saalinity and d
density diffeerences in ocean
o water are the prrime causess
2011
of oceean water ciirculation.” Elaborate. (30
( Marks)
1. Ocean
n deposits (2
200 words, 15 Marks)
2. Explain the scientifically sou
und method
ds of bathym
metry and ggive an acco
ount of thee
2010
bottom
m topograp
phy of the Atlantic Oceaan. (30 Marks)
1. Examiine econom
mic significaance of thee resources of the Continental shelf of thee
Indian
n Ocean.(30 Marks)
2009
2. Comm
ment on marrine heat bu
udget and th
he oceanic circulation
c ssystem.(30 Marks)
1. Describe the ideaal conditions for coral rreef formation and disccuss the glaacial controll
theoryy of coral reeef formatio
on. (60 Markks)
2008

1. Write short note:: Eustatic ch

hanges of Seea- level (20
0 Marks)
2. Discusss the diffeerent bases for classifyying the oceean depositts and givee a detailed
2007 account of pelagiic deposits o
of the ocean
ns. (60 Markks)

2006 1. Write short note:: Ocean currrents of Northern Atlan

ntic Ocean ((20 Marks)

2004 1. Write short note:: Pelagic dep

posits. (20 M
Marks)

2003 1. Presen
nt a concisee account off bottom relief of the In
ndian Ocean
n. (60 markss)

2001 1. Write short note:: Formation of coral reeefs (20 Marks)

2000 1. Write short note:: T-S diagram

m. (20 Markks)

1999 1. Write short note:: Submarinee canyons. (20 Marks)

1998 1. Explain and illustrate the sub

bmarine reliief of the Attlantic Oceaan. (60 Markks)

1997 1. Examiine criticallyy the theoriees of the formation of coral

c reefs aand atolls. (60 Marks)
2. Write short note:: Marine ressources, bio
otic, minerall and energyy resources (20 Marks)
1996 1. Explain and illustrate the oceean floor to
opography aand give a d
detailed account of thee
Mid-A
Atlantic Ridgge.(60 Markks)
1995 1. Write short note..-Food from
m the sea. (20 Marks)

1993 1. Give a reasoned account off the distrib

bution of saalinity in thee oceans an
nd partiallyy
enclossed seas. (60 Marks)
1991 1. Draw a hypsographic curve tto represen
nt the majorr physiograp
phic units of the ocean
and co
omment on their permanency. (60
0 Marks)
1990 1. Discusss the theories of the formation o
of coral reeefs proposed
d by Daly, D
Darwin and
Davis.. (60 Marks))
1989 1. Write short note on Ocean b
bottom relieef in about 200
2 words. (20
( Marks)

1988 1. Write short note on Coral reefs in aboutt 200 wordss. (20 Markss)

1987 1. Give a reasoned account of the contents of the Attlantic Oceaan and theirr impact onn
the cliimatic conditions of thee coastal regions. (60 M
Marks)
1986 1. Give aan account of marine resources aand discuss their preseent day utilization. (60
0
Markss)
2. Write short note on Pelagic deposits
d in about 200 wwords. (20 M
Marks)
 OCEAN MORPHOLOGY AND BOTTOM RELIEF

INTRODUCTION mid-oceanic ridges, trenches, deep sea plains, basins,

submarine canyons etc. The average depth of the
About three-fourth of the globe is covered oceans is 3,795m against 840m average height of the
by hydrosphere. Out of the total surface area of lithosphere. The different height and depth zones of
the globe, (509,950,000 km2) hydrosphere and the lithosphere and the hydrosphere are represented
lithosphere cover 361,060,000 km2 (about 71 per by hypsographic or hypsometric curve. A hypsomet-
cent) and 148,890,00km2 (about 29 per cent) re- ric curve is essen ally a graph that shows the propor-
spec vely. Like lithosphere, the hydrosphere is also on of land area that exists at various eleva ons by
characterized by various types of relief features like plo ng rela ve area against rela ve height.

Hypsometric curve

OCEAN MORPHOLOGY: MARINE ing devices, and scien sts of several disciplines, the
secrets of the topographic variability of the ocean
PROVINCES floors began to be unravelled. Consequently, the
Before the growth of knowledge about the scien sts became more interested in studying and
oceans and development of the science of ocean- understanding the configura on of ocean basins
ography people believed in monotonous character and bo om [Link] fically sound methods of
of the configura on of ocean basins and these were bathymetry were developed to measure different
considered to be featureless surfaces and hence depth zones of the ocean basins.
they were least interested in the study of the ocean On the basis of bathymetric techniques, the
floors. But with the launching of ocean explora on morphology of ocean basins including the major ma-
expedi ons lashed with advanced version of vessels rine provinceshave been iden [Link] morphology
equipped with sophis cated instruments, measur- of the ocean basins means configura on of the ocean
1
basins in terms of reliefs of various nature and dimen- gins are found along most of the coastal areas that
sion while the marine provinces denote the relief surround the Atlan c and Indian oceans, including
zones of ocean basin having common characteris cs the east coasts of North and South America, as well
features. Oceanographers studying the topography as the coastal areas of Europe and Africa. Passive
of the ocean floor have delineated three major units: margins are not situated along an ac ve plate bound-
con nental margins, deepoceanbasins, and oceanic ary and therefore experience very li le volcanism
(mid-ocean) ridges. and few earthquakes. Here, weathered materials
eroded from the adjacent landmass accumulate to
ConƟnental Margins form a thick, broad wedge of rela vely undisturbed
sediments.
Two main types of con nental margins have
been iden fied— passive and ac ve. Passive mar-

Profiles of seafloor topography. The ver cal scales differ from the horizontal scales, causing ver-
cal exaggera on, which makes slopes appear steeper than they really are. The bars for the horizontal
scale are 50 kilometers long, while the same distance ver cally represents only 5 kilometers, so the
drawings have a ver cal exaggera on of 10 mes.

By contrast, ac ve con nental margins occur CONTINENTAL SHELF

where oceanic lithosphere is being subducted be-
neath the edge of a con nent. The result is a rela- The con nental shelf is a gently sloping sub-
vely narrow margin, consis ng of highly deformed merged surface extending from the shoreline toward
sediments that were scraped from the descending thedeep-ocean basin. Because it is underlain by
lithospheric slab. Ac ve con nental margins are con nental crust, it is clearly a flooded extension of
common around the Pacific Rim, where they paral- the con nents. The average inclina on of the con-
leldeep-ocean trenches. nental shelf is only about one-tenth of 1 degree, a
drop of only about 2 meters per kilometer (10 feet
per mile). The slope is so slight that it would appear
to an observer to be a horizontal surface.

2
 The con nental shelf varies greatly in width. evidence that por ons of the con nental shelves
Although almost non-existent along some con - were once above sea level.
nents, the shelf extends seaward more than 1500
Although con nental shelves represent only
kilometers (930 miles) along others. On average, the
8.6percentof the total ocean area, they have eco-
con nental shelf is about 80 kilometers (50 miles)
nomic and poli cal significance because they contain
wide and 130 meters (425 feet) deep at its seaward
important mineral deposits, Con nental Margins 355
edge. On an average, the width of con nental shelves
including large reservoirs of oil and natural gas, as
is about 48 km though Sheppard has taken 67 km (42
well as huge sand and gravel deposits. The waters
miles) as average width. The Pacific con nental shelf
of the con nental shelf also contain many impor-
of South America represents the example of narrow
tant fishing grounds, which are significant sources
shelf (16 km), the Atlan c con nental shelf off the
of food.
east coast of North America represents the example
of medium size shelves (96-120 km) and extensive Ecologically, con nental shelves are very signifi-
shelves having width of a few hundred kilometres are cant because these provide ideal habitats for marine
found off the coast of East Indies, in the Arc c Sea, life including both plants and animals (including
China Sea, Adria c Sea, Arafura Sea etc. micro-organisms). These also provide ideal fishing
grounds. The coral reefs are considered the frontline
Generally speaking, The shelves are narrow
natural buffers against storm and dal surges, and
where high mountains are very close and parallel to
powerful tsunamis because these absorb most of the
the coast. For example, the Pacific con nental shelf
disrup ve forces of storm surges and tsunamis and
along the western coast of South America is narrow
thus weaken them and protect the coastal in habitats
(only 16 km wide) because of the presence of the
from the onslaught of these natural hazards.
Andes mountains. On the other hand, the shelves are
wide where the coast lands are wide plains. Though ConƟnental Shelves of India
the con nental shelves are generally wider in front
of the river mouths but the shelf off the Mississippi The maximum seaward limit of the con nental
river mouth is excep onally narrow. shelves off the Indian coasts is demarcated by 100
fathom contour. The con nental shelves along the
Con nental shelves represent 8.6 per cent of
eastern and the western coasts of India are 50 km
the total area of the ocean basin. Regionally, these
and 150 km wide respec vely. The shelves are nar-
cover 13.3 per cent, 5.7 per cent and 4.2 per cent
row (30-35 km) off the mouths of the Ganga, the
of areal coverage of the Atlan c Ocean, the Pacific
Mahanandi, the Godawari, the Krishna and the
Ocean and the Indian Ocean respec vely.
Cauvery rivers but these are wider off the estuaries
Even though the con nental shelf is rela vely of the Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi rivers. The av-
featureless, some areas are mantled by extensive erage slope of the con nental shelves off the estera
glacial deposits and thus are quite rugged. In ad- Indian coast is about 21° whereas it is 10° near Cape
di on, some con nental shelves are dissected by Comorin and only 1° near the Gulf of Combay.
large valleys running from the coastline into deeper
waters. Many of these shelf valleys are the seaward Origin of ConƟnental Shelves
extensions of river valleys on the adjacent landmass. The Nature, composi on, extension and depth
Such valleys appear to have been excavated during of con nental shelves are so varied that it becomes
the Pleistocene epoch (Ice Age). During this me difficult to explain their exact mode of origin through
great quan es of water were stored in vast ice a single mechanism and process. The following
sheets on the con nents. This caused sea level to different views have been expressed by several au-
drop by 100 meters (330 feet) or more, exposing thori es to explain the complex origin of con nental
large areas of the con nental shelves. Because of this shelves:
drop in sea level, rivers extended their courses, and
1) Con nental shelves are the result of marine
land-dwelling plants and animals inhabited the newly
exposed por ons of the con nents. Dredging off the erosion and fluvial [Link] nental shelves
coast of North America has retrieved the ancient are basically the extended form of con nental
remains of numerous land dwellers, including plate forms. Marine waves and currents erode
mammoths, mastodons, and horses, adding to the the con nental margins, and thus form extensive
3
 forms, which Receive deposits of sediments the result the con nental margins which were
brought down by the rivers and sea waves. These previously submerged became free from sea
sediments are con nuous consolidated under water. These exposed land areas were glacially
sea water and ul mately extensive con nental eroded and extensive pla orms were formed.
shelves are formed. Thus, the con nental shelves Due to deglaciation the sea level rose again
are the result of marine erosion and fluvial and these platforms were submerged under
deposits. seawater and thus extensive con nental shelves
2) Con nental shelves are formed due to terrigenous were formed. This concept of the origin of the
fluvial [Link] nental shelves are formed con nental shelves belongs to glacial control
through prolonged deposition of detritus theory.
(under sea water) brought by the rivers alone. 6) Continental shelves are formed due to cliff
Such type of continental shelves is formed erosion (and recession) and submergence
only in those areas where sea condi ons are of wave-cut [Link] coastal lands are
calm so that prolonged sedimenta on goes on effectively eroded through abrasive work of
uninterruptedly resul ng into subsidence and strong sea waves and several sea cliffs are
thus allowing more and more sedimenta on. formed. These cliffs gradually but con nuously
Such con nental shelves are construc onal and recede towards the land due to basal erosion
are most extensive. and consequent fall of their hanging crests and
3) Con nental shelves are the result of subsidence thus extensive wave-cut pla orms are formed.
of the continental marginsRising thermal These pla orms are submerged under sea water
convec ve currents from beneath the con nents to form con nental shelves.
and the ocean basins converge along the 7) Con nental shelves are formed due to l ng.
con nent-ocean boundary and descend. The The submergence of con nental margins due
resultant compressive force causes subsidence to l ng of land towards the sea results into the
of the con nental margins and thus con nental forma on of con nental shelves. This process
shelves are formed. also leads to the extension of exis ng con nental
4) Con nental shelves are formed due to faul ng shelves.
and consequent subsidence of continental The con nental shelves of India have been
[Link] mes, parallel faults are created formed differently. The con nental shelves off the
in the con nental margins. This event causes Ganga, the Godawari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
subsid ence of the marginal land areas and mouths have been formed through delta forma on.
The con nental shelves from Midinapur to Madura
consequent submergence under sea water.
are the result of sedimenta on and consequent
Such submerged land areas become con nental subsidence while the shelves of Andman Nicobar,
shelves, which are generally called as tectonically Lakshadweep, Gulf of Manar (between India and Sri
formed con nental shelves. Lanka) are originated due to coral reefs. The con -
5) Con nental shelves are formed due to glacial nental shelves of western coast are due to faul ng
and consequent submergence.
control and marine [Link] nental shelves
are formed through marine erosion of the CONTINENTAL SLOPE
continental margins when there is negative The zone of steep slope extending from the
change in sea-level (fail in sea level) either con nental shelf to the deep sea plains is called
during ice ages or due to subsidence of oceanic con nental [Link] steepness of the slope varies
floors. According to R.A. daly the sea level fell from 5°to more than 60° at different places e.g. 40°
near St. Helena, 30° off Spanish coast, 62° near St.
by 38 fathoms during Pleistocene Ice Age, with
Paul, 5° to 15° near Calicut coast (India) etc. The

4
depth of water over con nental slope varies from 200m to 2,000m.

Schema c view showing the major features of a passive con nental margin.
The gradient of the slope is lowest off stable The predominant sediments of continental
coasts without major rivers and highest off coasts slopes are muds; there are smaller amounts of
with young mountain ranges and narrow con nental sediments of sand or gravel. Over geologic me, the
shelves. Most Pacific slopes are steeper than Atlan c con nental slopes are temporary deposi onal sites
slopes. Gradients are fla est in the Indian Ocean. for sediments. During lowstands of sea level, rivers
About one-half of all con nental slopes descend into may dump their sedimentary burden directly on
deep-sea trenches or shallower depressions, and them. Sediments build up un l the mass becomes
most of the remainder terminate in fans of marine unstable and sloughs off to the lower slope and
sediment or in con nental rises. The transi on from the con nental rise. During highstands of sea level,
con nental crust to oceanic crust usually occurs these processes slow down as the coastline retreats
below the con nental slope. landward across the con nental shelf, and more of
The world’s combined con nental slope has a the sediments delivered to the coast are trapped in
total length of approximately 300,000 km (200,000 estuaries and lagoons. S ll the process con nues,
miles). Con nental slopes occupy only 8.5 per cent albeit slowly, as sediments are brought across the
of the total area of the ocean basins but it varies shelf break by winnowing of the shelf surface and
from one ocean to the other e.g. 12.4 per cent in the by advec on. Slopes are some mes scoured by such
Atlan c Ocean, 7 per cent in the Pacific Ocean and major ocean currents as the Florida Current that
6.5 per cent in the Indian Ocean. The most extensive work to erode their surfaces. Off ac ve major de-
con nental slopes are found between 20° N and 50° posi on centres, such as the Mississippi delta, slope
N la tudes and on 80° N and 70° S la tudes. sequences may accumulate through prograda on,
while the ac ve slope front is con nuously shedding
Con nental slopes are indented by numerous sediments downslope by gravity processes.
submarine canyons and mounds. The Blake Plateau
The origin of con nental slopes have been
off the southeastern United States and the con nen-
related by various authori es to erosional, tectonic
tal borderland off southern California are examples
and aggrada onal processes. The erosion theory
of con nental slopes separated from con nental
of the origin of con nental slopes is based on the
shelves by plateaus of intermediate depth. Slopes
presence of submarine canyons. According to this
off mountainous coastlines and narrow shelves o en
theory slopes are formed due to erosion by marine
have outcrops of rock.
processes mainly sea waves. According to tectonic

5
theory faul ng is held responsible for the origin of SUBMARINE CANYONS
con nental slopes. Some exponents believe that
the con nental slopes are formed due to bending CharacterisƟcs
and warping of continental shelves followed by
sedimenta on. Long, narrow and very deep valleys and trench-
es located on the con nental shelves and slopes with
Since submarine canyons are significant fea- ver cal walls resembling the con nental canyons are
tures of con nental slopes and hence they need called submarine canyons because of their loca on
separate elaborate discussion under separate head- under oceanic water. On the basis of morphogene c
ing as follows. processes these are classified into (i) glacially eroded
canyons, and (ii) non-glacial canyons.

Major elements of the con nental margins.

On an average, there is li le difference in the dient. The canyons located near the island are deep
transverse and longitudinal profiles of submarine with steepest gradient (13.8 per cent). The depths of
and subaerial (con nental) canyons. According to submarine canyons vary from 610m to 915m. At few
Sheppard the submarine canyons are similar to the places the depth has been noted upto 3,048m.
youthful river valleys on the land but are decidedly
The submarine canyons carry various types of
deeper and a few of them have dendrid c pa ern
ocean deposits but the steep valley sides are de-
of tributaries of secondary canyons. The longitudinal
void of unconsolidated materials. The floors of the
course of submarine canyons is usually sinuous while
canyons have coarser materials than the adjacent
that of the subaerial canyons is generally straight.
con nental shelves. The deposits include sands,
The gradient of submarine canyons is steeper than
clays, silt, gravels and pebbles.
the con nental canyons. The submarine canyons are
generally several kilometers wide at their heads and DistribuƟon of Submarine Cayons
their average length is 16 km.
The world distribu onal pa ern of submarine
Though the gradient of longitudinal profiles of
canyons does not reveal any control of la tudes on
the canyons varies significantly but on an average it is
their distribu ons and loca on. Generally, subma-
1.7 per cent. The canyons facing the river mouths are
rine canyons are more abundantly found along the
usually long (e.g. Congo Canyon) but have gentle gra-

6
straight coasts than highly indented coastlines. They earth movement due to endogene c forces
are found along the stable and unstable coasts alike. result in the forma on of faults and graben
They are more commonly found off the east coast on the continental shelves and slopes.
of the USA from Canada to Cape Ha eras; off the
Californian and Mexicoan coasts; along the north These fault-troughs and graben become
Mediterranean, Philippines, Japan and Aleu an is- submarine canyons. Similarly, warping and
lands; off the coast of west Africa; off the east coast steep folding give birth to synclinal basins
of India etc. and synclinal troughs respec vely which
Atlan c Oceans : Significant submarine canyons become submarine canyons. According to
of the Atlan c Ocean are Hudson Canyon (facing the De Andrade submarine canyons are formed
mouth of the Hudson river, 827m deep), Chesapeak due to crea on of a series of graben-like
Canyon, Mississippi Trough, Fosse de Cape Brenton
valleys during local coastal displacements.
Canyon (in the Bay of Biscay off the south-western
coast of France), Nazare Canyon (off the western Such tectonically originated submarine
coast of Portugal, 4000m deep), Congo Canyon (near canyons have been reported by Lawson off
the mouth of the Congo river) etc. the Californian coast, by De la Roche Ponie
Pacific Ocean: Columbia Canyon; Monterey near the coast of Cyprus and Morocco,
Canyon (which has several tributary canyons like As- by J. W. Gregory (Hudson Canyon and
cension canyon, Soquel canyon, Carnel canyon etc.); St. Lawrence Trough), by Yanasaki (near
Mugu canyon, Scripps canyon and Dume canyon (all Japan coast) etc. According to Jensen
are off the Californian coast); Panama canyon (off
and Bourcart submarine canyons were
Burica Peninsula) etc. are the important canyons
on thewestern coast of North America while Piseu formed during Quaternary period due to
Chang canyon (off the coast of Korea), Philippine subsidence and drowning of river valleys
canyon (on the main coast of Luzon), Saganin canyon, along the con nental marginal flexure.
Fizi canyon etc, are a few prominent canyons of the
This diastrophic theory of the origin of
western Pacific Ocean.
submarine canyons is cri cised mainly on
Indian Ocean : Canyons are found along the three counts.
eastern coast of India, in front of the Indus river,
along the north-eastern coast of Sri Lanka, along the • Majority of submarine canyons are
eastern coast of Africa etc. found transverse to the coast whereas
faul ng generally occurs parallel to the
Origin of Submarine Canyons coasts.
Though there are divergent opinions about the • Many of the submarine canyons have
mode of origin of submarine canyons but majority dendritic pattern of their tributaries
of the exponents consider them as recent geologic which cannot be explained through
phenomena of Canozoic era, mainly of Quaternary faul ng.
period. A few canyons are s ll in the process of for- • Not all the continental shelves and
ma on. The following theories have been put forth slopes show evidences of faul ng.
to explain the origin of submarine canyons. • This theory may explain the forma on
1) Diastrophic Theory : A few exponents of canyons along the Pacific coasts
(western coasts of North and South
(Andrade, Lawson, De la Roche Ponie, J. Americas and eastern coasts of Asia)
W. Gregory, Yanasaki, Jensen, Bourcart and Mediterranean Sea where Ter ary
etc.) have related the origin of submarine and Quaternary earth movements were
canyons to various types of earth most ac ve but the canyons along the
movements and tectonic implica tions western (eastern coasts of North and
South Americas) and eastern (off the
(faul ng, folding, warping, sinking of sea
western coasts of Europe and Africa) of
floor etc.). The tensional forces caused by
7
 the Atlan c Ocean may not be explained not possible within short geological me.
in the absence of such movements. The Secondly, if the submarine canyons are
canyons on the eastern coast of North the result of subaerial erosion during
America cut across the lithology of Ter-
emergence and subse quent drowning
ary and Quaternary periods.
during submergence, these canyons must
2) Subaerial Erosion Theory : Several
have con nued over the land also but these
exponents (e.g. J. D. Dana, F.P. Sheppard,
are found far away from the river mouths.
Hull etc.) on the basis of resemblance of
Emery and Sheppard while reac ng to the
submarine canyons to the continental
first objec on of W. M. Davis maintained
canyons in shape and deposition have
that the lowering of sealevelupto 1000 m
related the forma on of the former to the
during Pleistocene glacia on provided ideal
entrenching of river valleys by running
con nental pla orms for the entrenching of
water and subsequent drowning of these
valleys by the rivers and subsequent rise of
valleys due to subsidence and submergence
the sealevel due to deglacia on submerged
of con nental margins. According to them
the deeply entrenched valleys to form
the rivers eroded their valleys very deep
submarine canyons. If this explana on is
forming deep gorges during the period
accepted, the submarine canyons beyond
of emergence when land rose higher
the depth of 2000 m remain unexplained.
well above the sealevel and the channel
gradient was steepened. Later on the 3) Submarine Density Current Theory:
con nental margins were either subsided Holimann (1883), Adolf Von Salis (1884)
due to earth movements or the sealevel and Florel have related the formation
rose (due to deglacia on) and thus these of submarine canyons to the submarine
deep and long valleys were drowned and density currents. These density currents
subma rine canyons were formed. The are originated due to difference in density
drowned valleys in Java Sea, Philippine caused by temperature and salinity
Canyon, Monterey Canyons etc. have been varia ons.
cited as typical examples of submarine Such density currents erode the con nental
canyons formed due to subaerial erosion shelves and form trenches while stagnant
because their longitudinal profiles show water on either side of the trenches allows
upward concavity like con nental canyons sedimenta on and dyke forma on (levees).
and there is significant terrigenous deposits The density currents are originated mainly
in them. in front of the river mouths because of
W.M. Davis while contradic ng the above differences (in terms of temperature and
theory argued that the formation of salinity) in the water brought by the rivers
submarine canyons through subaerial and sea water. It may be pointed out that
erosion required ver cal oscilla on of land density currents are confined to enclosed
say upheaval of the con nental margins seas, reservoirs and lakes only and these are
upto thousands of feet above sealevel and seldom originated over shallow con nental
subsequent equivalent regional subsidence shelves and thus density currents may
to submerge the entrenched river valleys. not be taken as causa ve factors of the
This would require long geological period forma on of submarine canyons.
as the aforesaid tectonic mechanism is 4) Turbidity Current Theory : Turbidity currents

8
 having fine materials in suspension have DEEP SEA FANS AND
been held responsible by several exponents CONTINENTAL RISE
(W. M. Davis, W. E. Rither, Tangier Smith,
P. D. Trask, Lawson, Daly. Buchanan etc.) Deep sea fans are fan-shaped, or lobate-
shaped, or apron-shaped deposi onal features at
for the origin of submarine canyons in one
the base of the con nental slope, and at the mouths
way or the other. Strong onshore winds of the submarine canyons. The deep sea fans, o en
pile up water near the sea-shore with the called as submarine fans, resemble the con nental
result undercurrents are generated which alluvial fans. They are formed due to gradual deposi-
flow towards the sea. These undercur- on of sediments brought by the submarine turbidity
currents moving down the slope towards deep sea
rents bring fine materials in suspension
plains through submarine canyons. When a few deep
and so they are called turbidity currents. sea fans coalesce, the resultant deposi onal features
The higher density of these currents due is called con nental rise having varying morphomet-
to suspended sediments with them forces ric characteris cs. Many of the oceanographers have
them to flow seaward under the surface studied the nature of these con nental rise in dif-
ferent loca ons. These are found abundantly in the
water. The turbidity currents erode the
Atlan c and Indianceans but are few in the Pacific
con nental shelves and form submarine Ocean. The average width of the con nental rise is
valleys and canyons. According to Daly less than 300 km and the amplitude of reliefs is less
there is increased rate of erosion of coastal than 40 meters. The depth of water over con nental
land through marine waves due to fall in rise ranges between 1.5 to 5.0 km.
sea-level during glacial period, with the As regards the origin of con nental rise, the
result trubidity of sea water is increased submarine turbidity currentsare believed to be the
due to which density of sea water is also potent factor for their origin and development. As
theturbidity currents move through the subma-
increased, consequently seaward turbidity
rine canyons, they erode them and transport the
currents are originated. These currents eroded sediments in suspension down the slope
while moving over the con nental shelves i.e. towards deep sea plains. As these currents cross
and slopes erode them in linear manner the canyon mouths, they are slowed down in their
and form submarine cayons and valleys. speed because of marked decrease in the gradient.
Consequently, the suspended sediments se le down
Many cri cs (Zeppelin, Heim, Bucher etc.) have near the mouths of submarine canyons, and thus
doubted the efficiency of turbidity currents to form are deposited? The deposi on is well graded i.e.,
submarine canyons. According to them the velocity the largest sediments are deposited just in front of
of these currents is not such that they can power- submarine canyons, and size, of sediment decreases
fully erode the hard rocks of con nental shelves to towards deep sea plains. The resultant deposi on
form canyons. Bucher is of the opinion that currents is characterized by graded bedding. It may be men-
generated through earthquakes and volcanic erup- oned that there is also ver cal grading of sediments,
ons are more rapid and powerful and hence are i.e. sediments become progressively finer upward
more capable of eroding the con nental shelves to within a single sequence of deposi onal unit, which
form canyons. gradually grows in size and assumes the shape of a
Following Kunen it may be forwarded that sub- fan or lobe. It is to be remembered that the forma on
marine canyons in defferent locali es having vary- and growth of deep sea fans is a gradual process of
ing lithologies and structures should be explained opera on of several turbidity currents at different
separately. The canyons developed in stable areas of mes. It may be further elaborated. The process of
compact and tenaceouslithologies are formed due to the forma on of deep sea fans beings with the depo-
drowning of subaerial valleys, while those carved in si on of graded materials (sediments) by the first set
unconsolidated lithologies might have been formed of turbidity currents at one me. Later on the next
through landslides, turbidity currents etc. turbidity currents erode some of the already depos-
ited graded sediments and deposit another sequence
9
of materials up on previously deposited sequence of Remarkably low areal coverage of deep sea plains
materials. This .process-con nues through subse- in the Atlan c Ocean in comparison to the Pacific
quent turbidity currents and thus several sequences and Indian Oceans is a ributed to larger extent of
of graded deposits are laid down one upon another. con nental shelves in the former. Though vast and
This results in horizontal and ver cal growth of deep extensive deep sea plains are generally featureless
sea fans of several meters in height, usually below but a few long, narrow and elongated ridges, guyots
40 meters. Such piles of graded deposits are called etc. are significant reliefs. The submarine ridges with
turbidite deposits. steep side-slopes some mes reach the sea level and
even project above the water surface and appears
DEEP OCEAN BASINS AND as islands. Mid-Atlan c ridge, East Pacific Rise and
ASSOCIATED FEATURES mid-Indian Ocean ridge are typical examples.

The deep ocean basins are characterized by the More dominance of abyssal plains in the Atlan-
following significant relief features of eleva on (like c and the Indian Oceans is because of difference in
abyssal hills) and depressions (like ocean trenches the nature of plate margins in these oceans. Gener-
and ocean deeps). The most extensive features are ally, extensive abyssal plains are found in the regions
deep sea plains, very o en called as abyssal plains of passive plate margins such as in the Atlan c and
but these are physiographically monotonous because Indian Ocean, While limited abyssal plains are asso-
of their fla sh character of vast terrain. ciated with ac ve plate margins, as represented by
Pacific plate margins. It may be men oned that in the
• abyssal plains zones of ac ve plate margins, i.e. ac ve subduc on
(convergent zone) zones, ocean trenches are formed,
• abyssal hills
and these trenches trap the sediments of land origin
• seamounts (guyots) and hence do not allow them to move in the deep
ocean basins, with the result extensive abyssal
• ocean deeps and ocean trenches.
plains are formed. On the other hand, passive plate
1. Abyssal Plains margins do not allow the forma on of enormous
ocean trenches. Thus, in the absence of deep ocean
Abyssal plains, known as deep sea plainsare trenches sediments travel down to deep ocean and
the most extensive but the fla est terrain units to se le down on ocean basins to form extensive abys-
be found on the earth’s surface including con nents. sal plains. This is why the Atlan c and Indian Ocean
The average slope gradient is about 0.5°. It may be have extensive deep sea plains.
men oned that the basal surface of volcanic rocks,
say solidified basalt crust is overlain by terrigenous 2. Abyssal Hills
deposits which are not consolidated but are lay-
A variety of hills of volcanic origin project above
ered. It is believed that the sediments of land origin
the deep sea plains (abyssal plains), namely volcanic
have been transported by the submarine turbidity
hills and islands, sea mounts, table mounts or guyots
currents across submarine canyons and have been
etc. The volcanic hills are either dome shaped or are
regularly deposited on the solid but irregular crustal
elongated hills with extensive bases. When these
surface of volcanic origin. Volcanic deposits have also
hills appear above sea water surface (sea level),
been reported at few places in different oceans. In
they are called volcanic islands or simply islands.
fact, deep sea plains are characterized by pelagic
Usually, these hills are 1000 m high from the ocean
deposits of plants, marine animals and siliceous
floor while their width ranges between 0.1 km to
remains together with terrigenous materials.
100 km. The volcanic hills of lower height are called
Deep sea plain characterized by flat and rolling abyssal hills or sea knolls. The conical volcanic hills
submarine plain is the most extensive relief zone of submerged under ocean j water, i.e. always below
the ocean basins. These deep-seated plains having sea level, are called sea I mounts, while flat-topped
the depth from 3000m to 6000m cover 75.9 percent volcanic hills are called ‘ table mounts or guyots.
of the total area of the ocean basins but this areal The sea mounts are the relict of ex nct submarine
coverage varies from one ocean to the other (80.3 volcanic mountains with average height of 1,000 m
per cent in the Pacific Ocean, 80.1 per cent in the In- from ocean floor, but they are always below ocean
dian Ocean and 54.9 per cent in the Atlan c Ocean). water. Some mes seamounts also represent ac ve
10
volcanic peaks. The sides of seamounts are of steep These deeps and trenches have been usually named
slopes. ;They may be found on the ocean floor in iso- a er the explorers and their geographical loca ons
la on or in groups. When numerous abyssal hills are [Link] Deep (a er J. Murrary), Japan and Sunda
found in cluster on ocean floors, the resultant mor- Trenches (a er geographical loca on). Out of the
phological features are called abyssal hill provinces. explored and surveyed 57 deeps, the Pacific Ocean,
The deep sea plains of the Atlan c and Indian Oceans the Atlan c Ocean and the Indian Ocean account
are do ed with such clustered numbers of abyssal for 32,19, and 6 deeps respec vely. Mariana Trench
volcanic hills. Most of the submarine volcanic hills located to the west of Philippines in the North Pa-
on deep ocean floors are the result of divergence of cific Ocean is the deepest (11.02 km deep) of all the
plates and consequent sea floor spreading resul ng ocean deeps.
into volcanic ac vi es and forma on of numerous
On an average, the ocean trenches are 3 to 5
volcanic hills.
km in depth from the surrounding surface of ocean
3. Ocean Deeps and Trenches floor. It is significant to men on that these long,
narrow and deep depressions are always found near
Ocean deeps represen ng depressions and the land areas, say coastlands, and island arcs, which
trenches on the ocean floors are te deepest-zones represent ac ve plate margins, where two plates
of the ocean basins. These are generally located converge and collide, and the rela vely heavier plate
parallel to the coasts facing mountains and along the is subducted below the lighter plate. This is why
islands. Ocean deeps are grouped into two categories most of ocean trenches are found in the eastern and
according to size viz. (1) very deep but less extensive western parts of the Pacific Oceans and near Japan-
depressions are called deeps, while (2) long and nar- Philippines island arcs. Ocean trenches are seldom
row linear depressions are called trenches. These found in mid-ocean regions. A few important ocean
deeps and trenches are characterized by very steep trenches have been presented in table.
slopes. Some mes, these rise almost to ver cality.

Major Ocean Deeps (Trenches) Depth in metres

1. Challenger or Mariana Trench N. Pacific 11022m
2. Aldrich or Tonga Trench Central S. Pacific 10882
3. Swire or Philippine Trench N.W. Pacific 10475
4. Nares or Puerto Rico Trench Off West Indian Islands 8385m
5. Kurile Trench Off Sakhalin, Kamchatka 10498m
6. Tizard or Romanche Trench S. Atlan c 7631
7. Java Trench E. Indian Ocean 7450

4. Mid-Ocean Ridge
Along well-developed divergent plate boundaries, the seafloor is elevated, forming a broad linear
swell called the oceanic ridge, or mid-ocean ridge. An elevated posi on, extensive faul ng and associated
earthquakes, high heat flow, and numerous volcanic structures characterize the oceanic ridge.

11
 Distribu on of the oceanic ridge system. The map shows ridge segments that exhibit slow, inter-
mediate, and fast spreading rates.
The interconnected oceanic ridge system is meters and the appearance of a broad, elongated
the longest topographic feature on Earth’s surface, swell that exhibits various degrees of ruggedness.
exceeding 70,000 kilometers (43,000 miles) in Furthermore, the ridge system is broken into seg-
length. Represen ng more than 20 percent of Earth’s ments that range from a few tens to hundreds of
surface, the oceanic ridge winds through all major kilometres in length. Although each segment is offset
oceans in a manner similar to the seam on a baseball. from the adjacent segment, they are generally con-
The crest of this linear structure typically stands 2 to nected, one to the next, by a transform fault. Oceanic
3 kilometers above the adjacent deepoceanbasins ridges are as high as some mountains found on the
and marks the plate margins where new oceanic con nents; however, the similarity ends there.
crust is created.
Whereas most continental mountains form
No ce in Figure above that large sec ons of when compressional forces fold and metamorphose
the oceanic ridge system have been named based thick sequences of sedimentary rocks along conver-
on their loca ons within the various ocean basins. gent plate boundaries, oceanic ridges form where
Some ridges run along the middle of ocean basins, tensional forces fracture andpull the ocean crust
where they are called mid-oceanridges. This holds apart. The oceanic ridge consists oflayers and piles
true for the Mid-Atlan c Ridge, which is posi oned of newly formed mafic rocks that have been faulted
in the middle of the Atlan c, roughly paralleling the into elongated blocks that are buoyantly upli ed.
margins of the con nents on either side. This is also
Along the axis of some segments of the oce-
true for the Mid-Indian Ridge. However, the East
anic ridge system are deep, down-faulted structures
Pacific Rise is not a “mid-ocean” feature. Rather, as
called ri valleys. The name ri valley has been ap-
its name implies, it is located in the eastern Pacific,
plied to these features because they are strikingly
far from the center of the ocean. At its northern end
similar to the con nental ri valleys that comprise
there are two branches—one that points toward
the East African Ri . Some ri valleys, including many
Central America and another that curves toward
along the Mid- Atlan c Ridge, exceed 30 kilometers
South America .
in width and have walls that tower 2000 meters
The term ridge may be misleading, because above the valley floor. This makes them comparable
these features are not narrow and steep as the term to the deepest and widest part of Arizona’s Grand
implies, but have widths of from 1000 to 4000 kilo- Canyon.

12
 BOTTOM RELIEFS OF ATLANTIC of con nental shelves has been largely controlled
by the reliefs of the coastal lands. These become
OCEAN significantly narrow where mountains and hills
The ocean basins of the Atlantic Ocean is border the coast e.g. the African shelves between
most extensively explored and studied and hence Bay of Biscay and Cape of Good Hope and Brazilian
more details are available about the morphologi- shelves between 50S and 100S la tudes. The shelves
cal characteris cs of this great ocean basin. The become 200 to 400 km wide along the north-eastern
basin-centered mid-Atlan c Ridge a racted a large coast of North America and the northwestern coast
number of geoscien sts to study different aspects of Europe. Extensive shelves are found around New-
of the ocean basins. The convincing geological, foundland (Grand Bank) and Bri sh Islands (Doggar
palaeonotological and palaeomagne c evidences Bank). Similarly, the continental shelves around
enabled the scien sts to formulate the revolu onary Greenland and Iceland are quite wide. Very extensive
theory of plate tectonics on the basis of evidences of con nental shelves are found in the South Atlan c
sea floor spreading and palaeomagne sm in 1960s. Ocean mainly between Bahia Blanca and Antarc ca.
Plausible explana ons were offered for the evolu on Many marginal seas are located on the con nen-
of varied morphological features of the ocean ba- tal shelves in the North Atlan c but such seas are
sins such as con nental shelves, con nental slopes, prac cally absent in the South Atlan c. Among the
abyssal plains, ocean trenches, submarine canyons, continental shelf seated seas significant are the
transform faults, volcanic hills, seamounts, guyots, Hudson Bay, the Bal c Sea, the North Sea, the Davis
mid-ocean ridges etc. In the light of these facts let Strait, the Denmark Strait etc. The Caribbean and
us discuss the characteris c features of ocean basins Mediterranean seas represent enclosed seas. There
morphology of each ocean. are several islands which are located on the con nen-
tal shelves e.g. Bri sh Isles, Iceland, Faeroes, Azores,
1. IntroducƟon Ascension, Tristan da Cuncha, Newfoundland, West
North and South Atlan c Ocean located be- Indies, Maderia, St. Helena, Trinidad, Falkland, South
tween North and South Americans in the west and Orkneys, Shetlands, Georgia, Sandwitch, Canaries,
Europe and Africa in the east covers an area of Cape Verde etc., are significant islands represen ng
82,000,000 km which is l/6th of the geographical different loca ons and origin.
area of the globe and half of the area of the Pacific
Ocean. The ‘S’ shape of the ocean indicates the fact 3. Mid-AtlanƟc Ridge
that landmasses (con nents) on its either side were The mid-Atlan c ridge represen ng the zone of
once a con guous part. The Atlan c Ocean was divergent or construc ve plate margins (American
formed due to dri ing of North and South Americas plates moving westward and Eurassian and African
to the west due to plate tectonics. The ocean widens plates moving to the east) is the most striking relief
to the south of equator and a ains the maximum feature which having S shape extends for 14,450 km
width of 5,920 km at 35° S latitude. It narrows from Iceland in the north and to Bouvet Island in the
down towards the equator. It is only 2560 km wide south. Though swinging west and east it maintain
between Liberian coast and Cape Sao Roque. The its central posi on and nowhere goes down more
width further increases northward and it becomes than 4,000 m below sea level. The ridge is known
4800 km at 40° N la tude. It narrows down in the as Dolphin Rise to the north and Challenger Rise to
extreme north where it maintains its contact with the south of equator. It is known as Wynille Thomp-
the Arc c Ocean through Norwegian Sea, Denmark son Ridge between Iceland and Scotland. The ridge
Strait and ,Davis Bay. The average depth of the ocean becomes quite extensive to the south of Greenland
is less than the Pacific Ocean because of extensive and Iceland and is called Telegraphic Plateau because
enclosed con nental shelves and marginal enclosed first cabbies were laid down in this area. A signifi-
seas. About 24 per cent of the Atlan c Ocean is less cant branch emerges from this central ridge near
than 915 m deep. 50°N la tude and extends northwestward as New-
foundland Rise and con nues upto Newfoundland.
2. ConƟnental Shelf Another important branch known as Azores Rise
Con nental shelves have developed along both bifurcates from the mid- Atlan c Ridge to the south
the coasts of the Atlan c Ocean and the Width ranges of 40° N la tude and extends upto Azores Islands. At
from 2-4km to more than 80km. In fact, the width the equator the ridge sends off two branches.
13
14
 Sierra Leone Rise extends towards northeast is 5,000m deep.
and Para Rise stretches in north-west direction.
(6) Cape Verde basin is located between
Guinea Ridge, a minor branch of the central ridge,
the mid-Atlan c Ridge and west African
runs north-eastward and extends upto Guinea coast.
coast and extends from 10° N to 23°
Two significant branches come out of the central
N. Average depth is 5,000m but at few
ridge near 40° S la tude. The Walvis Ridge extends
places it becomes 5,000m or more.
towards north-east and merges with African con -
nental shelf while Rio Grande Rise extends towards (7) Guinea basin extends from north-east to
South American coast. south-west in elongated shape between
Guinea Ridge and Sierra Leone Rise and
Though major part of the mid-Atlan c Ridge
measures 4,000 to 5,000m in depth.
is submerged under oceanic water but a host of
peaks and sea mounts project well above the water (8) Angola basin is located between the
surface and form islands. The Pico Island of Azores equator and 30° S la tude. It stretches
is the highest peak which rises 8,229.6m (27,000 from the African coast in the north-east
feet) above the sea floor and 213.36m to 243.84 m to the knot of the mid-Atlan c Ridge
above sea level. and Walvis Ridge in the south-west. The
basin is most extensive near the African
[Link] Basins coast and narrows down towards south-
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge divides the Atlantic west. The average depth is 5,000 m.
Ocean into two major basins. East and West Atlan c Cape Basin (25° S-45° S), Agulhas Basin (40°S-
Basin. There are few important basin within these 50°S), Argen na Basin (35°S-50°S, depth 5,000m-6-
two major basins. ,000m) and Atlan c-Antarc c Basin are the other
(1) Labrador basin extends between the significant basins of the Atlan c Ocean.
con nental shelf of Greenland in the
5. Ocean Deeps and Trenches
north and Newfoundland Rise in the
south covering la tudinal extent of 40° The number of deeps in the Atlan c Ocean is far
N to 50° N where the depth of the basin less than in the Pacific Ocean because of the absence
ranges from 4,000 to 4,500 m. of the effects of Ter ary orogenic movements along
the Atlan c coasts. Murray has iden fied 29 deeps
(2) North American basin is the most exten-
upto the depth of 3,000 fathoms (5,486.5m) in the
sive basin of the Atlan c Ocean and ex-
Atlan c Ocean. Nares Deep (6,000m), Pureto Rico
tends between 12° N and 40° la tudes.
Deep (8,385m), Ha eras Deep (5,445m), Columbia
The east-west sec on lies between the
Deep (5,125m, south of Hai ), Valdivia Deep (3,134
con nental shelves off the east coast
fathoms), Tizard or Romanche Deep (9,370m), Bu-
of N. America and 50° W meridian. The
chanan Deep (3,063 fathoms), Moseley Deep (3,309
depth of the basin is more than 5,000m
fathoms), Vema Deep (4,900m) etc. are a few impor-
but a few deeps measure more than
tant ocean deeps of the Atlan c Ocean.
6,000m depth.
The Mediterranean Sea, Caribbean Sea and
(3) Brazilian basin is confined between the
Gulf of Mexico are significant marginal seas in the At-
equator and 30° S la tude and east coast
lan c Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea is divided into
of Brazil in the west and Para Rise in the
two major basins (East and West Basins) by 4,000m
east. The depth is more than 4,000m.
deep mid-sea ridge which runs from the southern
(4) Spanish basin is located between the Italian coast to the north African coast. The East
mid- Atlan c Ridge and Iberian Penin- Mediterranean Basin is further divided into Ionian
sula. It is bordered by Azores Rise in the (4,600m deep) and Lavan ne Basins (2,000-3,000m
south and extends upto 50° N la tude. deep) by the ridge located between the southern
The average depth is 5,000m. coast of Greece and the northern coast of Africa.
The West Mediterranean Basin is divided into two
(5) North and South Canary basin is com-
sub- basins (Algiers-Provencal Basin and Tyrrhenian
prised of two almost circular basins and
Basin) by a 1,000m deep ridge running between
15
Italy and Tunisia. Broad con nental shelves (80 km and deeps). The Ocean has the largest number of
to 240 km wide and 1,000m deep) are found along islands (more than 2,000). It may be pointed out that
Spanish (eastern), Italian (western), Greek (western), the western coast is studded with islands, island arcs
Egyp an (northern), Tunisian and Lybian (north- and festoons while the eastern coast has only a few
eastern) coasts. islands. The islands of the Pacific Ocean are grouped
The Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea are se- in the following 3 categories:
pareted by a 1,600m deep ridge running between (1) The conƟnental islands: Aleu an islands,
Yucatan Peninsula and Cuba Island. The prominent islands off Bri sh Columbia of Canada and
basins are Mexico basin and Caribbean basin. The
Chilean islands.
la er is further divided into four sub- basins e.g.
Yucatan basin, Cayman trough, Columbia basin and (2) Islands arcs and festoons: Kurile, Japanese
Venezuela basin. Archipilago, Philippines, and Indonesian
Islands.
BOTTOM RELIEFS OF THE PACIFIC
OCEAN (3) Scattered smaller islands: These islands
are further subdivided in two major,
1. IntroducƟon subcategories as follows:
The Pacific Ocean, the largest ocean of the • Islands based on racial groupings such
world having one-third area of the globe, extends as
from east to west for 16,000 km from the east coast
of Asia in the west to the west coasts of Americas (a) Malanesia : e.g. Solomans, New Hebri-
in the east and for 14,880 km from north to south des, Fizi.,
between Bering Strait in the north to Cape Adre (Ant- (b) Micronesia : e.g. Marshalls, Carolines,
arc ca) in the south. The overall shape of the ocean Gilbert, and Ellice.
is triangular if its extent in both the hemispheres is
considered separately. Average depth of the ocean is (c) Polynesia: e.g. Society, Cook and Tua-
4,572 m. Both the coasts (east and west) of the Pacific motu.
are paralleled by the chains of folded mountains and • Islands formed of volcanic materials
therefore the descent from the coast to the abyssal and coral reefs: e.g. Hawaii Islands-of
plains is very steep. More or less uniform broad and volcanic origin, Fizi, Faunafu , Ellice
extensive ocean floor is characterized by several etc.-coral islands.
swells, rises, sea mounts and depressions (trenches

16
 Johnson has divided the Pacific Ocean into the sive continental shelves and oceanic
following four sub-regions: trenches.
(1) The Northern Pacific represents the (4) The South-East Pacific has the most strik-
deepest part of the whole Pacific where ing relief of the Pacific Ocean as the East
average depth ranges between 5,000m Pacific Rise or Ridge but there is absence
and 6,000m. This region makes contact of marginal seas.
with the Arctic Sea through Bering
Strait. 2. ConƟnental Shelf
(2) The Central Pacific is characterized by There is significant difference in the extent and
largest number of islands most of which characteris cs of con nental shelves on the eastern
are of volcanic and coral origin. H.H. and western coasts of the Pacific. The shelves are
Hess has iden fied 160 flat-topped sea quite broad and extensive along the eastern coasts
mounts in this region. There are a few of Australia and Asia where the width varies from
subparallel island chains which have 160 km to 1600 km and the depth ranges between
been named by E. Suess as Oceanides. 1,000 m and 2,000m. Several islands are seated on
these broad con nental shelves (viz. Kuriles, Japa-
(3) The South-West Pacific carries a large nese islands, Philippines, Indonesia, New Zealand
number of islands, marginal seas, exten-
17
etc.). These con nental shelves also carry numer- and sizes, These basins are separated by ridges and
ous marginal seas like Bering Sea, Okhotsk Sea, ‘rises’. The following are a few important basins of
Japan Sea, Yellow Sea, China Sea, Java Sea, Coral the Pacific Ocean.
Sea, Tasmania Sea, Arafura Sea etc. The con nental
(1) Philippine basin is located to the east
shelve are less extensive along the western coasts of
of Philippines and extends from south
Americas because of nearness of cordillerean chains
of Japan to 5°N la tude. Kyushu-Paian
of folded mountains to the coastal lands. The average
Ridge runs through the middle of the ba-
width is 80 km.
sins. Average depth ranges from 5,000m
3. East Pacific Rise to 6,000m.

The Pacific Ocean does not have central or (2) Fiji basin is located to the south of Fiji
mid-oceanic ridge like the Atlan c and the Indian Island between 10°S and 32°S la tudes
Oceans, albeit there are a few sca ered ridges hav- and the average depth is 4,000m. The
ing local importance. The East Pacific Rise or Ridge basin to the north of 20°S is known as
known as Albatross Plateau is 1600 km wide and it North Fiji Basin whereas the South Fiji
extends from north of New Zealand to the Californian Basin between 20°S and 32°S is bordered
coasts. It sends off two branches between 23° S35- by Norkolk Island Ridge in the west and
°S. The eastern branch merges with Chilean coast Karmadec-Tonga Trenches in the east.
while the other branch moves southward in the (3) East Australian basin is situated between
name of Eastern Island Rise. A minor ridge known the east coast of Australia and New Zea-
as Galapagos Ridge runs parallel to the East Pacific land Ridge with average depth of more
Rise in the east between the Eastern Island Fracture than 5,000m.
Zone and Galapagos islands from where it moves in
two branches viz. (i) Carnegie Ridge, and (ii) Cocos (4) South Australian Basin also known as
Ridge in north-east direction. The New Zealand Jeffreys Basin is located to the south-
Ridge is about 200m to 2,000m below sea level and east of Australia having average depth
widens near Fiji island to form Fiji Plateau which is of 5,000m.
2,000m below sea level. The Hawaiian Rise extends (5) Peru basin in located to the west of Peru
from north-west to south-east direc on between coast between 5°S and 24°S la tudes
35°N-17°N for a distance of 960 km. This is the most and extends upto 110°W longitude. The
extensive ridge (2640 km wide) of the Pacific Ocean. average depth of the basin is 4,000m.
The other minor ridges are Nazca Ridge off Peru
coast, Lord Howe Rise off eastern coast of Australia (6) South-Western Pacific basin is an elon-
between 20°S and 40°S la tude. Norfolk Island Ridge gated basin stretching between 20°S
between New Caledonia and New Zealand (23°S-35- and 50°S la tudes and 180-129°W longi-
°S), Eauripik-New Guinea Rise north of New Guinea tudes. Karmadec Trench with the depth
and parallel to 140° E longitude, Caroline- Soloman of 10,047m is located to the west of this
Ridge north of Soloman Islands etc. basin.
(7) Pacific-Antarc c Basin is located to the
4. Ocean Basins south-west of Chilean coast between
There are different basins of different shapes 40°S and 60°S latitudes and extends
upto 130°W longitude.

18
 5. Oceans Deeps and Trenches Paul, Rodriges, Maldive, Laccadive, Andman- Nico-
bar, Christmas etc., belong to the category of small
There are several trenches and deeps in the and ny islands. Indian subcon nent in the north
Pacific Ocean. These depressions are located either divides the Indian Ocean into Arabian Sea and Bay
along the island arcs or mountain chains. It may be of Bengal. The ocean widens in the south. Johnson
pointed out that the trenches are found mainly in has divided the Indian Ocean in 3 zones on the basis
the western Pacific Ocean. The following are the of regional characteris cs: (1) The Western Zone
significant trenches: between African coast and the mid- Indian Oceanic
Major Trenches of the Pacific Ocean Ridge has large number of islands and the average
depth is 3650m (2000 fathoms); (2)The Eastern Zone
Trenches Depth in metres is deepest of all the zones with average depth of
Mariana 11,002 5500 m (3000 fathoms). The con nental shelves are
Middle American 6,562 narrow but have steep slopes; (3) The Central Zone
represents the mid-oceanic ridge where many ny
Tonga 10,882
islands are located.
Ryukyu 6,395
Kurile 10,498 2. ConƟnental Shelf
Bonin -
There is wide range of varia on in the con -
Philippine 10,475 nental shelves of the Indian Ocean. Quite extensive
Yap Palau - shelves are found along the margins of Arabian
Japan 10,375 Sea and Bay of Bengal. Similarly, extensive shelves
Soloman - are observed along the eastern coast of Africa and
Karmadec 10,047 around Madagascar which is itself located on the
New Britain - con nental shelves. On an average, the con nental
shelves are very wide (640 km) in the west whereas
Peru-Chile 8,025
these are narrow (160 km) along the coast of Java
New Hebbrides -
and Sumatra. These become further narrow along
Aleu an 7,679 the northern coast of Antarc ca.
B OT TO M R E L I E F O F I N D I A N 3. Mid-Ocean Ridge
OCEAN
The central ridge or mid-oceanic ridge known as
1. IntroducƟon Mid-Indian Oceanic Ridge extends from the southern
p of Indian Peninsula in the north to Antarc ca in
The Indian Ocean is smaller than the Pacific the south almost in north-south direc on and forms
and Atlan c Ocean in areal extent and is bounded, a con nuous chain of highlands. Wherever the cen-
on all of its sides, by Asia in the north, Africa in the tral ridge or its branches emerge above the sea level,
west, Asia in the east, Australia in the southeast islands are formed. The main central ridge starts from
and Antarc ca in the south. The ocean has contact the con nental shelf of the southern p of Indian
with the Pacific and the Atlan c oceans in the south Peninsula with average width of320 km. This part of
near Antarc ca. The average depth of the ocean the ridge is known as Laccadive-Chagos Ridge (also
is 4,000m. Major parts of the coastal lands of the known as Maldive Ridge). The ridge further extends
Indian Ocean formed by the block mountains of southward and widens near equator. It is called
Gondwanaland are compact and solid. The coasts Chagos-St. Paul Ridge between equator and 30° S
of the East Indies are bordered by fold mountain la tude where the average width becomes 320 km.
chains. The marginal seas are less in number than the The ridge further widens to 1,600 km between 30°
Pacific and the Atlan c oceans. Significant marginal S and 50° S la tudes and is known as Amsterdam-
seas are Mozambique Channel, Red Sea, Persian St Paul Plateau. The central ridge bifurcates to the
Gulf, Andman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal etc. south of 50° S la tude. The western branch known
Malgasy (Madagascar) and Sri Lanka are the big is- as Kerguelen-Gaussberg ridge extends in NW-SE
lands whereas Suqutra, Zanzibar, Comoro, Reunion, direc on between 48° S and 63° S and the eastern
Secychelles, Prince Edwards, Crozet, Kerguelen, St. branch is known as Indian-Antarc c Ridge.
19
3. Branches of the Central Ridge
(1) Socotra-Chagos Ridge also known as Carlesbreg Ridge emerges from the central ridge at 5°S
la tude and extends in north-westerly direc on uptoGardafuli Peninsula of N.E. Africa.
(2) Seychelles-Mauri us ridge bifurcates from the main ridge around 18°S la tude near Mauri us
Island and runs in roughly north-west direc on in arcuate shape upto Seychelles and Amirante
islands.
(3) Madagascar Ridge stretches from the southern p of Madagascar (Malagasy) to 40°S la tude.
Its further southward extension is known as Prince Edward-Crozet Ridge between 40°S- 48°S
la tudes.
(4) The south-western branch near 23°S la tude is known as S. W. Indian Ridge.
(5) Ninety East Ridge extends from the con nental shelf off the Irrawadi river mouth and runs
in almost north-south direc on parallel to 90°E longitude upto 40°S where it merges with
Amsterdam-St Paul Plateau.

20
 4. Ocean Basins longitude and is bordered by Prince Ed-
ward Crozet Ridge in the north, Antarc-
The mid-Indian Oceanic Ridge divides the Indi- ca in the south and Kerguelen Gassberg
an Ocean into two major basins-the eastern and the Ridge in the north-east. Average depth
western basins. These basins are further divided into is 3,600m.
sub-basins by the branches of the central ridge.
(8) Eastern Indian-Antarc c basin is located
(1) Oman basin faces the Gulf of Oman and between Amsterdam - St. Paul Plateau
is spread over the extensive con nental and Indian- Antarc c Ridge in the north
shelf with average depth of 3,658m. and north-east and Antarc ca in the
(2) Arabian basin is located in almost cir- south. The depth varies from 3,600m
cular shape between Laccadive-Chagos to 4,800m. Kerguelen-Gassberg Ridge
ridge and Socotra-Chagos Ridge with the separates the basin from the Atlan c-
depth of 3,600m-5,486m. Indian- Antarc c Basin.

(3) Somali basin is bordered by Socotra- (9) West Australian basin is the most
Chagos ridge in the north-west, Central extensive basin and forms rectangular
Ridge in the east, Seychelles - Mauri us shape surrounded by S.E. Indian Ridge
Ridge in the south-west and African in the south-west, Ninety East Ridge in
coast in the west. The average depth is the west, con nental shelves of Java-
3,600m. Sumatra in the north-east and the con -
nental shelf of west Australia. Average
(4) Mauri us basin is located between S. depth varies from 3,600m to 6,100m but
W. Indian Ridge and South Madagascar the central part of the basin is 6,459m
Ridge and extends from 20°S to 40°S deep.
la tude. The depth .Bo om reliefs of the
Indian Ocean. A-Socotra-Chagos Ridge, (10) Mid-Indian basin is bordered by the
B-Chagos Ridge, C-Seychelles Ridge, D- central ridge in the west and the south-
Chagos- St. Paul Ridge, E-Amsterdam-St west, byNinety East Ridge in the east
Paul Ridge, F-Indian-Antarc c Ridge, G- and by the Bengal plateau in the north.
Kerguelen-Gassberg Ridge, H- Madagas- The average depth of outer part ranges
car Ridge and I-Atlan c-Antarc c Ridge, from 3,600m to 6,800m while the depth
1. Oman basin, [Link] basin, [Link] of the central part of the basin ranges
basin, [Link] basin, [Link] ba- between 4,800m and 6,100m.
sin, [Link]-Indian-Antarctic Basin,
[Link] Basin, [Link]-Australia ba-
5. Deeps and Trenches
sin and [Link] c [Link] between There are very few deeps and trenches in
3,600m and 5,486m. The deepest part the Indian Ocean. About 60 per cent of the Ocean
measures 6,391m depth. consists of deep sea plains with depth ranging from
(5) Mascarene basin of oval shape extends 3,600m to 5,487m. Important deep sea plains are
between Madagascar and Seychelles - Somali Abyssal plain. Ceylone (Sri Lanka) Abyssal
Mauri us Ridge. plain, Indian Abyssal Plain, (4,380m) etc. Significant
trenches are Java or Sunda Trench (7,450m deep), Ob
(6) Agulhas-Natal basin is an elongated Trench (6,875m deep), Mauri us Trench, Amirante
basin which is bordered by Madagascar Trench etc.
ridge in the north and north-east, Prince
Edward Crozet Ridge in the east and the
S.E. African coast in the west and north-
west. Average depth is 3,600m.
(7) Atlan c-Indian-Antarc c basin is in fact
the eastward con nua on of Atlan c -
Antarc c Basin. It stretches upto 70°E

21
 TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEANS
Oceanic temperature and its accurate measurement has been one of the chief concerns of oceanographers.
It is the most fundamental factor controlling the oceanic circula on and the distribu on of organisms both in
surface waters and at various depths.

Significance of Study of Oceanic Temperature

• Oceanic temperature regulates physico-chemical proper es of ocean waters by controlling evapora on,
salinity and density.
• It is the differen al hea ng of land and water that accounts for the dis nct types of marine and con nental
types of climates found on the surface the earth. The oceans because of this characteris c property
of hea ng and cooling in a rela vely longer period of me tend to exercise modera ng influence on
the climate of such regions that come under their influence. Thus, the coastal regions experience cool
summers and less severe winter.
• It plays a major role in causing ocean currents and movement of ocean water. Sea surface temperature
o he current determines the nature of coastal climate.
• It impacts distribu on of flora and fauna as can be seen from the decrease of biodiversity from equator
to poles.

Factors influencing Oceanic Temperature

Major factors influencing oceanic temperature are as given:

1. Interplay of Hea ng and Cooling

These two factors are essen al in determining temperature distribu on. Sources of these are as below:

Hea ng Sources: The major sources are as given below:

a) Absorp on of Radia on: The atmosphere acts as the green house to the solar radia on, i.e.,
it is transparent to solar radia on but non-transparent to earth’s radia on. The frac on of the solar
energy that is received on the surface a er being depleted (by absorp on and sca ering) in the
atmosphere, is again reflected back into the space. This over-all reflec vity is known as the albedo
of the earth. It is 42% in general, meaning thereby that out of 1G0 - solar radia on only 58% is le
to be absorbed or sca ered by the land and the sea.
b) Convec on: According to Geikie, the temperature of the earth increases 1 °F for every 64 feet of
descent. This results in the increase of temperature at the bo om of the ocean due to the nearness
to the centre of the earth. The convec onal currents thus origina ng due to internal heat of the
earth account for hea ng of lower layers of water which, as we come upward, becomes insignificant.
It has been the movement of oceanic water also reduces the effect of bo om heat and makes it
negligible due to the quick transfer from one region to another. It amounts to one thousandth part
of the solar radia on received at the surface. Its role in the heat budget of the ocean is difficult to
es mate due to the absence of very accurate thermometers and difficulty in deduc ng the effect
of pressure of upper layers of oceanic waters in the” genera on and increase of temperature at
the bo om.
Cooling Sources: Three types of heat transfers helping cooling of the surface are recognised by physicists
and meteorologists, viz., conduc on, convec on (horizontal as well as ver cal) and radia on. Both conduc on
and convec on depend on the existence of a material medium, either solid, fluid or gaseous, whereas radia on
does not require material medium for transfer of heat to the space.

22
 a) Back radia on from sea surface: The Kirchhoffs law relates the absorp on of radia on by a body at
any temperature and wave length to the emission at that temperature and wave length. It expresses
the fact that good radiators are good absorbers. Thus, like the earth surface (black body), the sea
water also emits long wave radia on. The energy radiated is propor onal to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature of the water surface.
b) Convec on: The exchange of heat between the atmosphere and the sea varies according to theal -
tude of the atmosphere. Just near the sea surface the temperature changes rapidly with al tude
andslowly at greater height. The prerequisite for heat transfer from the sea to the atmosphere is
that the sea surface should be warmer than the air. The turbulence and the eddy conduc vity are
two essen al elements which are responsible for heat transfer from the sea to the atmosphere.
This creates convec onal currents. This heat transfer remains there in the form of sensible heat or
latent heat of water vapour and helps in the crea on of thunder¬storms on high seas,
c) Evapora on: Based on the calcula ons of Angstrom, 90% of the heat received by the oceans is used
for evapora on, which is of greater importance to the heat balance of the oceans than the convec-
onal transfer of heat. The transformed solar energy thus evaporated lies in a latent or poten al
form of water vapour and is given out to the atmosphere from the sea surface. When condensa on
takes place, this latent energy is again released to heat the atmosphere.

2. La tude
The ocean water gets heated by the absorp on of solar radia on. The sun’s rays are always ver cal at
the equator, but because of the spherical shape of the earth, with increasing distance from the equator the
rays become more and more slan ng. As we know, the ver cal rays are capable of giving more heat than the
oblique rays. Because of this very fact, with increasing distance from the equator the amount of solar energy
received by the oceans goes on decreasing. Since oblique rays have to cover greater distance in the atmosphere
than the ver cal rays before reaching the surface of the earth, certain amount of solar energy is lost through
the processes of sca ering, diffusion, reflec on, and absorp on. Besides, the ver cal rays falling on the earth
have to heat up rela vely smaller area than the oblique rays which are spread over a larger area. This results
in more heat from the ver cal rays than from the oblique or slan ng rays of the sun. It is, therefore, quite clear
that away from the equator the intensity of the solar radia on is reduced.

3. Ocean Currents
The ocean currents .also exercise dominant control over the temperature of the ocean water. All the warm
ocean currents originate in the tropical oceans. When they reach the higher la tude oceans, temperature of
the surface water registers an increase of several degrees.

[Link] Winds
When the direc on of the prevailing winds happens to be from the land to the sea, the warm coastal wa-
ters under their influence move along with them. These offshore winds ini ate upwelling of cooler water from
depth to compensate for the loss of water as stated above. The cold water naturally lowers the surface water
temperature. When the prevailing winds are onshore, the warm sea water piled up near the coasts raises the
temperature to a certain extent. Thus, in the trade wind belts the surface temperatures in the eastern parts of
the oceans are rela vely lower than those in the western parts.

[Link] Weather
Local weather comprises different types of storms, cloudiness, precipita on and other weather condi ons.
In the equatorial regions, despite the ver cal rays of the sun, large amount of cloudiness obstructs the solar
radia on from reaching the earth surface. It is due to the clear sky that near the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn the amount of solar radia on incident on the earth exceeds that reachingthe equatorial regions.
Thus, in the subtropical high pressure belt the surface water temperature in the oceans is a li le higher.

23
 A REASONED ACCOUNT OF TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS INOCEANS
This can be looked at from the point of view of:
1. Horizontal Distribu on
2. Ver cal Distribu on
3. Range and Varia on of Temperature

1. Horizontal Distribu on
a) La tudinal Varia on: Generally the average annual temperature of the open oceans decreases
from the equatorial regions polewards gradually. In the vicinity of the equator the average of the
surface temperature is about 27°C, while the averages for 20°, 40° and 600 la tudes are 23°C, 14°C
and 1°C respec vely. In the polar region the surface temperature of sea water is -1.8°C, which is the
freezing point of the saline water of the oceans. During summer the average surface temperature
in the Persian Gulf touches a high of 320C.

b) Hemispherical Varia on: However, in the Southern Hemisphere the surface temperature of
the ocean water is rela vely less than that of the Northern Hemisphere. This is so because; the vast
and thick, ice-caps of the Antarc c exercise their cooling effect.

c) Regional Varia on: Pacific among all oceanic bodies has the warmest surface water equal to an
average of 19.10°C, whereas the Indian Ocean has 17.03°C, and the Atlan c 16.91°C. This is because
of the fact that geographically three-fi h of the Pacific is between 30°N and 30°S.
The horizontal temperature distribu on is shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines joining places of equal
temperature. The isothermal maps of the months of February and August reveal the seasonal extremes of the
temperature of the ocean surface. These are given below:

Isothermal map of oceans (February)

24
 Isothermal map of oceans (August)
The sea surface isotherms in February, for the Atlan c Ocean, reveal that the isothermal lines are closely
spaced in the south of Newfoundland, near the west coast of Europe and North Sea and then isotherms widen
out to make a bulge towards north near the coast of Norway.
The cause of this phenomenon lies in the cold Labrador Current flowing southward along the North
American coast which reduces the temperature of the region more sharply than in other places in the same
la tude; at the same me the warm Gulf Stream proceeds towards the western coast of Europe and raises the
temperature of the west coast of Europe.
In the south western part of the Atlan c, isotherms bulge towards south-west due to warm Brazil current
but in the eastern part of south Atlan c isotherms bend towards north-west due to cold Benguela current.
Further south, isotherms are parallel owing to constant prevailing west wind dri .
The distribu on of temperature in the north and the south Atlan c is not symmetrical. For example, in
north Atlan c, 5°C isotherm touches 70°N la tude whereas in the southern half of the Atlan c it never crosses
50°S la tude because the warm Gulf Stream is more powerful and it reaches to much higher la tude than the
cold Brazil current. Moreover there is a considerable difference between the eastern and western parts of the
Atlan c. In the western part near Labrador coast, 0°C temperature is recorded but 9° to 13°C temperature is
found on the west coast of Europe.
In the marginal seas, temperature varies due to la tude and loca on, e.g., the Mediterranean records
higher temperature than the neighbouring Atlan c Ocean but the Bal c and the Hudson Bay are colder than
the Atlan c.
In the northern half of the Pacific, isotherms and la tudes are almost parallel, but on the coast of North
America isotherms bend slightly northward under the influence of the warm Kuroshio current and along the
coast of Japan isotherms are closely spaced due to the- cold Oyashio current.
In the equatorial region of the western part of the Pacific, high temperatures are recorded as the warm
equatorial current flows towards south. In the eastern part of the Pacific, low temperatures prevail due to
the influence of cold Peru Current. In the south Pacific, isotherms make minor loops due to the warm Peru or
Humboldt Current.

25
 In the Indian Ocean, the isotherms of 25°C, 27°C and 28°C occupy the central loca on of the ocean. To-
wards south no difference is observed with the Pacific as the isotherms roughly follow the parallels except a
minor loop near the Cape of Good Hope due to the cold Agulhas current. The isotherms bend southward near
the coast of North Africa due to a cold current which flows south- westward from Cape Guardafui.
The same isotherm bends northward in the Arabian Sea when it enters the Indian peninsula, but in the
Bay of Bengal it bends towards south due to the effect of monsoon dri . The enclosed water bodies like the Red
Sea have higher temperature towards south due to the mixture of open ocean water. The Persian Gulf records
lower temperature than the Indian Ocean under the influence of cold land area.
The August condi on is markedly different from that of February isothermal condi ons. In the Atlan c
the ice in the Arc c melts away resul ng in northward loop of all the isotherms in the Davis Strait. The sharp
northward bends of isotherms on the Norwegian coast are absent in August. On an average the isotherms in
the north Atlan c shi northward in August. The southern Pacific shows isothermal lines and la tudes placed
parallely. Towards west the adjacent ocean of Australia-Asia region witnesses temperature as high as 28°C as
the westerly flowing equatorial current draws warm water towards west Pacific.
In the Indian Ocean, the highest surface, temperature of 28°C is recorded over-the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal. In August the enclosed seas like the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf show higher temperature (30°
to 33°C) than the open ocean due to their contact with warm land areas.

[Link] cal Distribu on

There is a gradual decrease of temperature with increasing descent. Normally, 90 per cent of the solar
heat is absorbed in the topmost 15.6 m (60 feet) of water. The sea water
temperature corresponds to the surface temperature only up to a depth of
about 100 m, and, with further descent, temperature generally decreas-
es.
In tropical oceans and seas, three layers can be recognised from surface
to bo om. The first layer is about 500 m thick with temperature varying
between 20° and 25°C. In mid-la tude regions this top layer is found only
during summer. The thermocline layer is found just below the first layer. It
is characterised by rapid decrease of temperature with increasing depth.
The third layer is very cold and is extended up to the ocean floor.
In contrast to the tropical oceans, in Polar Regions only one layer of
cold water is iden fied. It extends from the surface to the bo om.
As the temperature decreases in water with increasing descent,
some scien sts have divided the oceans into two broad zones: (i) pho c or
eupho c zone which extends from the upper surface to 200 m; the pho c
zone receives adequate solar insola on; and (ii) apho c zone extending
from 200 m to the ocean bo om; this zone does not receive adequate sunrays.
The following are the characteris c features of the ver cal temperature distribu on of the sea:
1. Although temperature decreases with increasing depth up to about 2000 m, below it temperature
becomes almost stagnant. Even in tropical la tudes the temperature seldom exceeds 4.4°C at about
1524 m below; it decreases from 1.7°C to 0°C at about 4267 m.
2. The rate of decrease of temperature with depth is greater at the equator than at the poles: the
surface temperature is higher in low la tude regions, whereas at depth temperature remains almost
the same in both high and low la tudes.
3. The surface temperature and its downward decrease are influenced by the upwelling of bo om
water. In regions of cold water upwelling the ver cal descent of temperature is less than other

26
 regions not affected by upwelling even in low la tudes. Such condi ons are observed on the African
and Californian coasts.
4. In some cases, the dense surface water sinks due to convergence with a dense bo om or intermedi-
ate layer. So, cold water sinks and moves towards warmer lower la tudes. In this process the rate
of fall of temperature is affected in lower la tudes. In cold Arc c and Antarc c regions, sinking of
cold water and its movement towards lower la tudes is observed.
5. In equatorial regions the surface water some mes exhibits lower temperature and salinity due to
high rainfall, whereas the layers below it have higher temperatures.
6. The enclosed seas in both the lower and higher la tudes record higher temperatures at the bot-
tom; however the factors behind this phenomenon differ from high la tude enclosed seas to low
la tude enclosed [Link] enclosed seas of low la tudes like the Saragasso Sea, the Red Sea and
the Mediterranean Sea have high bo om temperatures due to high insola on throughout the year
and lesser mixing of the warm and cold waters. In these enclosed seas, the free mixing of water is
checked because of their saucer-shaped bo om and shallow water found on submarine [Link] the
case of the high la tude enclosed seas, the bo om layers of water are warmer as water of slightly
higher salinity and temperature moves from outer ocean as a sub-surface current. Therefore, a
reversal of temperature with depth is common.
7. The presence of submarine barriers may lead to different temperature condi ons on the two sides
of the barrier. For example, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the submarine barrier has a height of
about 366 m. As a result, the temperature of surface water in the Red Sea for the ho est month is
29.4°C while at 800 fathoms depth it is 21.1°C. On the other side of the barrier, the temperature
at 800 fathoms in the Indian Ocean is about 2.8°C.

3. Range and Varia on of Temperature

There are three aspects under this topic as given below:
a) Range of sea temperature: In general, the range of temperature (difference between maximum and
minimum temperature) on oceans is less than on land because of the inherent nature of these two
surfaces! The oceans heat and cool slowly, whereas the land shows faster results. Due to the same
fact maximum insola on at 12 Noon creates maximum temperature on land at 1 p. m. and on oceans
at 2 p. m. Similarly, minimum temperature on land is found at 2 a. m. and on oceans at 3 p.m.
b) Diurnal range of sea temperature: The daily march of temperature mainly reflects the balance between
incoming solar radia on and outgoing earth radia on. Accordingly, a perfect rise and fall of the daily
temperature curve should correspond to the insola on intensity of the day, but in reality it is not the
case because there are various factors responsible for the daily march of the temperature, i.e. the
state of sky, stability of the air, and the nature of the sea surface.
The cloud-free sky helps in greater hea ng and cooling of sea surface, hence it brings a high range of
diurnal temperatures. The calm atmosphere also brings high values as mixing of air is less. A thorough
mixing by high winds at the surface layers does not help in maximum hea ng and cooling of the
surface.
c) Annual varia on of temperature: The annual varia on of surface temperature depends on the annual
varia on of the incoming radia on, the nature of the ocean currents, and the prevailing winds. But the
sea is more equable than the air and land II the ma er of annual range of temperature. It is heated
and cooled slowly, hence the maximum and minimum temperatures of the world are not found on the
oceans. The difference between the annual highest and lowest temperatures of the surface of the sea
is hardly 10 degrees, though the smaller dependent seas exhibit greater annual ranges of temperature
due to the direct influence of the land areas. Thus, in the Mediterranean Sea the range of temperature
is 20°F and in the Bal c Sea it is about 40°F.

27
 In general, the areas of high range are the lower la tudes, the coastal areas, the enclosed seas and the
area under wind shi belts.
The shape of the sea also affects the annual range of temperature. Similarly, north oceans record higher
range than the southern oceans due to free mixing of water in the la er. Indian Ocean, being blocked by land
in the north, shows peculiar temperature condi ons.

HEAT BUDGET OF THE OCEANS

It has already been stated that the temperature of the ocean waters varies from place to place and from
me to me. Such varia ons are indica ons of heat transfer by currents, absorp on of solar energy, loss by
evapora on, etc. The size and character of the varia ons in temperature depend on the net rate of heat flow
into or out of a water body, and calcula ons of this quan ty are referred to as heat- budget studies. In what
follows, the symbol Q will be used to represent the rate of heat flow measured in Joules
per second (Wa s) per square meter, i.e. W/m2, generally averaged over 24 hours or over 1 year. (The
rela onship of these SI units to others, which have been used, is given in the Appendix.) A subscript will be used
to dis nguish the different components of the heat budget. These components are:
Qs = rate of inflow of solar energy through the seasurface (short-wave radia on),
Qb = net rate of heat loss by the sea as long-wave radia on to the atmosphere and space (back radia on),
Qh = rate of heat loss/gain through the sea surface byconduc on (the sensible heat flux),
Qe = rate of heat loss/gain by evapora on/condensa on(the latent heat flux),
Qv = rate of heat loss/gain by a water body due to currents (the advec ve term).
Other sources of heat inflow, such as that from the earth’s interior, change of kine c energy of waves into
heat in the surf, heat from chemical or nuclear reac ons, etc., are all small and can be neglected rela ve to the
terms listed above. The heat budget for a par cular body of water can then be stated by the equa on:
Qt=QS+ Qb+ Qh+ Qe+ Qv.................................(5)

28
 where Q is the total rate of gain or loss of heat of the body of water (“t” refers to me). A schema c and
some average values forthe Q terms are shown in fig.

When (5) is used for heat-budget calcula ons, numerical values have a posi ve sign if they represent a
gain of heat by the water and a nega ve sign if they represent a heat loss from the sea. In prac ce, solar heat
flux Q values are always posi ve and back-radia on Qbvaluesare always nega ve. Latent heat fluxQe values
are almost always nega ve. Sensible heat flux Qh can be nega ve or posi ve depending on the sign of the
temperature difference between the air and water. Advec ve heat flux Qv depends on the difference intempera-
ture between the water- flowing into the region and water flowing out of the region. These volume transports
are equal by the Conserva on of Volume (and in actuality differ only by the very small freshwater gain or loss
within a region). Therefore Qv may be posi ve (inflow of warmer water and ou low of colder water) or nega-
ve (opposite case).
Observa ons of solar radia on, back radia on, and latent and sensible heat flux are at points on the sea
surface, with units of W/m2. To obtain their total impact on the heat content in a body of water in Wa s, they
must be mul plied by the sea surface area (m2) of the body. (For con nuously varying values, this is actually &
sum of the heat fluxes at each unit area of the sea surface, or equivalently, an area integral.) Advec on through
the sides of the water body must likewise be calculated at all points on the sides and summed for each unit
area (equivalent to an area integral).
If the temperature of a body of water is not changing with me, this does not mean that there is no heat
exchange. It simply means that the algebraic sum of the terms on the right side of the heat-budget equa on
(5.8) is zero- net heat inflow equals net heat ou low, an example of a steady-state condi on. If we apply the
heat- budget equa on to the world ocean as a whole, Qv will be Zero because then all the advec on is internal
and must add up to zero. Also if we average over a whole year or number of years the seasonal changes average
out and Qt becomes zero. The equa on for the oceans in this case simplifies to:
Qs + Qb + Qh + Qe + Qsfc=0.....................(6)

29
 The global distribu on of each of the four components will be examined below. Typical values in Figare
only intended as an indica on of the general range and must not be used for specific calcula ons. The largest
component is the shortwave radia on Qs and it is always posi ve (input of heat into ocean). The other three
components usually represent a loss of heat from the ocean. The sensible heat flux Qh varies with me and
place, having maximum values in the northwestern “North Atlan c and North Pacific, but is generally the small-
est term. Latent heat flux Qe is the second largest term in the heat-balance equa on and has large seasonal
varia ons, with winter losses as high as 240 W/m2 in the northwestern North Atlan c. Long-wave radia on
Qb has the smallest varia ons.

30
 SALINITY OF THE OCEANS

What is Salinity?
Salinity refers to the concentra on of dissolved salts in water. The salinity has been defined as the total
amount of solid material in grammes contained in 1 kg of sea-water, when all the bromine and iodine have been
replaced by theequivalent amount of chlorine, all the carbonate converted to oxide and all organic ma er has
been completely oxidized.
The degree of salinity is generally expressed in terms of the number of parts of salt per thousand parts
of sea- water; if in 1000 grammes of water there are 35 grammes of dissolved salts, the salinity is said to be
35%o.

Significance of Salinity
Salinity is important due to the twofold effect it has on the oceans which are:
1. Effect on various proper es of Sea Water The varia ons of salinity between 34 and 37-1/2 per
mile determine other physical proper es of sea water such as compressibility (depending on salinity
and temperature which produces density differences), thermal expansion, refrac ve index and the
temperature of maximum density. The freezing point of sea water is also dependent on the amount
of salts found in it. The greater the amount of salt, the lower the freezing point since solid bodies such
as salt have a very low vapour tension. For example, the North Sea, which has compara vely greater
salinity, remains open throughout the [Link], salinity introduces altogether new proper es like
osmo c pressure (pressure depending on the temperature and the chlorinate of water) and electric’
conduc vity in the ocean waters. The former varies with the increase of density such as Bal c sea
having 7.5%o salinity at 18°C temperature has an osmo c pressure of 4.9 atmospheres while the Red
Sea with 40%o at 30°C temperature has osmo c pressure of 26.7 [Link], it is noted
that the degree of evapora on is also affected by salinity, i.e., higher the salinity, the lower will be
the evapora on and, therefore, lesser humidity. Salinity increases sca ering of radia on resul ng in
greater absorp on of heat in the waters.
2. EffectonMarineFloraandFauna Salinity of the ocean water exerts considerable influence
on
the distribu on of marine animals which are significantly affected by rela vely small changes in their
environmental condi ons. One of these is the change of salinity or the rela ve abundance of water
to the amountof dissolved materials within it. Certain marine organisms living in the open ocean
cannot withstand great changes of salinity. These organisms are stenohaline. On the contrary, some
marine animals like oysters living at the mouths of rivers can withstand a considerable range of salinity.
Besides, various other organisms living in the coastal regions are capable of withstanding a wide range
of salinity condi ons. They are curyhaline. Certain plants and animals living in ocean water make
important changes in the amount of dissolved material in the ocean water. Similarly, marine fish are
largely affected by the degree of salinity in ocean water. They drink large quan es of water, extract
the salts of that water, and secrete them through special cells.

Origin of Salts in the Sea

It has been es mated that from the very beginning the crust of the earth is subjected to slow dissolving
ac on of water. Ever since sea water has been constantly washing the shores, and rains falling on the land have
been draining debris into rivers and seas.
The rivers bring about 5.4 x108 of the total solids of the ocean. But it is a curious fact that there is li le
similarity between the chemical composi on of river water and that of sea water. The la er has chloride in
abundance (about 75%) while the former has mostly calcium (60%) content. There is only 2% of sodium chloride

31
in river waters. The deduc on is naturally that either rivers do not bring enough salts to the sea which makes
it saline or whatever they pour in the sea is con nually being lost. A certain propor on called cyclic salts is
swept off the sea towards the land by wind-blown sprays- and picked up by water vapour and again brought
into the sea.

Composi on of Sea Water

Sea water is almost a universal solvent and, therefore, it is a complex solu on of many mineral substances
found in dilute form. It is assumed that the sea water was faintly saline in the beginning and its saltness has
been increasing ever since. As a result, at present the total 329 million cubic miles of sea water contains an
average of about 34-3/4 tons of salt per 1000 tons.
Methods: Various methods have been used to determine the amount of salt in the sea. The tra on
method is based on the constancy of composi on of the dissolved ma er; the hydrometer method determines
the density of the sample of sea water by which salinity is calculated; and the last method is by measuring the
electric conduc vity or refrac ve index of the sea water at a known temperature.
Average composi on: This is as given in the box below:

NaCI MgCI2 MgSO4 CaSO4 K2S04 Other

77.8% 10.9% 4.7% 3.6% 2.5% 0.5%
Absolute composi on: This can be seen as in the box below:
Different Salt Percentage in Sea Water

Salts Amount % Percentage

1. Sodium Chloride 27.213 77.8
2. Magnesium Chloride 3.807 10.9
3. Magnesium Sulphate 1.658 4.7
4. Calcium Sulphate 1.260 3.6
5. Potassium Sulphate 0.863 2.5
6. Calcium Carbonate 0.123 0.3
7. Magnesium Bromide 0.076 0.2
Total 35.000 100.0

Factors Controlling Salinity Distribu on

There are four major factors which control salinitydistribu on in the oceans. These are as given below:

1. AddiƟon of Fresh Water

There are two means by which this takes place which are:
a) Through precipita on: In humid regions where rainfall is heavier, fresh water tends to dilute the sea-
water and reduce its salinity. On the other hand, in arid and semi-’ arid areas where evapora on exceeds
precipita on, there is greater concentra on of salts so that the salinity is high. Despite uniformly high
temperature throughout the year, heavy precipita on dilutes the surface water so that the salinity is
rela vely lower. In the polar and sub polar regions, thick layers of snow and ice are deposited on the
surface of the earth due to heavy snowfall. Mel ng of sea-ice and ice-bergs in the middle la tude
regions adds fresh water to the sea, and thus by dilu ng it reduces its salinity.
b) Byrivers: The influx of fresh water by river is another important factor which brings down the degree
of salinity in ocean water. Rivers such as, the Congo, Niger, St. Lawrence, Ob and Amazon etc. carry a
large supply of fresh water to the oceans in which they fall Due to the addi on of freshwater, salinity

32
 nearthe mouths of rivers decreases. It is es mated that the rivers pour down about 27000 km3 of the
rain water every year from over the con nental surface into the oceans. Thus, keeping in view the
total area of the surface of ocean waters, rivers supply about 7.6 cm of fresh water per year to the
oceans. However, the effect of fresh water carried by the rivers to the oceans is limited to the coastal
areas only. Salinity in the coastal areas of the North Sea from Holland to East Anglia is 34.2%o, while
offshore in the open sea it is 35%o.

2. ExtracƟon of Fresh Water

This takes place mainly through evapora on. The process of evapora on is certainly the most important
factor that controls the distribu on of the surface salinity. As we are aware, through the process of evapora on
pure water is taken out as water vapour and salt is le behind. Thus it is clear that the condi ons which favour
the higher rate of evapora on will naturally produce areas of high surface salinity. Evapora on is controlled
by temperature, rela ve humidity and the instability or stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere. In the
equatorial region, the cloudiness and high rela ve humidity retard evapora on. But the subtropical regions near
30°N and S record the highest salinity. The reason is simple. In these regions the clear skies and descending air
currents favour a very high rate of evapora on. However, from these regions of maximum salinity, there is a
gradual decrease in sea-water salinity towards the equator and the poles.

3. Mixing due to Ocean Water Movement

The oceans are always in a state of restlessness. They actually show three dis nct types of movement
i.e. des, currents and waves. Because of these major movements there is a con nuous mixing of the surface
waters with those of the subsurface layers of the oceans. This fact alone is an important factor in bringing about
the uniformity of salinity in the surface layer of the oceans. Currents, warm as well as cold, play a major role
in the distribu on of salinity. Warm ocean currents carry warm and more saline waters towards the polar re-
gions, whereas the cold currents drive the cold and less saline waters from the higher to lower la tudes. Trade
winds as well as the westerlies bring about salinity differences on the eastern and western parts of the oceans.
However, in the Indian Ocean, the monsoon system of winds causes the seasonal varia on in the distribu on
of salinity.

[Link] Winds
The trade winds in both the hemispheres transport warm and saline water from the eastern part of the
oceans towards the western part raising the degree of salinity there. To compensate for the loss of the top
layers of the ocean water there, the cooler and less saline water from the deeper parts of the ocean comes
up. This phenomenon is called upwelling. Now, it is clear that these prevailing winds called “the trade winds”
go a long way in producing salinity differences along the eastern and western shores of the oceans. Similarly,
the intrusion of warm and saline water of the Gulf Stream is the most important causa ve factor in raising the
salinity in the northeast Atlan c Ocean. Besides, blowing of winds on the sea surface exerts stress, and each
moving layer of water exerts a stress on the next underlying layer. Since it causes mixing of the different layers
of water, it is enough to appreciate the dominant role of prevailing winds as a controlling factor in the distribu-
on and amount of salinity.

A REASONED ACCOUNT FOR DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY IN THE OCEANS

The spa al distribu on of salinity can be looked at from two view points:.
[Link] Distribu on
[Link] cal Distribu on

1. Horizontal Distribu on
The various aspects of horizontal distribu on are as given below:

33
 (a) LaƟtudinal DistribuƟon:
In humid regions precipita on exceeds evapora on. Thus, fresh water added to ocean water reduces
salinity. In addi on to this, the river discharge from the con nents mixes with the saline ocean water and its
salinity gets lowered. On the other hand, in arid and semi-arid areas evapora on exceeds precipita on, so that
fresh water evaporates leaving behind salt. The salinity in such areas is bound to be higher. That is why the
distribu on of salinity is found in la tudinal belts.
The belt of highest salinity is found between 20° and 25°N and S la tudes. These are the subtropical regions
where precipita on is low, river discharge is negligible and the evapora on rate is high. From the subtropical belt
of maximum salinity, it goes on decreasing towards the equator. The salinity is rela vely lower in the equatorial
region despite the higher temperatures. This is due to the simple reason that the heavy equatorial precipita on
dilutes the surface waters and evapora on is retarded due to cloudiness in the region. Besides, numerous large
rivers pour out a large quan ty of fresh water upon the surface of the oceans.
In the polar regions the temperatures are low throughput the year, so the rate of evapora on is also very
low. In addi on, at certain seasons fresh water is supplied by the melt water of snow and ice lying in thick layers
on the ground. Naturally, therefore, the surface salinity o he sea water in this region is rela vely lower.
In the middle la tude regions, the surface salinity of the oceans is rela vely higher than in the polar re-
gions. This is so because of two reasons. Firstly, the temperature of the ocean water in this region is rela vely
higher than that of the polar seas and secondly, the rate of evapora on is also higher. This can be seen in the
box below:
La tude Zone Salinity (%o)
70°N—50°N 30-31
55°N—40°N 33-34
40°N—15°N 35-36
15°N—10°S 34.5-35
10°S—30°S 35-36
30°S—S0°S 34-35
50°S—70°S 33-34
Undoubtedly clear that between the two subtropical belts of maximum salinity, lies the equatorial belt of
rela vely lower salinity, where the average surface salinity varies from 34.0%o to 35.0%o. In the polar region
the average of the surface salinity generally falls below 34.0%o.

(b) Hemispherical DistribuƟon:

In the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the belts of maximum salinity are found between 20° and 25°N
and S la tudes. In this subtropical belt of high pressure and descending air currents the amount of precipita-
on is negligible, and due to clear sky the rate of evapora on is high. Besides, the inflow of fresh river water
is very scant. As a ma er of fact, the amount of salinity depends on the balance between influx of fresh water
and evapora on. Since in the subtropical region evapora on exceeds precipita on, and input of fresh water is
also very low, so the surface salini es are rela vely higher.
When the average salini es of the surface water of all the oceans of the Northern Hemisphere (34%o)
are compared with those of the southern Hemisphere (35%o), there does not appear to be much difference.
However, due to the larger extent of the oceans in the Southern Hemisphere, its average salinity is slightly
higher. In the open oceans of the world, generally the average salinity ranges from 33%o to 37%o. But in those
regions where the large rivers discharge a large volume of fresh water, the average of the surface salinity falls
below the average.

34
 (c) Regional DistribuƟon:
Given below is a diagram showing global distribu on of isohalines:

This is the star ng point for analysing salinity distribu on in the three major oceans of the world namely
Pacific, Atlan c and Indian Oceans.

Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean has the unique dis nc on of having the low salinity of the surface water. However, there
are regional varia ons in the distribu on of the surface salinity. In the equatorial belt of this ocean salinity is
34%o. But in the vicinity of 15°N and S la tude there is an increase in the surface salinity which ranges from
34 to 35%o. The areas of maximum salinity are found in the south eastern part of this ocean where it is about
37%o. In the trade wind belt of the North Pacific Ocean the surface salinity nowhere exceeds 36%o. In the
northwestern part of the North Pacific Ocean 35.5%o salinity is found in the middle part of a la tudinal belt
extending from 15°Nto 30°N la tude.
In the South Pacific there is an area of higher salinity (36%o) in 20°S la tude and 120°E longitude. But
to the southof this high salinity area, lower salinity is found near the Chile and the Peru coast. In the extreme
south near the Antarc c the surface salinity is less than 34%o. In the same way, the northernmost areas of this
ocean have a very low salinity of about 32%o. In the western part the salinity is reduced to about 31%o because
of heavy precipita on and the monsoon system of winds. The difference between the salini es of the eastern
and western parts of the Pacific Ocean is due to the seasonal changes in the ocean currents. In the tropical area
o he South Pacific the amount of salinity is increased. But due to the influence of cold currents flowing near
the coast of Peru and Chile, the salinity in the surface water is lowered. Like other oceans, in this ocean also the
salinity of the surface water is low near the mouths of great rivers such as Hwang Ho and Yangtze Kiang.

35
 AtlanƟc Ocean
In the North Atlan c Ocean the surface water between 20° and 30°N la tude is more saline than that in
any other ocean of the world. The salinity in this la tudinal belt touches a high-value of 37%o. In the Atlan c
Ocean the distribu on of salinity is largely controlled by the ocean currents, but the influence of evapora on
and precipita on cannot be ignored. The average salinity of the surface water in the North Atlan c is 35.5%o,
whereas in the South Atlan c it is only 34.5%o. The major factor responsible for such a difference in the av-
erage salinity of the North and South Atlan c is the rapidity of evapora on in the Mediterranean Sea. In the
preceding discussion we have learnt that the highly saline water passing through the Strait of Gibralter mixes
with the surface water of the open ocean, so that the degree of salinity is always higher than that in any other
open ocean.
Generally the average salinity in a 5° broad la tudinal belt in this ocean is directly propor onal to the
difference in the amount of precipita on and evapora on. In the equatorial zone of this ocean supply of fresh
water by heavy precipita on more than compensates the loss of water through evapora on. That is why the
average surface salinity is 35%o. On the contrary, at about 20°- 25°N and 20°S la tude the evapora on exceeds
precipita on so that in a wider area the average salinity is rela vely higher (37%o). From the subtropical region
poleward the precipita on once again is in excess of evapora on. This results in gradual decrease in the salinity
o he surface water. In higher la tudes the average salinity in extensive areas is 35%o.
At this point let us examine the role of the Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current, in controlling the
salinity distribu on in the North Atlan c. This warm ocean current drives warm and sline water (35%o) to
Spitsbergen located at 78°N la tude. Under the infl uence of this warm current along with its other
branches salinity in the North Sea and the coastal waters of Norway is rela vely higher. Onthe other hand,
cold currents fl owing from the polar area towards the equator bring with them Arc c water with 34%o
salinity in the vicinity of 45”N la tude. It is because of the infl uence of these currents that poleward from
40o la tude the isohalines show the north-south alignment, while the same lines to the south of 45°S la
tude show the east-west trend. In the polar areas, low temperature, retarded evapora on rate and supply
of melt-water are some of the factors that lower the salinity o he surface water. The average salinity ranges
from 30%o to 33%o.
Gulf of Guinea, even though situated in the subtropical region on the west coast of Africa, has a low sur-
face salinity because o he upwelling of cold water mass there In the South Atlan c, the surface salinity in the
western part is rela vely higher than in the eastern part. It is par cularly so between 10°S and 30°S la tude,
because it is in these la tudes that there is upwelling of cold and less saline water near the eastern coast of the
ocean. Besides, in the Atlan c Ocean, low salini es are found near the mouths of great rivers like the Amazon,
Congo, Niger and St. Lawrence etc. Salinity, however, is subjected to seasonal varia ons. Near the mouths of
Amazon, Congo and Niger the amount of salinity is 15%o, 34%o and 20%o respec vely.
Indian Ocean
Inves ga ons regarding the salinity are much less in Indian Ocean in comparison with the Atlan c and the
Pacific Oceans. In the northwestern part of this ocean the surface salinity ranges from 32 to 37%o. The higher
surface water salinity in this part o he ocean is due to the very saline water o he Red Sea and the Persian Gulf
that reaches the northwestern area as a surface flow.
The surface salinity between the equatorial region and Arab Peninsula is more than 37%o. On the con-
trary, the surface salinity in the northeastern part of this ocean is rela vely lower - between 32%o and 34%o.
In fact, this part o he Indian Ocean, besides ge ng a large supply of fresh water from heavy precipita on, also
receives enormous amount or non-saline fresh water from a number of large rivers falling into it. However,
the surface salinity from about 40°S la tude to the margin o he Antarc c gradually decreases. A large supply
of Fresh water isavailable from the melt water of the con nental ice sheet and the ice bergs, and this result in
lowering the surface salinity in this region. The salinity decreases from 35%oto 33.5%o. The average surface
salinity in the remaining part o he ocean is about 35%o. However, the surface salinity in the western part of
this ocean is higher than that in the eastern part.
In the southern part o he Indian Ocean, salinity in the vicinity o he west coast of Australia is higher be-
cause o he high evapora on rate, since the climate in this area is marked by aridity. In this part o he ocean

36
isohalines run parallel to the equator. As we have seen earlier, near the mouths of large rivers falling into the
ocean, the surface salinity is lowered. Near the mouths of the Ganges, Irrawadi and Euphrates and Tigris the
surface salinity is 30%o, 20%o and 35%o respec vely. The surface salinity in the Bay of Bengal seldom exceeds
34%o. During the summer monsoon, when there is copious rainfall, the flood waters from the Ganges, Brahm-
putraand other large rivers along the coast of Burma and India dilute the water and reduce the surface salinity.
At the extreme northern part o he- bay, salinity may be reduced to a very low value of 18%o. However, the
major impact o he dilu on is limited to the Indian coast, and offshore it is not so significant.

(d)ParƟally Enclosed Seas:

In case the seas are par ally or wholly enclosed and the exchange of water with open ocean is limited,
salinity is affected to a great extent. It is interes ng to note that if such a sea is located in a humid region,
salinity is bound to be low, rather very low, because of abundant rainfall and large inflow of river water. The
Bal c Sea receives a lot of fresh water from the rivers falling into it. It is also characterized by low evapora on
on its surface-due to cool temperatures. Due to all these factors, it has a seasonal salinity varia on from 1 to
2.5 percent. On the other hand, where such seas with restricted exchange with the open ocean are situated
in dry, hot regions, the rapidity of evapora on will naturally be high. Besides, there will be scanty rainfall and
li le stream flow. So the salinity will be high, rather higher. As noted earlier, the Red Sea has an average salin-
ity exceeding 40%o and the Mediterranean Sea has all average salinity ranging from 18 to 39%o subject to its
proximity to the discharge of fresh water.

(e)Inland Seas and Lakes:

In such lakes which have got an inland loca on and in which there is no outlet i.e. no rivers originate from
them, the salinity is bound to be higher. Rivers that discharge their water into them bring salt in solu on. Since
there is no escape for salts in the absence of an outlet, the salinity gradually grows more and more. Absence
of an outlet means that evapora on in such lakes equals the supply of fresh water. The amount of salinity in
such lakes will depend on the age o he lake. On the contrary, a lake with an outlet or a river draining out its
water is not very saline.
However, in a certain largeinland lake such as the Caspian Sea, there are marked varia ons in salinity in its
different parts. For example, salinity is less than 14%o in its northern part because of the inflow of fresh water
brought by the Volga and Ural rivers. But in the Gulf of Karabugas which is shallow and is connected with the rest
of the sea only by a restricted opening, the salinity touches a higher value of 170%o. A high degree of salinity
(237.5%o) is found in the Dead Sea, where the evapora on is high and there is complete absence of an outlet.
Even higher salinity is found in some of the lakes situated in the dry parts o he world. The Lake Van in Turkey
is the sal est of all the inland lakes, and the salinity o he surface water touches a higher value of 330%o.
Given below is a table showing the salinity levels of major lakes and seas in the world:
Above normal
Lake Van 330
Dead Sea 240
Great salt lake 220
Red Sea 37-41
Persian Gulf 37-38
Mediterranean Sea 37-39
Near normal
Caribbean-Mexico 35-36
Bass Strait 351/2

37
 Gulf of California 35-351/2
Slightly below normal
Arc c Ocean 20-35
North Australian Sea 33-34
Bering Sea 28-33
Sea of Okhotsk 30-32
Sea of Japan 30-34
China Sea 25-35
Andaman Sea 30-32
North Sea 31-35
English Channel 32-35
Gulf of St. Lawrence 30-32
Much below normal
Bal c Sea 3-15
Hudson Bay 3-15

2. VerƟcal DistribuƟon
In all the oceans between 40° North and 50° South la tudes the upper layers of varying thickness are
characterized by a rapid decrease in salinity downwards. At a depth of 800 m the salinity ranges from 34.3%o to
34.9%o. However, below this level salinity registers an increase at a depth of 1600 to 2000 m, where it is found
between 34.8%o and 34.9%o. Beyond this depth, once againsalinity goes on decreasing gradually. This gradual
decrease in the percentage of salinity in the oceanic water con nues un l the bo om is reached. Another pe-
culiarity in the ver cal distribu on of salinity is the fact that the uncommon increase in salinity between 800
and 1000 m levels, which may be termed as salinity inversion, slowly disappears in higher la tudes-m both the
hemispheres. In fact, this increase in salinity ends between the polar fronts and the poles. In the North Atlan c
the intermediate salinity minimum abruptly disappears at a depth of 800m in mid-la tudes, and there is a con-
nuous decrease in salinity from the surface down to the bo om of the oceans. Thus, the lack of uniformity in
the ver cal salinity distribu on in the North as well as South Atlan c is clear.

Conclusion
This brings out the fact that no fixed rule can be deduced as regards the decreases of salinity with depth.
Generally, it can be said that in high la tude, salinity increases with depth due to dense water found at the
bo om, whereas in the middle la tude salinity increases with the depth up to 200 fathoms and then it starts
decreasing.

Salt Budget oŌhe Oceans

It is assume that there is a balance between the amount of salt added to and extracted by various sources
from theocean waters.
Major sources: Major sources of salt addi on are the terrain or the lithosphere with their numerous riv-
ers draining into the ocean and other factors are the marine life, volcanic erup ons and ma er from space.
Similarly we can also assume that there are source of extrac on of salts from oceans like the human factor the
marine lifeitself and others.

38
 Factors: Major factors which affect salt budget of the oceans are evapora on, fresh water and precipita-
on.
This salt budget is assumed to be a balanced one due to interplay of above factors. The equa on is as
given below:
ST+SM+SV+SS=SE+Sm+Se+S0
where,
ST= Salt added from the terrain
SM = Salt added by the marine life
Sv= Salt added from under water volcanic erup ons
Ss = Salt added from space
SE = Salt extracted by the human factor
Sm = Salt extracted by the marine life
Se = Salt extracted due to evapora on
S0= Salt extracted due to other sources

39
 OCEAN CURRENTS

What are Ocean Currents?

The Ocean Currents are the general movement of a mass of water in a fairly defined direc on over great
distances. The primary forces that drive the ocean currents are easy to understand. The surface currents are
driven by the winds. The deeper currents are driven by gravity; denser waters flow downhill. They sink un l
they encounter either the ocean floor, or another water mass that is denser than themselves, and then they
flow downhill along this interface.

Importance of Ocean Currents

• Latitudinal heat balance is maintained by ocean currents by transferring heat from energy
abundantla tudes (0°-40°N-S) to energy deficient areas beyond 40°.
• The most important fishing grounds in the world are located in shallow water close to the land where
there is mixing of cold and warm currents from different regions. Several such examples may be given.
The major fishing grounds on earth comprise the seas north of Japan where the warm Kuroshio Current
meets the cold Kamchatka Current; the Grand Banks off. Newfoundland where the North Atlan c Dri
encounters the cold Labrador Current.
• Ocean currents also influence climate. Where a warm ocean current flows near a coast, temperatures
tend to be moderated. It is the result of the modera on of temperature effected by the Gulf Stream
and the North Atlan c Dri that the Bri sh Isles and the northwestern Europe have the mild climate.
Where there is a cool current offshore, it tends to induce cooler temperatures over the adjacent land
than might otherwise be expected. In such a case, the amount of precipita on is reduced. This is because
a stable lapserate or even a temperature inversion.
• Ocean currents are also used as a source of renewable energy by moving turbines.
• Ocean currents also influence the nature of marine flora and fauna by influencing the physico-chemical
characteris cs of the ocean waters.

Classifica on of Ocean Currents

There are two broad types of divisions as far as ocean currents are concerned which are:
1. Warm and cold currents
2. Surface and deep sea currents

1. Warm and cold currents

This division is done on the basis of the sea surface temperature of a current with respect to surround-
ing waters. The warm currents are those which flow from the low la tudes in Tropical Zones towards the high
la tudes in the temperate and sub-polar zones. Similarly, currents flowing from the high la tudes towards the
low ones are called cold currents.

2. Surface and deep sea currents

Those currents found on the surface and upto a depth of 200 metres are called surface currents. These are
due to mainly the temperature, pressure and salinity differences. Whereas deep sea currents are found below
200 metres and are created due to density differences.

40
 Factors controlling the origin of Ocean Currents
The many factors that are responsible for the origin of ocean currents can be grouped under following
heads:
1. Factors related to earth and its rota on
2. Factors origina ng outside the sea.
3. Factors origina ng within the sea
4. Modifying factors
[Link] related to earth and its rota on
a) Gravita onal force: The force of gravity is theresultant of the mass a rac on of the earth and the
centrifugalforce o he earth’s rota on. Gravity depends on the la tude. It is maximum at the poles, because
o he polar fla ening, and is minimum at the equator because of the rota onand the oblate configura on o he
earth. Tidal currents are largely determined by the force of gravita on of the sun and moon. But its influence on
ocean currents is negligible. However, the effect o his factor is that the movementofwater is directed towards
the center of the earth. That is why denser water always tends to sink under lighter water.
b) Coriolis force: The earth rotates on its axis from west to east. Because of the diurnal rota on of the
earth, besides centrifugal force another deflec ng force is produced which is called the Coriolis force. In fact,
the so-called Coriolis force is the resultant of the centripetal as well as the centrifugal force. Thus, under the
influence of this force, the ocean currents in the northern hemisphere tend to turn to their right, and in the
southern hemisphere to their le .

Ekman Transport
Ekman Spiral: Ekman, a physicist, developed the mathema cal rela onship-’associated with the observa-
ons made by Fridtj Nansen regarding the deflec on of ocean currents rela ve to the wind direc on. Ekman
developed the theory called the Ekman Spiral.

The theory assumes a homogeneous water column that is set in mo on by wind blowing across its
surface. In the northern hemisphere the surface current moves in a direc on 45° to the right of the wind.
Further, this surface layer of water moving as a sheet, sets another layer beneath it in mo on. The energy
of the wind passes through the water column from the surface downwards. Thus, each successive layer of
water is set into mo on, but their velocity goes on decreasing with increasing depth. The direc on of each
successive layer is to the right of the direc on of the just upper layer. However, at a certain depth, the energy
passed by the wind to the moving sheet of water is lost, and the mo on stops as a result or the wind stress
at the surface of the ocean water.

41
 According to Ekman, this depth occurs at about 100 meters from the surface. At this depth the water
actually moves in the opposite direc on of the wind that induced the movement of the surface water. The spiral
movement of water has been shown in figure. The length, of each arrow in the figure is directly propor onal
to the velocity of the individual sheet of water, and the direc on of each arrow shows the direc on of move-
ment of the sheet. Under such theore cal condi ons, the surface current should flow at an angle of 45° to
the direc on of the wind. The net water movement should be at right angles to the direc on of the wind.
But in reality, no such condi ons are found in the ocean. The movement actually taking place because
of wind stress on the surface of the ocean is slightly different from the ideal. Generally the surface current
will move at an angle of less than 45° to the direc on of the wind, and the net transport will be at angles less
than 90° to the direc on of the wind. This is true in shallow coastal waters, where all the movement may be
very nearly in the direc on of the wind and-the deflec on with increasing depth is at a very slow speed. The
net water movement is at right angles to the wind direc on.

[Link] origina ng outside the sea

a) Atmospheric pressure: Horizontal pressure differencesdetermine the ocean currents. Different regions
of the oceanic areas respond differently to the impact of atmospheric pressure. Because of higher
pressure, there is reduc on in the volume of surface water which results in lowering o he sea level.
On the contrary, lower pressure on the sea surface results in raising the water level. The result of the
varia on in the atmospheric pressure is that the water movement starts from the higher water level
towards the lower level. The currents produced due to difference in the water level are called gradient
currents. A typical example o his type of currents is offered by the ocean currents flowing from the
Bal c Sea towards the North Sea.
b) Wind generatedfricƟonal drag: The prevailing winds play the most effec ve role in se ng the currents
in mo on. Wind - driven horizontal circula on in the surface waters of the oceans is induced as a
result of the stress which the winds exert on ocean water. The word “stress” represents a force that is
produced by the fric on of the lowermost layer of the wind with the sea-surface. The fric onal force
is directly propor onal to the wind velocity. At low wind veloci es, the fric onal force is considerably
lower. Because the winds exert a fric onal drag on the water surface, they produce an upslope in the
direc on of flow.
c) PrecipitaƟon and evaporaƟon: There is regional varia on in the supply of fresh water in the form
of precipita on. The reason is that certain areas receive a largeramount of precipita on than other
areas. Naturally, therefore, the water level in areas with greater amount of precipita on is higher than
that in areas with lesser amount. This kind of difference in the water level creates a slope on the sea
surface. Thus, in order to eliminate the difference in water level ocean currents are produced. Besides
the difference in the water level, the supply of fresh water results in the decrease of salinity, which in
turn brings about a change in the density of sea water. The precipita on, therefore, contributes a lot,
directly or indirectly, in the ini a on of ocean currents.
d) InsolaƟon: The amount of insola on is not the same everywhere on the sea surface. Thus, the varia on
in the amount of insola on is the main cause of non-uniformity in the rate of evapora on in different
regions. In the low la tude regions the amount of insola on received far exceeds that received in
the high la tude regions. But due to the greater amount of cloudiness and precipita on, therate of
evapora on is much lower. This causes both the salinity and density of sea water to be rela vely lower.
Thus, the light and warm water from the low la tude region is driven by the prevailing winds towards
the high la tude regions.

3. Factors origina ng within the sea

a) Density of ocean water: The spa al varia on of density causes movement of ocean water. Density
differences are produced by varia ons in the physical proper es of sea-water like temperature, salinity,

42
 amount of precipita on, supply of fresh water by rivers and mel ng ice, the amount of materials held
in suspension, atmospheric pressure and mixing of different currents. It would be proper to point
out that density differences are the second most important factor causing the genera on of ocean
currents. The density difference in ocean water leads to the establishment of pressure gradient in it,
and this causes ver cal movement. Denser water tends to move downwards, and less dense water
being lighter tends to move upwards.
b) MelƟng of Ice: Mel ng of ice supplies fresh water to oceans so that their level is raised. Melt water
reduces the salinity in ocean water. Thus, water movement from regions of high sea level to other
regions of rela vely lower sea level is quite natural. The Eastern Greenland Current is ini ated due
to the supply of melt water. It may be stated that during winter a large amount of water is converted
into ice. During summer, on the contrary, mel ng of ice takes place and, thus, a large amount of fresh
water is added to the sea. This not only raises the sea level, but also helps in decreasing the salinity.
In a par cular region, the melt water becomes the genera ng’ factor of ocean currents.

4. Modifying factors
a) The shape of sea coast: The shape and direc on of sea coasts modify the ocean currents. When, ocean
currents approach a coast, they start flowing in accordance with the alignment of the coast. Another
most glaring example of the modifying effect of the nature of coasts is found in the Indian Ocean where
ocean currents induced by the monsoon are influenced by the shape of the coastline of the Indian
Peninsula. So is the cage with Gulf- Stream, whose direc on of flow clearly demonstrates-the effect
of the eastern coast of the United States of America.
b) BoƩom topography: Ocean currents are also subject to modifica on by the bo om relief of the oceans.
Any type of physical barriers present on the bo om of oceans influence the flow of currents to a large
extent. Currents of the mid-la tudes as well as the polar regions in par cular are all the more affected
by the bo om relief of the oceans. Whenever there are physical barriers obstruc ng the path of deeper
currents, they tend to deflect to the right of their path in the northern hemisphere and to the le of
their path in the southern hemisphere. Even the surface currents are also affected by the presence of
such physical obstruc ons. For example, due to the presence of the Mid- Atlan c Ridge almost all the
currents of the North Atlan c Ocean are affected to a certain extent. When the Gulf Stream crosses
the Wyevile Thompson Ridge, various changes occur in it.
c) Seasonal variaƟons: In certain regions the direc on of ocean currents undergoes a change along with
the changes in the seasons. Ocean currents in the north Indian Ocean change their direc on with
the seasonal reversal of winds, the monsoons. During the winter monsoon (the northeast monsoon)
the surface current moves south along the coast of Indian Peninsula and turns west at about 10°N
la tude. During the southwest monsoon the North Equatorial Current disappears, and a part of the
South Equatorial Current starts flowing north along the Somali coast as the Somali Current. Seasonal
changes cause displacement of the pressure as well as the wind belts. Therefore theocean currents,
par cularly the North Equatorial and the South Equatorial currents in the Atlan c and the Pacific
oceans are also affected by the seasonal changes.

The pa ern of Ocean Current circula on

As a result o he inter play of the above given factors, ocean currents exhibit a pa ern of circula on. This
can be looked at from two levels:
1. The general pa ern of circula on
2. The global pa ern of circula on
1. The general pa ern of circula on
The general pa ern of circula on can be explain through the diagram as given below:

43
 2. The global pa ern of circula on
The general pa ern as applied to the major oceans o he world reveal a global pa ern as shown below:

Reasoned account of ocean currents circula on in the major oceans of the world
As we have seen there are various factors influencing the pa ern of circula on of ocean currents. These
factors vary according to the different areas o he world being studied. Accordingly the different areas of the
world experience different pa erns of circula on of ocean currents, which in turn impact the clima c aspects
rela ng to these areas. Thus a study of each major ocean region in the world and the pa ern of ocean current
circula on is important from the point of view of oceanography.

44
 SURFACE CURRENT OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN
The surface current of Atlan c ocean can be shown diagramma cally as bellow:

There are well developed networks of surface currents in the Atlan c Ocean. Two subtropical circula on
gyres have developed in the North and South Atlan c Ocean. Each circula on gyre is surrounded by four major
surface currents.
The following are the significant surface currents of the Atlan c Ocean:

1. North Equatorial Current (warm)

Normally, the north equatorial current is formed between the equator and 10°N la tude. This current is
generated because of up welling of cold water near the west coast of Africa and movement of water due to wind
drag and resultant fric on by N.E. trade winds which drive the surface water towards the west. Here Coriolis

45
Effect is almost zero due to high rota onal speed o he earth. This is why north equatorial Atlan c current is
seldom deflected and thus flows in westerly direc on. This warm current is also pushed westward by the-cold
Canary current. On an average, the north equatorial warm current flows from east to west but this saline cur-
rent is deflected northward when it crosses the mid- Atlan c Ridge near 15°N la tude. It again turnssouthward
a er crossing over the ridge. This current, a er being obstructed by the land barrier of the east coast of Brazil,
is bifurcated into two branches e.g. (i) An lles current, and (ii) Caribbean current. The An lles current is diverted
northward and flows to the east of West Indies islands, and helps in the forma on of Sargasso Sea eddy while
the second branch known as the Caribbean current entef3 the Gulf of Mexico and becomes Gulf Stream.

[Link] Equatorial Current (warm)

South equatorial current flows from the western coast of Africa to the eastern coast of South America
between the equator and 20°S la tude. This current is more constant, stronger and of greater extent than the
north equatorial current. In. fact, this current, is the con nua on of the Benguela current. This warm current
is bifurcated into two branches due to obstruc on of land barrier in the form of the east coast of Brazil. The
northward branch a er taking north-westerly course merges with the north equatorial current near Trinidad
while the second branch turns southward and con nues as Brazil warm current parallel to the east coast of
South America. This current is basically originated under the stress of trade winds.
[Link]-equatorial Current (warm)
The counter equatorial current flows from west to east in between the westward flowing strong north and
south equatorial currents. This current is less developed in the west due to stress of trade winds. In fact, the
counter current mixes with the equatorial currents in the west but it is more developed in the east where it is
known as the Guinea Stream. The counter equatorial current carries rela vely higher temperature and lower
density than the twd”ecjfrat6rial currents. According to another view the counter equatorial current is originated
due to piling up -of immense volume of water because of the convergence of the two great equatorial warm
currents near the coast of Brazil. The piling up of water raises the water level and hence water flows eastward
as compensa on current upto the Gulf of Guinea.

[Link] Stream System (warm)

The Gulf Stream is a system of several currents moving in north-easterly direc on. This current system
originates in the Gulf of Mexico around 20°N la tude and moves in north-easterly direc on along the eastern
coast of North America and reaches the western coasts of Europe near 70°N la tude. This system, named Gulf
Stream because of its origin in the Mexican Gulf, consists of (i) Florida current from the strait of Florida to Cape
Ha eras, (ii)Gulf Stream from Cape Ha eras to the Grand Bank, and (iii) North Atlan c Dri (current) from
Grand Bank to the Western European coast.
a) Florida CurrentFlorida current is in fact, the northward extension of the north equatorial current. This
current flows through Yucatan channel into the Gulf of Mexico, therea er the current moves forward
through Florida Strait and reaches 30°N la tude. Thus, the Florida warm current contains most of the
characteris cs of the equatorial water mass. The origin of Florida current is a ributed to the piling
up of immense volume of water in the Gulf of Mexico due to powerful trade winds. Thus, the water
is forced to move out of Florida Strait.
b) Gulf StreamThe Florida current a er having the water of An lles. cuiTent is known as Gulf Stream
beyond Cape Ha eras. This current is very wide and warm and is separated from the Sargasso sea to
its right (in the east) and rela vely cold water near the coast to its le . The temperature of water near
the coast ranges between 4° and 10°C. This zone of cold water between the coast and the Gulf Stream
is called cold wall. The existence of this cold wall of cold water near the eastern coast of the USA is
a ributed to many factors. Some scien sts opine that strong westerly winds drive the warm waters
of the coast eastward and cool waters of the cold Labrador current move southerwrd along the coast
up to Cape Ha eras, while some scien sts believe that the cold water of the Gulf of St. Lawrence is
deflected southward along the eastern Coast of the US.

46
 c) North Atlan c CurrentThe Gulf Stream is divided into many branches at 45° N la tude and 45°W
longitude. All the branches are collec vely called as North Atlan c Dri or current. (A) Northern
branch moves north-eastward. It undergoes major changes because of mixing of cool water o he cold
Labrador -current with its warm water: Though the temperature and salinity are significantly reduced
yet it maintains its main characteris cs as warm current. The velocity of the current also decreases. This
current is further divided into several minor branches, (a) One branch, known as Norwegian current,
flows along the coast of Norway across Wyville Thompson Ridge and reaches the Norwegian Sea. (b)
Second branch is known as Irminger current which flows north and north-westward upto the southern
coast of Iceland, (c) Third branch moves towards the eastern coast of Greenland where it joins the
Greenland current. (B) Eastern branch is compara vely warmer than the northern branch. This branch
flows in easterly direc on and reaches the western coasts ofFrance and Spain. This branch is also
divided into several sub- branches. (a) One branch enters the Mediterranean Sea while (b) the other
branch, known as Rennell current (named a er scien st Rennell), enters the Bay of Biscay and flows up
to the northern coasts ofFrance and SpainRennell current is further divided into subbrancheswherein
one branch enters the English Channel while the other branch a er flowing to the south of Iceland
merges with the North Atlan c Current, (c) Third branch is the main branch which flows through the
coasts of Spain, Azores etc. and reaches, the western coast of Africa to join the cold Canary current.

[Link] Current (cold)

The Canary current, a cold current, flows along the western coast of north Africa between Maderia and
Cape Verde. In fact, this current is the con nua on of North Atlan c Dri which turns southward near the
Spanish coast and flows to the south along the coast of Canaries Island. The average, velocity of this current is
8 to 30 nau cal miles (9.2 to 55 kilometers) per day. This current brings cold water of the high la tudes to the
warm water of the low la tudes and finally merges with the north equatorial current.
[Link] Current (cold)
The Labrador current, an example of cold current, originates” in the Baffin Bay and Davis Strait and a er
flowing through the coastal waters of Newfoundland and Grand Bank merges with the Gulf Stream around
50°W longitude. The flow discharge rate of the current is 7.5 million m3of water per second. This current brings
with it a large, number of big icebergs as far south as Newfoundland and Grand Bank. These icebergs present
effec ve hindrances in the oceanic naviga on. Dense fogs are also produced due to the convergence of the
Labrador cold current and the Gulf Stream near Newfoundland.

[Link] Current (warm)

The Brazil current is characterized by high temperature and high salinity. This current is generated be-
cause of the bifurca on of the south equatorial current because of obstruc on of the Brazilean coast near Sun
Rock. The northern branch flows northward and merges with the north equatorial current while the southern
branch known as the Brazil current flows southward along the east coast of South America upto 40°S la tude.
Therea er it is deflected eastward due to the deflec ve force of the rota on of the earth (coriolis effect) and
flows in easterly direc on under the influence of the westerlies. The Falkland cold current coming from the
south merges with the Brazil current near 40°S la tude.
8. Falkland Current (cold)
The cold water of the Antarc c Sea flows in the form of Falkland cold current from south to north along the
eastern coast of South America upto Argen na. This current becomes most extensive and developed near 30°S
la tude. This current also brings numerous icebergs from the Antarc c area to the South American coast.

[Link] Atlan c Dri (cold)

The eastward con nua on of the Brazil current is called South Atlan c Dri . This current is originated
because of the deflec on of the Brazil warm current eastward at 40°S la tude due to the deflec ve force of

47
the rota on of the earth (coriolis effect). The South Atlan c Dri , thus, flows eastward under the influence of
the westerlies. This current is also known as the Westerlies Dri or the Antarc c Dri .

[Link] Current (cold)

The Benguela current, a cold current, flows from south tonorth along the western coast of south Africa.
In fact, theSouth’Atlan c Dri turns northward due to obstruc on caused by the southern p of Africa. Further
northward, this current merges with the South Equatorial Current. This current, also known as the eastern
boundary current, forms the eastern limit of the southern subtropical Atlan c Ocean gyre.

Sargasso Sea
There is an an cyclonic circula on of ocean currentscomprising the north equatorial current, the Gulf-
Stream and the Canary current in the North Atlan cOcean. The water confined in this gyral (gyre) is calmand
mo onless. Thus, the mo onless sea of the saidgyral is called Sargasso Sea which is derived from thePortu-
guese word ‘sargassum’ meaning thereby seaweeds. It may be pointed out that similar sargassosea is not
found in the South Atlan c Ocean.

SURFACE CURRENTS OF PACIFIC OCEAN

The Pacific Ocean, like the Atlan c Ocean, is also characterized by two well developed circula on gyres
inthe North and South Pacific Ocean in tropical andsubtropical regions of the ocean. Each circula on gyre is sur-
rounded by four well developed surface ocean currents which move in clockwise direc on in the North Pacific
Ocean and in an -clockwise direc on in the South Pacific Ocean.
The following are the significant surface current of the Pacific Ocean:

[Link] Equatorial Current (warm)

The north equatorial current originates off the western coast of Mexico and flows in westerly direc on
and reaches the Philippines coast a er covering a distance of 7500 nau cal miles (13 830 km). This current
is originated because of the Californian current and north-east monsoon. The volume of water con nuously
increases westward because numerous minor branches join this current from the north. A few branches also
come out of the main current and turn towards north and south. One branch emerges from the north equatorial
current near Taiwan and flows northward to join Kuroshio Current while the southern branch turns eastward
to form counter equatorial current.

[Link] Equatorial Current (warm)

The south equatorial current is originated due to the influence of south-east trade winds and flows from
east to west. This current is stronger than the north equatorial current. The current is bifurcated into northern
and southern branches near New Guinea. The northern branch turns eastward and flows as counter equatorial
current while the southern branch moves towards the-northern and north-eastern coasts of Australia.

48
 [Link] Equatorial Current (warm)
The current flowing west to east between the north and south equatorial currents is termed counter
equatorial current. Because of trade winds immense volume of water is piled up in the western marginal parts
o he ocean, with the result there is general slope gradient of water surface from west to east. This higher water
level in the west and descending slope gradient of water surface from west to east make the oceanic water flow
in easterly direc on in the name of counter equatorial current which is the most developed counter current in
the Pacific Ocean.

[Link] System (warm)

The Kuroshio system comprised of several currents and dri s is similar to the Gulf Stream system of the
Atlan c Ocean. This system runs from Taiwan to the Bering Strait and consists of the Kuroshiocurrent, the Ku-
roshio extension, the north Pacific dri , the Tsushima current and the counter Kuroshio current.
a) Kuroshio CurrentThe north equatorial current turns northward due to the obstruc on of Philippines
and thus gives birth to the Kuroshiocurrent which flows from Taiwan to Ryuku ridge at 30°N la tude.
The Kuroshio, a warm current, is similar to the Florida current of the North Atlan c Ocean.
b) Kuroshio ExtensionTheKuroshio current leaves Japanese coast and turns eastward near 35°N la tude
under the influence of thewesterlies and is bifurcated into two branches. One branch moves in easterly
direc on while the second branch flows in northeastern direc on upto 42°N la tude and therea er
it also turns eastward. The northern branch ul mately merges with the cold Oyashio current coming
from the north.

49
 c) North Pacific Dri TheKuroshio current is extended further eastward under the influence of the
westerlies and reaches the western coast of North America. Just before 150°W longitude the major
part of this current turns southward while the remaining water moves eastward upto Hawaiian coast-
and- the western coast of N. America. The north Pacific dri is bifurcated into two branches. The
northern branch becomes Aleu an current while the .southern branch gives birth to the Californian
cold current. The Aleu an current is further divided into two branches. One branch goes • towards
the Bering Strait while the second branch moves towards Gulf of [Link] Kuroshio Extension and
the North Pacific Dri form the northern boundary of the subtropical North Pacific gyre.
d) Tsusima CurrentNear 30°N la tude one branch separates from the Kuroshio current and enters the
Japan Sea and flows along the western coast of Japan in the name of Tsushima current. Thiswarm
current with rela vely higher temperature and salinity’ modifies the weather condi on of the Japanese
coast.”
e) Counter-Kuroshio CurrentTheKuroshio current forms a gyral system between Hawaiian islands and
the. American coast and thus the oceanic water moves in westerly direc on in the name of counter
Kuroshiocurrent.

[Link] Current (cold)

The Oyashio cold current is also known as Kurile cold current. This cold current flows through the Bering
Strait in southerly direc on and thus transports cold water of the Arc c Sea into the Pacific Ocean. Near 50°N
la tude this current is bifurcated into two branches. One branch turns eastward and merges with the Aleu an
and Kuroshio currents. The second branch moves upto the Japanese coasts. This current is comparable to the
cold Labrador current of the North Atlan c Ocean. The convergence of cold Oyashio (Kurile) and warm Kurosh-
iocurrent causes dense fogs which become poten al hazards for naviga on.

[Link] Current (cold)

The California current, an example of cold current, is similar to the Canary cold current of the Atlan c
Ocean in most of its characteris cs. In fact, this current is the eastwardextended por on of the North Pacific
dri . The cold California current is generated because of the movement of oceanic water along the Californian
coast from north to south in order to compensate the loss of water which is caused due to large-scale transport
of water off the coast of Mexico under the influence of trade winds in the form of the north equatorial current.
This current a er reaching the Mexican coast turns westward and merges with the north equatorial current.

[Link] Current (cold)

The cold current flowing along the western coast of South America from south to north is called Peru cur-
rent or Humboldt current. The current is known as Peru coastal current near the coast while: it is called Peru
oceanic current off the coast.

[Link] Nino or Counter Current (warm)

A subsurface warm current, known as El Nino Current, flows from north to south between 3°S and 36°8
la tudes at a distance of about 180 km from the Peruvian coast. The southward shi ing of the counter equatorial
warm current during southern winter gives birth to El Nino current. The temperature at Peruvian coast does not
fall considerably because of this current. Though the amount of rainfall increases along the coasts due to this
current but fishes die due to disappearance of planktons and occurrence of guano disease and pests caused by
El Nino. It may be pointed out that El Nino also affects monsoons in the Indian Ocean.

[Link] Australia Current (warm)

South equatorial current is bifurcated near the Australian coast into northern and southern branches. The
southern branch flows as east Australia current from north to south along the eastern coasts of Australia. New
Zealand is surrounded by this current. It is deflected eastward near 40°S la tude due to deflec ve force of the

50
earth and flows in easterly direc on under the influence of the westerlies. This is a warm and more consistent
current. It raises the temperature of east Australian coast for considerable distance southward.

[Link] Wind Dri (cold)

A strong ocean current, known as west wind-dri , flows from west to east under the influence of the west-
erlies between Tasmania and South American coast in the zone of 40° - 50°S la tudes. This current becomes much
stronger because of immense volume of watermass and high velocity winds called as roaring for es and thus the
current flows with great velocity. In the far east the current is bifurcated into two branches. One branch enters
the Atlan c Ocean through Cape Horn while the second branch turns northward and joins Peru current.

SURFACE CURRENTS OF INDIAN OCEAN

The current systems of the Indian Ocean are largely controlled and modified by landmasses and monsoon
winds. Indian Ocean being surrounded by the Indian subcon nent, Africa and Australia does not present most
favourable condi ons for the development of permanent and consistent system of ocean currents. The cur-
rents in the northern Indian Ocean change their flow direc on twice a year due to north-east and southwest
monsoon winds.
Unlike Pacific and Atlan c Oceans, Indian Ocean has only one subtropical circula on gyre which is formed
by the south equatorial current in the north, Mozambique current-a western boundary current in the west, west
wind dri in the south, and west Australia currents, an eastern boundary current, in the east. Surface currents
of Indian Ocean can be diagramma cally presented as below:

[Link]-east Monsoon Current (warm)

North-east monsoon winds blow from land to the ocean during winter season in the northern hemisphere
and thus westward blowing north-east monsoon currents are produced between Anadman and Somali. This
current flows to the south of 5°N la tude. Besides, some independent currents originate in the Bay of Bengal
and Arabian sea and flow in southwesterly direc on.

[Link] Counter Current (warm)

Indian counter current is originated during winter season (northern hemisphere). This current flows in
easterly direc on between 2° - 8°S la tudes from Zanzibar to Sumatra.

51
 3.S.W. Monsoon Current (warm)
There is complete reversal in the direc on of monsoon winds during summer season. In other words,
north¬easterly direc on of winter monsoon winds becomes south-westerly during summer season in the north-
ern hemisphere. This reversal of direc on of monsoon winds also reverses the direc on of ocean currents of
Indian Ocean during summer season. North-east monsoon ocean currents disappear and south-west monsoon
ocean currents are developed. The general direc on of monsoon currents is from south-west to north-east but
several minor branches emerge from the main branch and move in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. The
counter current developed during winter season disappears due to this current.

[Link] Equatorial Current (warm)

The currents of the southern Indian Ocean are least affected by seasonal change in the direc on of mon-
soon winds. The Indian Ocean equatorial current flows from east to west between 10°[Link] 15°S la tudes
from Australian coast toAfrican coast. A er being obstructed by Madagascar this current is divided into many
branches.
One major branch flows southward in the name of Agulhas current (warm) while the other branch is
directed towards the north.

[Link] Current (warm)

One branch of the southern Indian Ocean equatorial current moves southward through Mozambique
Channel known as Mozambique current. This current joins the Agulhas current near 30°S la tude and moves
up to the southern p of Africa and is ul mately diverted eastward.

[Link] Wind Dri (cold)

Like Pacific and Atlan e. Oceans eastward flowing current, known as west wind dri , is also generated in
the Indian Ocean. This current is produced due to eastward blowing westerlies along 40°N la tude known as
‘roaring for es’. This current bifurcates in two branches near 110°E longitude. One branch turns northward and
flows as West Australia cold current along the western coast of Australia and near the Tropic of Capricorn turns
towards west and north-west and ul mately merges with the south equatorial current near 100°E longitude.
The second branch of the west wind dri turns southward.

52
 WATER MASSES AND DEEP CURRENTS
Water masses and deep ocean currents are closely related. In fact, deep ocean currents involve subsurface
(below seawater surface) movement of water masses which are driven by density varia ons. As stated above
deep currents are density-driven currents which involve the movement of immense volume of ocean water
below pycnocline layer, which is a zone of rapid density change in the depth zone of 300 m to 1000 m. Since
the density of ocean water is the func on of its temperature and salinity, and hence deep ocean currents are
also called thermohaline cur¬rents. Deep ocean currents involve about 90 percent of ocean water. Deep ocean
currents are generated due to sinking (downwelling) of denser seawater, and hence they may also be called
downwelling ocean currents. Since huge water masses move below the pycnocline layer in deep ocean currents,
and hence it is necessary to discuss ocean water masses first.

Water Mass
Subsurface water mass is defined as exten¬sive homogeneous body of immense volume of ocean water
in terms of temperature and salinity. Thus, there is almost homogeneity of temperature and salinity in water
mass which covers very extensive areas across the oceans. In other words, one water mass is not confined to
a single ocean, rather it includes extensive regions of homogene¬ous water body below the pycnocline layer
in all the oceans. This is why world oceans are not closed systems rather they are open systems because they
are inter-connected by water masses. The source areas of subsurface water masses are, in fact, sea surfaces in
high la tudes where density of sea water increases due to very low temperature. Thus, dense surface seawater
sinks and forms subsurface water mass. Sinking of seawater is called downwelling. Once the surface seawater
sinks, it becomes stabilized in terms of temperature and salinity. In other words, there is more or less uniformity
in temperature and salinity in the subsurface water mass across the oceans. It does not mean that there is no
temporal and spa al varia on in temperature and salinity in a water mass. There is slight change in tempera¬ture
and salinity of a water mass with me when there is mixing of seawater of adjoining water masses. It may be
men oned that the process of mixing of adjoining water masses is very slow and hence change in temperature
and salinity is negligible. This is why subsurface water mass moves very sluggishly. The following are the main
characteris c features of subsurface water masses:
• Subsurface water mass is huge and exten¬sive homogeneous water body.
• Water masses have definite temperature and salinity characteris cs i.e. there is almost uniformity of
temperature and salinity in a water mass.
• Water mass is the result of downwelling of denser cold water and upwelling of less dense water. This
process is called thermohaline circula on because density of seawater is the func on of temperature
and salinity.
• Water mass is not confined to a single ocean rather it involves extensive water body across the oceans,
i.e. it is associated with all the oceans.
• Water masses move very slowly.
• Though there is stability in water masses in terms of temperature and salinity but wherever there is
mixing of water of adjoining water masses, there is slight change in temperature and salinity, but since
mixing is exceedingly a slow process, the change in these two variables is negligible.
• Since there is uniformity in temperature and salinity of a water mass, inspite of its movement covering
distances of thousands of kilometers, temperature and salinity are used as significant parameters for
dis nguishing different water masses.
• Uniformity o emperature and salinity of a water mass involving water of oceans (across the oceans)
denotes the fact that oceans are not closed systems but are open systems.

53
 • Most of the water masses are cold water masses, which means the subsurface ocean water is cold. In
fact, more than 75 percent of ocean water of all the oceans is characterized by temperature ranging
between 0°C and 5°C , and salinity ranging between 34%o to 35%o, which validates the fact that the
sinking or downwelling of cold surface water of high la tudes provides all the water of subsurface
water masses.
• Once the surface, as cold water, sinks in the high la tudes and becomes subsurface water mass, it is
not affected by atmos¬pheric condi ons.
• The movement of subsurface water mass through thermohaline circula on is closely linked with the
circula on of surface water through conveyer belt circula on. This means there are interconnected
integrated circu¬la on pa erns of surface water (through surface currents) and deep water (through
deep ocean currents).
• Water masses vary in terms of their characteris cs of temperature and salinity with depths. Thus, water
masses are dis nguished in 3 types (categories) with increasing depths e.g. (1) central water mass, (2)
intermediate water mass, and (3) deep and bo om water mass.
The major source of the forma on of subsurface water masses is the sinking (downwelling) of denser
surface water of oceans in high la tude regions where seawater a ains its higher density through cooling of
water due to insignificant amount of insola on and high rate of albedo (reflec on of incoming solar radia on),
and increase in ocean salinity through the process of ice forma on. Thus, the sinking denser seawater moves
downward ver cally wherever pycnocline layer is absent. A er reaching such depth where the temperature
and salinity of sunken water match with the temperature and salinity of prevailing seawater at that depth,
the downward ver cal movement of water changes into horizontal (advec onal) movement. Thus, subsurface
water mass is formed.
Ocean, and moderately ac ve in North Pacific, but it is not ac ve in the Indian Ocean because of its loca on
in the southern hemisphere. The following are major source areas of the origin of subsurface water masses.
1. Norwegian Sea Area
2. Irminger Sea, off south-eastern Greenland and Labrador Sea
3. Weddell Sea of Antarc ca
4. Antarc c Basin, north of Lazarev Sea to the north of Antarc ca
5. Extreme North Pacific between 45°-50° N la tudes, to the south of Aleu an Trench
6. Southern Ocean, to the south of Pacific- Antarc c Ridge

Deep Currents and Thermohaline Circula ons

The density-driven subsurface currents involving movement of extensive water masses below the pyc-
nocline layer are called deep currents or thermohaline circula ons of water masses. Since the deep currents
are originated due to density varia ons and density of ocean water is the func on of temperature (thermo =
temperature) and salinity (haline = salt) of ocean water, and hence deep ocean currents are called thermohaline
circula on of subsurface water masses.
Low temperature or high salinity or both increase density of seawater, and denser surface water of the
ocean sinks, the process of which is called downwelling. Thus, high density of seawater results from the fol-
lowing two factors and processes :
1. Increase in density through decrease in temperature and increase in salinity of ocean water, and
2. increase in salinity due to excessive evapora on of water or through the process of ice forma on.
The empirical studies have shown that increase in density due to lowering of temperature of surface water
of the ocean due to minimum amount of insola on and increase in salinity of ocean water due to forma on

54
of ice occurs in the high la tude regions and hence the source areas of the origin of subsurface water masses
and deep currents are the sea surfaces of high la tude regions. It is, thus, clear that high density surface water
in the high la tude regions sinks through the process of downwelling beneath the surface water, and origi-
nates deep currents which take subsurface route. The deep currents carry with them the ini al characteris cs
of temperature and salinity which they gained at the me of downwelling and hence there is uniformity of
temperature and salinity in the deep currents and subsurface water mass except minor modifica- ons due to
mixing of adjoining water masses. It may be men oned that the physical process, such as insola onal hea ng,
evapora on, reflec on etc., which change the physical and chemical proper es of ocean water, are ac ve and
func¬ onal only at the sea surfaces, say surface water of the oceans but as the dense surface seawater sinks,
it becomes free from the influences of external factors and process, as named above, and hence sunken sub-
surface water is not affected by the said factors, with the result there is homogeneity in terms of temperature
and salinity of subsurface ocean water.
It is important to note that downwelling of surface water and upwelling of deep water results in ver cal
mixing of ocean water and this process occurs wherever pycnocline layer is not present. This situa on also
develops in the high la tude areas.
Deep ocean currents are characterized by the following proper es :
• Deep ocean currents are, in fact, subsurface water masses.
• These currents originate due to downwelling of cold denser surface water in high la tude areas.
• Deep ocean currents are very sluggish in forward movement as they move at the speed of 10-20 km
per year.
• Deep ocean currents are not confined to only one ocean, rather they move across the oceans.
• Deep ocean currents complete cyclic pathways. This cyclic path begins from the sinking of dense surface
water, passes through bo om of the oceans and is completed by mixing of deep water with surface
water. Thus the cycle of deep ocean currents begins through downwelling of surface water and ends
with upwelling of deep water, though the process of upwelling in high la tude areas is not properly
understood.

Cyclic Pa ern of Thermohaline Circula on

The thermohaline circula on of deep ocean currents and water masses takes a cyclic pathway star ng
from downwelling of dense surface water in high la tude areas, horizontal flow coveringthousands of kilometers
between less dense surface water and more dense bo om water, and ending with upwelling of deep water
and reap¬pearance on sea surface to complete the cycle which takes about 1000 years because the movement
of subsurface water mass is very slow. Ques on arises as to when the sinking of dense surface water spreads
laterally and moves hori-zontally? When dense surface water sinks and moves ver cally it reaches such depth
where the density of sinking water equals the density of water mass lying there and hence the sunken water
mass is placed between upper surface water mass of less density and bo om water mass of more dense water,
with the result sunken water mass moves horizontally as deep currents flow or thermohaline circula on.

55
 WATER MASSES OF ATLANTIC OCEAN AND THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION
(DEEP CURRENTS)
There are two principal source areas of the forma on of water masses of the Atlan c Ocean as follows:
1. Norwegian Sea, where water sinks and takes subsurface southward route to form AADW water mass
i.e. North Atlan c Deep Water mass.
2. Weddell Sea of Antarc ca and off the Antarc c coasts, where dense water sinks due to high salinity
caused by ice forma on and along the Antarc c convergence to form AADW i.e. Antarc c Deep Water
mass and Antarc c Intermediate Water mass.
The North Atlan c Deep Water (NADW) mass is formed due to sinking of surface water in the Norwegian
Sea. Here dense surface water forms due to cooling during northern winter and increase in salinity due to ice
forma on. The sunken water mass undertakes subsurface route and enters the North Atlan c Ocean where

56
the NADW receives addi onal water from the sink¬ing of dense surface water near Irminger Sea located to the
south-east of Greenland, and Labrador Sea. This most extensive water mass of the Atlan c Ocean receives fur-
ther supply of water which comes from the Mediterranean Sea as dense and more salty water moves towards
the Atlan c Ocean to strengthen NADW mass. Therea er this water mass spreads laterally and covers most of
the bo oms of the Atlan c Ocean. It may be men oned that the NABW lies over the Antarc c Bo om Water
(AABW) mass because the former is less dense than the la er.
The Antarc c Bo om Water (AABW) mass forms due to sinking of dense surface water of the Weddell Sea
of Antarc ca. The ice forma on during winter season in the southern hemisphere in the Weddell Sea and the
northern parts of the Southern Ocean off the Antarc c coasts causes high density of water through lowering
of temperature and increasing salinity. The AABW having high density sinks to the greatest depth of the South
Atlan c Ocean and thus forms very extensive deep bo om water mass and moves northward on the bo oms
of the Atlan c Ocean. The second water mass formed due to sinking of dense water off the northern coast of
Antarc ca is called Antarc c Deep Water (AADW) mass which is rela vely less dense than the AABW mass, and
hence it lies over the AABW. The Antarc c Bo om Water mass while moving northward crosses the equator and
enters the North Atlan c Ocean. The Antarc c Deep water (AADW) lies between the less dense North Atlan c
Deep Water (NADW) mass and more dense Antarc c Bo om Water mass (AABW).
Besides these 3 major deep water masses, namely AABW, AADW and NADW, there are several intermedi-
ate water masses in the Atlan c Ocean, such as Arc c Intermediate Water (AIW), Antarc c Intermediate Water
(AAIW), Mediter¬ranean Intermediate Water (MIW) etc.

WATER MASSES OF PACIFIC OCEAN AND THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION

The subsurface watermasses and thermohaline circula ons are not as developed in the Pacific Ocean as
they are in the Atlan c Ocean because of the following reasons :
• The mixing of the Arc c water mass with the water mass of the Pacific Ocean is notstrong because the
flow of cold deep water mass and cold bo om water mass of the Arc c Ocean into the North Pacific
Ocean is stopped by the shallow Bering strait
• The Antarc c Deep Water (AADW) and the Antarc c Intermediate Water (AAIW) masses are not well
developed in the extreme southern Pacific Ocean.
• Due to uniformity of temperature and salinity of ocean water below the depth of 2000 m in the Pacific
Ocean different layers of water masses in terms of varying combina ons of temperature and salinity
have not developed.
• Low salinity of surface water in the North Pacific Oceans does not encourage sinking of surface
water.
In view of the above facts subsurface Pacific water masses are dominated by Common Water (CoW)
masses, which have developed due to intermixing of Antarc c Bo om Water (AABW) and North Atlan c Deep
Water (NADW). This is why the thermohaline circula ons of subsurface water masses of the Pacific Ocean are
sluggish.
Besides Common Water (CoW), the impor¬tant subs-surface water masses of the Pacific Ocean are as
follows :
• North Pacific Central Water (NPCW) mass having temperature and salinity range of 7°-20°C and 34.1-
34.8%o respec vely. South Pacific Central Water (SPCW), with temperature and salinity ranges of
9°- 20°C, and 34.3-36.2%o respec vely.
• North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW), wherein water temperature ranges between 4°-10°C, and
salinity is found between 34- 34/.5%o.
• Pacific Subarc c Water (PSW), having temperature and salinity ranges from 5°-9°C, and 33.5-33.8%o
respec vely.

57
 WATER MASSES AND THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION IN INDIAN OCEAN
The thermohaline circula ons have poorly developed in the Indian Ocean because of the loca on of most
parts of the Indian Ocean in the southern hemisphere. Thus there is no sinking of dense cold surface water in
the north and southward movement of subsurface water masses, say deep ocean currents, as is the situa on
in there is Atlan c Ocean where Arc c cold surface dense water sinks to form North Atlan c Deep Water and
North Atlan c Bo om Water. This is why the Common Water (CoW), which is produced due to admixture of
Antarc c Bo om Water (AABW) and North Atlan c Deep Water (NADW). Thus Common Water of the Indian
Ocean is an example of hybrid subsurface water mass because its upper por on carries the proper es of North
Atlan c Deep Water mass whereas the lower por on is characterized by the proper es of Antarc c Deep Water.
The Antarc c Intermediate Water (AAIW) is also poorly developed in the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea Intermedi-
ate Water (RSIW) mass is characterized by the highest salinity (more than 40%o) of all the subsurface water
masses of all the oceans. This water mass moves southward below the depth of 3000m and mixes with the
Common Water (CoW).
The following are the water masses of the Indian Ocean:
1. Common Water (CoW) mass, which is formed due to mixing of Antarc c Bo om Water (AABW) mass,
and North Atlan c Deep Water (NADW) mass, and occupies most of the Indian Ocean.
2. Antarc c Bo om Water (AABW) is very extensive deep water mass which extends into the Atlan c
and Indian Ocean.
3. Antarc c Intermediate Water (AAIW) mass is formed at the Antarc c convergence zone and spreads
into the Atlan c and Indian Oceans.
4. Indian Ocean Central Water (ICW) is spread to the south of equator and is located at the depth of 1000
meters. This water mass with salinity ranging between 34.5%o and 36%o is formed due to downwelling
of surface water mass at the subtropical convergence zone near 40°S la tude. A er reaching the depth
of 1000 meters the water mass takes horizontal flow path towards the equator.
5. Red Sea Deep Water (RSDW) mass is formed due to downwelling of high density surface water mass.
It may be men oned that this water mass carries very high salinity of more than 40%o which is the
result of high rate of evapora¬ on by the warm and dry air blowing over Red Sea. The winter cooling
also increases the density of surface water. Thus, high density surface water a er sinking upto the
depth of 3000 meters moves out of Red Sea through the Strait of Bab el Manadeb and mixes with the
deep water masses of the Indian Ocean.
6. Equatorial Shallow Water (ESW) mass carries almost uniform salinity of 35 to 35.5%o. This water mass
originates north of 10°S la tude.

CONVEYER BELT CIRCULATION GLOBAL OCEAN CIRCULATION MODEL

The conveyer belt circula on model of the oceans simply means exchange of water masses of surface
water and deep water across the oceans through the process of downwelling and upwelling wherein the former
denotes sinking of high density surface water in polar areas and the la er indicates reappearance (upwelling)
of deep water. Thus, it is necessary to explain the processes of downwelling and upwelling.

58
 Downwelling
Downwelling is the process of sinking of dense surface water downward in ver cal manner. The down-
welling or sinking occurs when the density is higher than the density of layers lying below. In other words,
downwelling occurs only when the pyncnocline layer, which denotes sharp density change (increase) within the
depth zone of 300m-1000 meters, is absent. Such downwelling may be termed as density-dependent down-
welling. The density-dependent sinking or downwelling of dense surface water occurs in high la tude areas,
say polar areas where high density of surface water results from two processes, namely (1) through cooling
of water due to least amount of insola on received at the sea surface, and (2) increase in salinity of seawater
through the process of ice forma on. The sinking, a er reaching such as depth where its temperature and
salinity are equal to the temperature and salinity of prevailing water at that depth, spreads laterally and takes
equatorward horizontal flow paths. Such density-dependent downwelling is most ac ve in the polar areas of
the Arc c Ocean and North Atlan c Ocean, and moderately ac ve in the extreme North Pacific Ocean to the
south of Bering Strait in the northern hemisphere; and in the Southern Ocean, say in the extreme southern
part of the South Atlan c Ocean.
The second type of downwelling of surface water is caused due to convergence of surface ocean currents.
Such downwelling may be termed convergence-dependent downwelling. The conver-gence of surface currents
coming from opposite direc ons forces the water to sink in the same manner as convergence (collision) of two
plates along subduc on zone forces the rela vely heavier plate to go downward. A few examples may be cited
to explain the convergence-depend-ent downwelling. The convergence of warm Gulf Stream, and cool Labrador
current and cool East Greenland current near Newfoundland causes downwelling of surface water. Similarly,
the convergence of warm Kuroshiocurrent, and cool Kurile current off the east coasts of Japan causes effec ve
downwelling of surface water.
The third type of downwelling is coastal downwelling caused by Ekman transport of ocean water. It may
be remembered, as discussed in the preceding 10th chapter, that Ekman transport moves the water to the right
of wind direc on in the northern hemisphere and to the le of wind direc on in the southern hemisphere.
The coastal downwelling occurs when water is piled toward shore. This may be explained with examples. In

59
the northern hemisphere coastal downwelling will occur wherever the winds blow parallel and right to the
coast from south to north. In such case Ekman transport will move the water to the right of wind direc on, i.e.
toward the west coast and hence resultant piling of water would cause downwelling. If the wind blows parallel
to the coast from north to south and the coast is to the right of wind direc on, downwelling would occur along
the eastern coast or western margin of ocean basin in the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere if
the wind blows from south to north parallel to the coast and if the coast is to the le of wind direc on, coastal
downwelling will occur along the eastern coast or western margin of ocean basin because here Ekman transport
moves the water to the le of wind direc on. Conversely, if the winds blow parallel to the coast in the southern
hemisphere, and the coast is to the le of wind direc on,downwelling would occur along the western coast if
the wind is blowing from north to south.
It appears from the above examples and explana on of coastal downwelling due to Ekman transport that
in the northern hemisphere downwelling always occur along such coasts where winds are parallel to the coasts
and coasts are to the right of wind direc on, and in the southern hemisphere when the coasts are to the le
of wind direc on.
Downwelling of surface water transports oxygen downward which is much needed by the marine organisms
but this process discourages enrichment of seawater by bringing nutrients, and hence the areas of downwelling
of surface water are not conducive to marine life and hence they are the areas of low marine produc vity.
Upwelling
Upwelling of water masses refers to reap¬pearance of cold deep water on the sea surface. Thus, upwelling
is ver cal rise of deep water caused by divergence or spreading of surface water in different situa ons. Upwell-
ing is of two main types as follows:
1. Divergence-dependent upwelling or equa¬torial upwelling.
2. Ekman transport-dependent coastal upwelling.
The divergence of surface ocean currents causes upwelling of cold deep water along the eastern margins
of each ocean basins or along the western coasts in the equatorial region. The trade winds drive the equatorial
currents (north and south equatorial currents) toward west in each ocean. The Ekman transport moves the
water to the right of wind direc on in the northern hemisphere or to the north side of Equator towards more
northerly region, and to the le or towards more southerly areas in the southern hemisphere. This causes deficit
on the eastern sides of ocean basins, with the result cold deep water comes upward to compensate the loss of
surface water. Such type of upwelling of cold deep water may be called divergence-dependent upwelling, which
is also called equatorial upwelling because it occurs in the equatorial regions of the oceans.
The second type of upwelling is coastal upwelling caused by Ekman transport. Such upwelling always occur
when the winds blow parallel to the coasts and coasts are placed to the le of wind direc on in the northern
hemisphere, and to the right of wind direc on in the southern hemi-sphere. In fact, coastal upwelling occurs
when coastal water is driven away from the coasts, so that there occurs water deficit or water void. Thus,
cold water from below moves upward ver cally to fill up the void. For example, in the northern hemisphere if
winds blowing parallel to the coast is from south to north and if the coast is to the le of wind direc on, Ekman
transport moves the water away from the coast and upwelling of cold deep water occurs along the eastern
coasts or western margin of ocean basin. If the wind blowing parallel to the coast are from north to south in
the northern hemisphere coastal upwelling would occur along the western coasts or along the eastern margin
of ocean basin.
Conversely, in the southern hemisphere if the winds are blowing parallel to the coast from south to north,
coastal upwelling would occur along the western coasts or eastern margin of ocean basins, and if the winds
are blowing from north to south, coastal upwelling would occur along the eastern coast or western margin of
ocean basins.
Upwelling of cold deep water is important and beneficial to marine organisms because dissolved oxygen
and nutrients are brought to the surface through upwelling. These nutrients in¬crease marine produc vity and
thus support rich marine organisms. The equatorial upwelling is responsible for rich harvest of fishes in the

60
equatorial waters. It may be recalled that it is the upwelling of nutrient rich cold water off the coast of Peru that
has made the country one of the leading fish catching na ons of the world. The anchovy variety of Peruvian
fish commands large market of fishes in the world.
Let us understand the conveyer belt circula¬ on of the oceans a er understanding its two major processes
of downwelling and upwelling. Conveyer belt circula on involves the movement of warm surface water and cold
deep water of the oceans in a regular and con nuous chain across all the oceans. This global ocean circula on
begins with the transport of warm surface waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans through southern and cen-
tral Atlan c Ocean to North Atlan c Ocean where the trans¬ported heat energy of warm water is transferred
to lower atmosphere through radia on during winter season. The surface water in the higher la tudes of the
north Atlan c Ocean is cooled during winter months. Subsequently, density of seawater is increased. The salinity
also increases due to ice forma on. Thus, denser and more salty surface water sinks downward (downwelling),
and a er reaching such depth where density and salinity of the sinking water matches with the density and
salinity of water at that depth, moves horizontally as deep water mass or thermohaline currents southward.
This deep water flow travells through the Atlan c ocean and reaches Indian and Pacific Oceans a er combining
with circum-Antarc c deep water mass. This deep water mass reappears through upwelling on the surface of
Indian and Pacific Oceans and is again heated through incoming solar radia on and is ul mately warmed again
and joins the upper limb of warm water of the conveyer belt and thus the circuit of global circula on of surface
and subsurface waters of all the oceans is complete.

61
 SEA WAVES

SEA WAVES: COMPONENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

The ocean surfaces are never calm and smooth rather they are uneven, irregular, rough and restless. In
other words the ocean surfaces are characterized by constant mo ons of seawater in different ways and differ-
ent forms like simple sea waves, ocean currents, dal waves (surges), storm waves (surges), tsunami etc. Here
we are primarily concerned with only sea waves, which are most powerful and effec ve geomorphic agents of
coastal regions.
Sea waves are defined as undula on of seawater characterized by well developed crests and troughs.
Besides geomorphic importance, sea waves are now also considered as a source of non-conven onal energy.
Thus, sea waves have great energy poten al for future genera ons. This is why H. V. Thurman and A.P. Trujillo
(1999) have defined sea waves in terms of energy level as follows: “Waves are moving energy travelling along
the interface between ocean and atmosphere, o en transferring energy from a storm far out at sea over dis-
tances of several thousand kilometres.”
The mechanism of the origin of sea waves is not precisely known but it is commonly believed that waves
are generated due to fric on on ocean water surface caused by blowing winds.
The undula ons of seawater at the place of their origin are called swells which are low, broad, regular
and rounded ridges and troughs of water. In other words, the regular pa ern of smooth, rounded waves that
characterize the surface of the ocean during fair weather is called swell.
The sea waves are characterized by the following components:
• Wave crest: The successive higher parts of progressive sea waves are called wave crests which are the
highest parts of the waves.
• Wave troughs: are successive lowest parts of progressive sea waves which are alter¬nated by wave
crests such as wave crest —» wave trough —» wave crest—wave trough and so on. It is, thus, clear that
a wave trough is located between two successive wave crests, or a wave crest is located between two
successive wave troughs.
• S ll water level, also known as zero energy level represents the water zone halfway between the wave
crests and the wave troughs.
• Wave height is a ver cal distance between the crest and horizontal straight distance between two
successive troughs of progressive sea waves, or between the trough and horizontal straight distance
between two successive wave crests.
• Wavelength is the straight horizontal distance between two successive wave crests or wave troughs,
which is expressed in terms of length unit of meters in the case of sea waves.
• The breaking of waves depend on the ra o of wave steepness. If the ra o is more than 1:7, then the
waves break at plunge line and thus spills forward. Why do the waves break? When the ra o of wave
steepness becomes high i.e. when the wave height increases to such extent that the wave cannot
support the huge wave height, then the wave breaks and spills forward. Wave period: The me taken
by a progressive sea wave to cover the distance of one wave length or one wave cycle is called wave
period, which is usually expressed in the me unit of seconds.

62
 • Wave frequency: The number of sea waves (one wave is equal to one wavelength) passing through a
certain point per unit me (usually one second or one minute) is called wave frequency, which varies
according to the wavelengths of waves. There is inverse rela onship between the wavelength and wave
frequency i.e. shorter the wavelength, higher the wave frequency, and longer the wavelengths, lower
the wave frequency.
• Fetch represents the distance or length of sea surface over which the wind blows in one direc on for
longer dura on. It is the fetch that determines the nature of sea waves.
• Wave trains represent those swells which comprise numerous sets of waves having varying wavelengths.
These wave trains originate in different genera ng areas and move outward from wave genera on
areas. When these wave trains approach a shore, they combine together and produce successions of
high and low waves.

GENERATION OF SEA WAVES

As stated earlier, the mechanism of the origin of sea waves is not precisely known but it is commonly
agreed that the sea waves are generated by some sort of energy release. The following are the probable causes
of genera on of waves in the oceans and seas :
• atmospheric circula on and wind,
• movement of fluids of two contras ng densi es (air and seawater) along the interfaces of two masses
of fluids of varying densi es,
• movement of water masses of varying densi es in the oceans such as turbidity currents,
• mass movement into the oceans such as landslides in the coastal areas,
• tectonic ac vi es on the sea floor such as faul ng, thrus ng etc.
• occurrence of undersea earthquakes, known as tsunamigenic quakes,
• undersea volcanic erup ons,
• gravita onal forces of the sun and the moon ( dal waves),
• atmospheric storms such as tropical cyclones (storm waves or storm surges),
• anthropogenic ac vi es, namely plying of large commercial ships, undersea nuclear tests and explosions
etc.

1. Winds as Wave-genera ng Force

It is commonly agreed that most of sea waves are generated due to fric on on water surface of the oceans
by gusty winds. Since wind circula on, though with varying speeds, is regular feature, the waves generated
by winds are more common and persistent while waves generated by other factors, as men oned above, are
periodic, say me specific. The wind-generated waves vary in size, speed and direc ons. These aspects are
controlled by the following factors :
• wind velocity (speed)
• dura on of me of blowing of wind in one direc on,
• extent of fetch which represents the extent of sea over which wind glows in one direc on, and
• original condi on of the sea.
The wind-generated sea waves pass through a life cycle which includes the stages of genera on of small
and young waves, their development in terms of wavelength, wave height and velocity and movement, and
finally their termina on when they break either in open sea or at plunge line near the sea shore and release
their energy.

63
 The fric on created by the sea surface during the wind blows over it causes stress and pressure which re-
sults in the forma on of undula ng sea surface. This undula ng sea surface causes bulges of ocean water which
in turn causes surface mo on in seawater. This mo on of seawater becomes ini al sea wave which radiates
in all direc ons. Ini ally, sea waves are very small with shortest wavelengths, usually less than 2 cen meters,
and are called ripples or capillary waves having rounded crests and V-shaped troughs. As the winds con nue to
blow in the same direc on, the capillary waves develop into larger waves with more energy and longer wave-
lengths, usually more than 2 cm, and upto 5 meters. These waves are called gravity waves. As the gravity waves
grow and advance, their height increases more rapidly than their wavelengths due to energy provided by wind
speed, which exceeds wave speed. When the wind speed and wave speed are balanced, no further energy is
provided to the waves by the wind, and hence there is no further increase in wave height and wavelength. It
may be men oned that it is not only the wind speed which controls the wavelength and wave height but the
extent of fetch over which the wind blows is also a significant factor in this regard. Thus, wind speed and extent
of fetch are posi vely correlated with wave height and wavelengths. The high speed winds blowing over larger
span (extent) of fetch give birth to high energy sea waves of greater height and longer wavelength. The stage
of maximum development of sea waves (a ainment of maximum wave height and wavelength) is called a ‘fully
developed sea’ under certain condi on of wind speed. A er this stage, the loss of energy by breaking of waves
far exceeds the gain of energy by sea waves because the waves leave fetch area and break at plunge line and
advance coastward as surf waves or swash or uprush.
Since the wave height and wave energy are directly related to wind speed, and the wave height is posi-
vely related to wave energy, and hence wave energy increases with increase in wave speed, and wave height
increases in accordance with increase in wave energy. The substan al increase in wave height and wave energy
results in the increase of steepness of waves. When the steepness of sea waves a ains the threshold value of
1 : 7, the waves begin to break and thus breakers are formed, which are called whitecaps. The gusty westerly
winds gain ever-increasing speed with increasing la tudes in the southern hemisphere. This is why they are
called roaring for es (between 40° to 50°S. la tudes), furious fi ies (50° to 60°S. la tudes), and shrieking six es
(60° to 70°S. la tudes). Thus, the increasing speed of westerly winds with increasing la tudes in the southern
hemisphere causes high energy waves with greatest height.
The wavelength is also directly correlated with wave speed, i.e. the larger the wavelength, the greater the
wave speed and vice versa in deep water.

2. Minor Causes of Wave Genera on

The minor causes of wave genera on include the following:
• The movement of two contras ng masses of fluids in terms of varying densi es causes waves in the
oceans at the interface of two masses. The interface of the movement of air and water mass of seawater
(air and water are fluids of different densi es) creates small but insignificant waves in the oceans. It
may be men oned that this factor cannot work independently, rather it may be effec ve with other
factors of wave origin.
• The rapid rate of landslides in the coastal areas and undersea mass movement of huge debris causes
displacement of seawater which generates high energy sea waves which may cause destruc on on
the inhabited islands and coastal areas.
• The undersea movement of water masses of different densi es, turbidity currents etc. creates large
undersea waves, which are called as internal waves. The wavelengths and wave heights of these internal
waves are of much higher values than the surface ocean waves. The internal waves are associated with
pycnocline zone, which is characterized by rapidly changing densi es of water masses. Some mes,
the height of internal waves exceeds 100 meters.
• The displacement of seawater due to movements of plates, faul ng and upthrus ng of faulted ocean
floors along faults create surface sea waves of high magnitude. The occurrence of high magnitude
undersea earthquakes exceeding the magnitude of 7.0 degree on Richter scale causes tsunami waves,

64
 which a er invading the inhabited coastal areas cause heavy loss of property and human lives. The
occurrence of powerful undersea earthquake of the magnitude of 9.3 on Richter scale off the coast
of Sumatra in the Indian Ocean on December 26,2004 claimed more than 200,000 human lives in 12
countries, bordering the Indian Ocean including India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia etc. Tsunami
waves will be discussed in much detail in the succeeding 9th chapter.
• The undersea volcanic erup on causes waves of various dimensions in the oceans.
• The gravita onal pull of the moon and the sun causes ocean des which create surface waves. These
are called dal waves which occur twice a month. The predic on and tracking of dal waves are, thus,
easy task.
• The severe tropical cyclones with high velocity winds create very high energy waves of great height.
These are called storm waves or storm surges. Such storm generated waves are in fact wind generated
sea waves in one way or the other. When these storm waves invade the coastal areas, they inflict great
damage to human health and wealth. Such waves are very common along the eastern coasts of India
and coastal regions of Bangladesh. The hurricane-generated waves invade the southern and south-
eastern coasts of the USA almost every year. The waves generated by Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane
Wilma inflicted heavy loss of human lives and property in the year 2005 in New Orleans and Florida
respec vely. Typhoon-generated storm waves very o en invade the coastal areas of China, Japan and
Philippines every year.
• The plying of huge tankers, container ships, warships, submarines etc.; undersea nuclear tes ng and
explosions etc. create waves in the oceans.
It may be men oned that the seawaves generated by above-men oned minor factors are not regular
features in the oceans, rather they are periodic in nature. So, the wind-generated sea waves are only regular
sea phenomena and are geomorphologically significant because these waves shape the coastal scenery.

Water Mo ons In the Wind-generated Waves

It may be pointed out that only the form of wave moves forward in seas and oceans through the water and
the water does not move forward. Water par cles within a wave in the seas and oceans do not move forward
with coastward or landward advancing wave itself but move in circular orbit. In an open sea the orbital mo on
of water par cle associated with the passage of a wave decreases rapidly from the water surface downwards
(towards the sea floor). The orbit of par cles decreases with increasing depth from the water surface with the
result orbits become more and more ellip cal towards sea bo om and there is only horizontal movement of
water par cles (back and forth movement of water par cles).
It may be men oned that the movement of wave form forward means forward transmission of wave
energy. It is very interes ng to note that water par cles while moving in a circle in wind generated sea waves
pass the energy forward. Such type of mo on of water in sea waves is known as circular orbital mo on, which
disappears when the depth of water increases one half of the wavelength. It is also important to bear in mind
that water par cle while moving in circular orbital mo on does not return exactly to its original place, rather it
is slightly moved forward because the speed of movement of water in the half of orbital circle in the trough of
the wave is slower than the speed of water movement in the remaining half of the orbital circle in the crest of
the wave. This is why water slightly moves forward. Such forward movement of water is called wave dri .
Since the depth of orbital circle of sea waves is equal to one half of the wavelength, the depth of orbital
circle is posi vely correlated with wavelength of sea waves. Thus, longer the wavelengths, the greater is the
depth of orbital circle of sea waves and vice versa. The depth of orbital circle of sea waves is called wave base
which is one half of the wavelength. As the waves approach sea shore, the wavelength decreases and hence
the depth of wave base also decreases but the wave height increases. When the depth of sea water becomes
equal to one half the wavelength, the depth of wave bases touches the sea bo om, i.e. the sea waves feel bot-
tom and the wave energy becomes unable to maintain the enormously grown wave height, the waves break at
plunge line or breaker line from where the water moves forward and does not follow orbital circular path and

65
thus becomes surf current (remember that in water current water moves forward).
It may be concluded that there are two types of mo ons in wind-generated waves as follows:
• forward movement of wave form (wave energy)
• orbital movement of water par cles beneath the wave
The forward movement of wave form is measured as wave speed or celerity in meters per second. The
wave speed is directly related to wavelength i.e. longer the wavelength, greater the wave speed and vice versa.
The wave frequency is inversely related to wavelength i.e. longer the wavelength, lower the wave frequency
and vice versa.
In an orbital movement of wave water par cles move back and forth and up-and- down and return to
almost the same posi on from where they started moving.
The wave size (wavelength) and the size of orbit of movement of water par cles beneath a wave are di-
rectly correlated i.e., the bigger the size of wave (wavelength), the larger is the size of orbit of mo on of water
par cles and vice versa.
‘The net result is that in theory there is no forward mo on of mass (of water), no ma er how many waves
pass through the area. Thus, wave energy, not water par cle, travels across the sea surface’.

Deep-Water Waves
The deep water zone of the oceans is that part of the ocean where the depth of ocean water exceeds
the depth of wave base, which is one half of the wavelength. So the waves generated in deep ocean water by
winds are called deep ocean water waves and do not have any interac on with ocean bo oms. These waves are
also called oscillatory waves. The mo ons in oscillatory waves are the same as described above i.e. the water
par cles move in orbital circle and they return very nearly to their original posi on a er the passage of waves
while wave form or wave energy moves forward.

Shallow-Water Waves
The sea waves travelling in shallow water zone, where the depth of ocean water or wave base is less than
l/20th of the wavelength, are called shallow water waves or long waves. Thus, shallow water waves travel in the
shallow near shore zones of oceans, and touch the bo om of the oceans, or say waves ‘feel bo om’ because
there is always contact between the waves and sea bo om. The water par cles in such wave follow fla ened
orbits and hence there is forward movement of water mass also. Such movement of waves is calledtranslatory
mo on and the concerned waves are called waves of transla on or translatory waves wherein the water par-
cles move forward approximately at the same velocity as the wave form .This category includes the following
waves:
• wind-generated waves in near-shore zone,
• tsunami waves, generated by tsunamigenic quakes,
• dal waves, generated by gravita onal force of the sun and the moon.

ConstrucƟve and DestrucƟve Waves

From geomorphological point of view sea waves are divided into two major types:
• Construc ve waves: The low frequency waves with longer wavelength approaching the shore and
beaches are construc ve in character because they lose volume and energy rapidly while moving up
the beaches because water percolates in the shingles and other beach materials and thus the backwash
is weakened which hinders the removal of materials seaward. It is, thus, obvious that low- frequency
waves help in the building of beaches.

66
 • Destruc ve waves: High frequency waves with shorter wavelengths and high wave heights (crests)
approaching a more steeply sloping shore are destruc ve in nature because instead of spilling they
plunge and generate powerful breakers travelling towards the shore and strong backwash towards the
sea which combs down the beaches i.e. removes the beach materials and transports them towards
the sea. Such destruc ve waves also resort to cliff erosion which leads to retrograda on of coastland
and sea.

Surf Zone and Breakers

The sea waves a er being originated by powerful winds in the ‘sea area’ (the breeding area of the oceans
is technically called by the mariners as ‘sea area’) radiate outward in all direc ons from the genera ng ‘sea
areas’. The growth of sea waves in terms of increase in the size (wavelength) and speed is controlled by the
strength of storm winds. As the winds get stronger by a aining high speed, the wind energy is transferred to
the ocean surface. This wind energy increases the heights of waves. It means wind strength i.e. wind speed is
strongly posi vely correlated with wave strength i.e. size of wavelength and wave height. As the wind speed
increases, the wavelength and wave height also increases. It may be men oned that the size of sea waves, i.e.
wavelength in controlled by the size of fetch (that part of the sea over which winds blow in one direc on for
long dura on to generate powerful sea waves), the wind speed and wind dura on. The larger fetch, high wind
speed and long dura on of wind mo on in one direc on cause large size (long wavelength) waves.
The sea waves with longest wavelengths move most rapidly. Steep waves with shorter wavelengths but
greater heights (higher crests) decay more rapidly while moving away from genera ng ‘sea area’ while waves
with longer wavelengths and lower heights radiate and travel for thousands of kilometers across the oceans
with li le energy loss. As the waves advance towards the shores, the depth of water decreases, the wave height
increases and the wavelength decreases.
As the waves move in shallow water of near-shore zone, they feel bo om (touch the sea bo om) and
lose energy because they suffer from fric on and distor on caused by their interac ons with bo om surface.
Thus, the waves begin to feel bo om when the depth of water becomes equivalent to about the half of the
wavelength. As the waves approach the shore, the wavelength con nues to decrease while the wave height
increases to such an extent that the crest of the wave topples over and the wave is transformed into breaker
which then collapses. The turbulent water, known as swash or uprush rushes shoreward with great velocity
and force. The distance from the shore where the waves break is called plunge line. It is where the depth of
seawater and the wave height are approximately equal. The turbulent forward moving swash or breaker is also
called surf. The zone of seawater between the plunge line and the shore is called surf zone.
Breakers are of 3 types as follows:
1. Spilling breakers are most common type of breakers in which water does not fall but gradually spills
down the front of sea waves and forms prominent foaming coast. The spilling breakers are formed
over gently sloping sea bo om where there is slow rate of loss of wave energy.
2. Plunging breakers are those in which water falls ver cally and rushes shoreward in the form of turbulent
foaming water mass. When the wave crests become so steep and high then they become curling crests.
Thus, the wave energy becomes unable to support such curling crests, with the result they break and
plunge ver cally.
3. Surging breakers are those in which water moves rapidly shoreward. Such breakers occur very close to
the sea shore. Spilling breakers are associated with steep waves and are caused when the veloci es
in the wave crest and wave body are almost equal. Plunging breakers are caused when the velocity of
water in the wave crest exceeds the velocity of wave body (of intermediate waves). Surging breakers
are associated with gentle waves (in terms of steepness of ware crest).
The breakers of swash or surfs a er reaching the sloping beach return towards the sea as backwash or
undertow currents and rip currents. It may be pointed out that surf currents or swash or breakers and undertow
currents or backwash are significant geomorphic agents. The sea waves become geomorphic agent only when
they feel bo om at the plunge line.

67
 WAVE REFRACTION
Wave refrac on simply means the bending of the crests of sea waves approaching sea shore. The wave
refrac on is caused due to dragging of shore- bound waves along the sea bo om. Why do the wave crests refract
or bend? It may be men oned that crestlines of wave crests off the shoreline are almost straight and parallel in
deep water but when they approach the shallow water of surf zone they become irregular and ul mately they
bend or are refracted due to differen al wave speed (celerity). If the coastline is highly irregular and indented
characterized by bays (embayments) and headlands, the approaching wave crests break off the headland ear-
lier (first) due to shallow depth of water than the crests of same wave which enters the bays due to rela vely
deeper water. In other words, one part of the wave reaches the shallow water off the headlands sooner than
the other part of the same wave which enters the bay. Thus, the Crestline of a wave approaching the headlands
breaks first and is slowed down while the other crestline of the same wave breaks later and thus the two parts
of the same wave break at different mes. This causes bending of sea waves, which we called wave refrac on.
It may also be men oned that the wave energy is concentrated at the headlands because wave crests break
here first and thus headlands are eroded more vigorously. On the other hand, wave energy is distributed in the
bays and hence there is more deposi on.
The refracted waves tend to become parallel to the shorelines. The wave refrac on is also caused by the
irregularity of coastlines as explained above. The most spectacular impact of wave refrac on is uneven distribu-
on of wave energy wherever the coast and shorelines are irregular and indented such as bays and headlands.
This aspect has also been explained above.
Wave orthogonals are the imaginary equi-spaced arrows drawn perpendicular to the crestline of sea waves
before the waves are refracted. In other words, evenly spaced imaginary arrows or rays drawn perpendicular
to the crests of the deep- water waves are called wave orthogonals which are used to demonstrate distribu on
of wave energy. Thus, the energy between any two wave orthogonals is supposed to be equal along the en re
crests. Thus, wave orthogonals help in the understanding of distribu on of wave energy in the near-shore areas.
Wherever the wave orthogonals converge, they denote concentra on of wave energy which causes erosion of
headlands. On the other hand, wherever the wave orthogonals diverge or are dispersed, they denote dispersal
and hence loss of wave energy and deposi on. Wave refrac on results in the forma on of li oral or longshore
currents or dri s which move parallel to the sea shore. These currents are generated in two ways as follows:
• When the seawater under the influence of gusty winds strikes the coast, there is mass transport of
seawater parallel to the coast.
• When powerful wind-generated waves under the influence of high velocity winds strike the coast,
most of water move parallel to the coast.

WAVE REFLECTION
Wave reflec on simply means bouncing back of wave energy when the progressive waves strike the straight
coastlines of resistant rocks, say cliff coastlines or man-made structures such as seawalls, which are constructed
parallel to the coast to protect the land from aggressive cliff erosion when the coast bound waves strike the
seawalls or resistant coasts almost at right angle, the wave energy is reflected back and seabound waves are
created. These seabound outgoing waves are parallel to incoming coast bound waves. When these two oppos-
ing waves meet, unusual wave forms with greater height, usually more than 10 meters, are generated. It may
be men oned that the original waves, i.e. the incoming waves before being reflected, and the reflected waves
have the same wavelengths. The overlapping of the crests of outgoing reflected waves and incoming progres-
sive waves causes wave wedge of great height because of the doubling of the crests of these two opposing
waves. Some mes, the combina on of two opposing waves (reflected waves and incoming waves) having the
same wavelengths results in the forma on of standing or sta onary waves wherein there is no actual horizontal
movement of water.
In effect, the water level oscillates up and down about the fixed node, which is located near the center’.
The standing or sta onary wave, when occurs in a bay, harbour or estuary, is called seiche.

68
 TIDES

TIDES: MEANING AND CONCEPTS

Tides are the most important of all the ocean movements because dal currents affect the whole water
mass from sea surface to the bo om. The rise and fall of seawater due to gravita onal forces (centrifugal) of
the sun and the moon are called des. P. R. Pinet has defined the de in the following manner: “Tides are waves
with very long wavelengths—much longer than ordinary wind waves-that cause sea level to rise andfall with
extraordinary regularity. In fact, des are the most uniformly varying phenomenon in the ocean.”
It appears from the above statements that des are simply periodic rise and fall of sea level caused by
external sources e.g. sun and moon. According to H.V. Thurman and A.P. Trujillo (1999) “Tides are the periodic
rising and lowering of average sea level that occurs throughout the oceans of the world.”

TIDES: CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES

As stated above des are rhythmic rise and fall of ocean surface caused by the gravita onal (a rac onal)
forces of the sun and the moon. The ocean des are characterized by the following typical features:
• Tides are single wave phenomenon which covers the en re ocean basin. On the other hand, wind-
generated sea waves are succession of waves approaching the sea shore one a er another. The front
of the dal wave causes upward movement of seawater (rise of sea level) in one part of the ocean
basin, while downward movement or say fall of sea level on the other side of the same ocean basin.
Tides are shallow water waves but with very long wavelength even in the deep ocean basin.
• Tides are differen ated from wind-driven sea waves with respect to wavelength, wave height, mode
of origin etc. Tidal waves and simple wind-driven sea waves have one common aspect i.e. source of
forces responsible for the origin of des and sea waves. Both have external sources for their origin.
Tides are originated due to interac ons of the sun and moon with ocean surfaces while sea waves are
generated by wind-drag. Besides, sea waves are also originated by other factors such as atmospheric
pressure, temperature varia ons, salinity varia ons etc.
• Tides are low waves but with high energy, while sea waves are high waves with low energy. Very high
sea waves such as rogue waves and storm breakers have very high crests but are localized phenomena
but des are widespread phenomena because they stretch across the en re ocean basin.
• Like wind-driven sea waves dal waves are also characterized by crests (rise of water) and troughs
(fall of water). The dal wave height is called dal range. The ver cal difference between high de
water (crest of dal wave), and low de water (trough of dal wave) is called the dal wave height or
dal range which generally varies between less than 2 meters to more than 4 meters. On the basis of
height dal range is divided into the following three categories:
1. micro dai range, height (wave height) less than 2 meters
2. meso dal range, wave height between 2 to 4 meters
3. macro dal range, wave height more than 4 meters
• The rise of seawater and its movement toward the coast is called de and the resultant high water
level is known as high de water (H.T.W.), while the fall of seawater and its movement toward the sea
is called ebb and the resultant low water level is known as low de water (L.T.W.).
• There is much varia on in the height of high and low des at different places in different oceans because
of varying characteris cs of the depth of ocean water, configura on of sea coasts and coastlines and
openness or closeness of the seas.

69
• Gravita onal pull of ocean water is called dal bulge which occurs at two places, one bulge is toward
the moon and the other is away from the moon on the opposite side of the earth i.e. opposite to the
first bulge. The dal bulges created on the earth’s water surface by the gravita onal force of the moon
are called lunar dal bulges. These two bulges are high des. Thus each place on the earth experiences
bulges or high des twice each day i.e. they occur at the interval of 12 hours 25 minutes each day. The
total period of two bulges ( des) each day is called lunar day. It may be men oned that solar day is of
about 24 hours.
• Like moon, as referred to above, sun also produces bulges on opposite sides of the earth by its
gravita onal force (pull). The bulges created by the sun on the earth’s water surface are called solar
bulges. One bulge is oriented toward the side of the sun while the other bulge is oriented toward the
opposite side of the earth. Since the distance of the sun from the earth is far greater than the distance
between the moon and the earth, the size of solar bulge is 46 percent smaller than the lunar bulge
because the gravita onal pull of the moon far exceeds the gravita onal pull of the sun.
• The coastward transgression of seawater under the influence of dal waves or simply dal bulge is
called flood de while seaward regression of water of dal bulge is called ebb de.
• Any place on the earth facing oceans (also seas) will experience two flood des and two ebb des
each lunar day.
• The heights of high and low des are never iden cal rather these greatly vary. In other words, no two
high des or two low des are ever of same height.
• The monthly and annual cycles of dal ranges also change because they are dependent on the changing
distances of the sun and the moon from the earth because of ellip cal shape of the earth’s orbit.
• There are two high des (spring des) and two neap des in every month.

70
 • There are excep ons to the occurrences of two high des and two low des each lunar day in some
locali es due to complex factors. Thus, the dal pa erns of a lunar day are divided into the following
3 pa erns :
1. Diurnal dal pa ern refers to the occurrence of only one high de and one low de each lunar day
in shallow seawater.
2. Semidiurnal dal pa ern, two high des, and two low des each lunar day having almost iden cal
dal heights of successive high and low des. Such dal pa ern occurs along the western parts of
the Atlan c Ocean facing east coasts of the USA.
3. Mixed dal pa ern is characterized by the occurrences of diurnal as well as semidiurnal dal pat-
terns but the heights of successive high or low des are never iden cal rather they frequently
change. This dal pa ern is the most common pa ern of the occurrences of des almost in all the
oceans. The varia ons in the heights of successive high and low des of mixed dal pa ern are
called diurnal inequali es.
The steep wall of water created in the narrow estuaries of rivers that debouch in the oceans or in the
bays having narrow and constricted mouths due to incoming de is called dal bore. Tidal bore is formed due
to fric on of seaward flowing rivers and incoming dal waves. The fric onal obstruc on caused by incoming
de to the free flow of the river forces the water to riseupto abnormal height, and thus dal bore is formed.

TIDE GENERATING FORCE

The origin of des in the oceans is primarily concerned with the gravita onal forces of the sun and the
moon. It may be pointed out that the earth rotates from west to east and revolves around the sun following an
ellip cal orbit. Similarly, the moon rotates from west to east and revolves around the earth along an ellip cal
orbit so that the distance between the moon and the earth changes during different mes in every month.
The period of the farthest distance between the moon and the earth (407,000 km) is called apogee while the
period of the nearest distance (356,000 km) is called perigee.
The surface of the earth with its diameter of 12,800 km (8,000 miles) is 6,400 km nearer to the moon than
its centre. The centre of the moon is 3,84,800 km
(2,40,000 miles) away from the centre of the
earth. The earth’s outer surface is 3,77,000 km
(2,36,000 miles) away from the outer surface of
the moon. It is evident that the earth’s outer
surface, which is opposite to that surface of the
earth which faces the moon is 3,90,400 km away
from the moon’s surface. The gravita onal force
of the moon will be maximum at the earth’s
surface facing the moon while it will be minimum
at the opposite side of the earth. Consequently,
the water of the earth’s surface facing the moon
is a racted and pulled and high de occurs. High
de is also formed at the opposite side of the
earth simultaneously because of the reac onary
force (centrifugal) of the gravita onal (centrip-
etal) force of the moon causing outward bulge of
water.
It may be men oned that des are caused
in the earth’s ocean due to the following two
main factors:

71
 1. gravita onal force (a rac on) of the moon, and
2. centrifugal force associated with the rota on of the earth and the moon.
The following principles govern the strength of gravita onal a rac on between two celes al bodies:
1. Gravita on a rac on is propor onal to the mass of the body i.e. the greater the mass of a body,
the greater the gravita onal a rac on and vice versa. ‘In fact, the strength of gravita onal a rac-
on varies directly with the masses of interac ng bodies’.
2. Gravita onal a rac on also depends on the distances between two interac ng bodies. In fact, the
gravita onal force is inversely propor onal to the square of the distance between two interac ng
bodies of varying masses. In a very simple term, the greeter the distance between two interac ng
bodies, the lesser the gravita onal force and vice versa. It may be men oned that there is some
difference between gravita onal force and de genera ng force. Thus, de-genera ng forces tend
to ‘vary inversely as the cube of the distance from each point on the earth to the center of the
de-genera ng object (moon or sun), instead of varying inversely to the square of the distance as
does gravita onal a rac on’.
This is to remember that though the mass of the sun is 10 million mes greater than the mass of the moon
but the strength of gravita onal a rac on of the moon is 2 mes more than the sun because the moon is 390
mes closer to the earth than the sun. This is why the moon has twice the de-genera ng force on the earth’s
surface to that of the sun’s de-genera ng force on the earth, and thus, moon is more potent source of de
genera on on the earth’s surface than the sun.
Thus, the de-genera ng force of the moon causes two lunar dal bulges on the earth’s surface at the
same me. One bulge of ocean water, located at T in fig. above, is on that side of the earth which faces the
moon. This side of the bulge is called zenith. The other lunar dal bulge, located at A in fig. above, is on oppo-
site side of the earth, opposite to that side of the earth which faces the moon. This side of lunar bulge is called
nadir. The zenith lunar bulge is caused by the gravita onal a rac on of the moon, while the nadir lunar bulge
is generated by the ‘centrifugal effect associated with the rota on of the earth and the moon.’
Thus, two des and ebbs are experienced twice at every place on the earth’s water surface within 24
hours.

TIME OF TIDES
On an average, every place experiences des twice a day. Since the earth completes its rota on in roughly
24 hours, every place should experience de a er 12 hours but this never happens. Each day de is delayed
by 26 minutes because the moon also rotates on its axis (west to east) while revolving around the earth. Since
the earth rotates from west to east and hence the de centre shi s westward. When the de centre completes
one round, the moon’s posi on is ahead of the de centre by that me because the moon also revolves around
the earth, with the result the de centre takes another 52 minutes to come under the moon. Thus, a par cular
de centre takes 24 hours 52 minutes to come under the moon but by that me there is another de at the
opposite side of the referred de centre and this happens a er 12 hours 26 minutes.
Let us understand this process with the help of a diagram. Suppose if P experiences first de at 4 P.M., the
second de will occur at 4.26 A.M. and the next de
will be experienced at 4.52 P.M. The moon is at ‘K’
loca on and the place ‘P’ on the earth’s water sur-
face under the moon (K) will experience de at 4
p.m. The place ‘P’ a er comple ng its full rota on
in 24 hours comes to its original place but by that
me the moon moves to ‘L’ posi on which is above
‘F’ place on the earth’s surface. Now the place ‘P’
has to cover extra distance of P-F so that it may come
under L posi on o he moon and ‘P’ may experience

72
next de. The earth has to spend 52 minutes to cover P-F distance. The moon completes its one revolu on
around the earth in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes and 17.5 seconds (average 27.5 days). Thus, the P-F distance
is 2/55th part of the moon’s orbit. The place ‘P’ will take 24x60x2/55=52 minutes to cover the distance of 2/55
(P-F) part of the moon’s orbit, therefore, the place ‘P’ will experience next de at 4.26 A.M. when it is at O place
and subsequent de occurs at 4.52 P.M. It is evident that at each place every day de occurs a er 12 hours and
26 minutes and a er the de, ebb occurs a er 6 hours 13 minutes. It may be pointed out that each place ex-
periences de twice a day i.e. when the place is under the moon and when the place is at the opposite side of
the moon and thus each de at par cular place is delayed by 26 minutes daily.

TYPES OF TIDES
The oceanic des are caused due to de producing forces of the sun and the moon. There is a lot of tem-
poral and spa al varia on in the de producing forces because of different posi ons of the sun and the moon
with the earth. Because of varia ons in the intensity of de producing forces several types of des are caused.
A few important types of des are given below:

Spring Tides
Very high de is caused when the sun, the moon and the earth are almost in the same line. Such high des
are called spring des. The posi on of the sun, the moon and the earth in a straight line is called syzygy. When
the sun, the moon and the earth are
in sequen al order in a straight line, in
other words when the sun and the
moon are in one side of the earth, the
position is called conjunction (the
situa on of solar eclipse). When the
posi on of the earth is inbetween the
sun and moon, this is called opposi on.
On the other hand, when the sun, the
earth and the moon are in a posi on
of a right angle, this posi on is called
quadrature. The posi ons of conjunc-
on and opposi on take place during
new moon and full moon respec vely.
In these situa ons the gravita onal
forces of the sun and the moon work
together with combined force and thus
high de is caused. The height of such
spring des is 20 per cent more than
the normal tides. Such tides occur
twice every month (during full moon
and new moon) and their timing is
fixed.

73
 Neap Tides
The sun, the earth and the moon come in the posi on of quadrature (i.e form right angle) on seventh or
eighth day of every fortnight of a month and thus the de produc-
ing forces of the sun and the moon work in opposite direc on,
with the result low de is caused. Such de, which is lower in
height than the normal de, is called neap de. The height of
neap des is generally 20 per cent lower than the normal des.

Tropical and Equatorial Tides

Like the sun there is also northward and southward posi on
of the moon in rela on to the equator of the earth. If the sun
completes its northward and southward posi on in one year i.e.
in roughly 365 days, the moon completes it in 27.5 days or say in
one synodic month. When there is maximum declina on of the
moon to the north of equator, the moon’s rays fall ver cally on
the de centres (near the Tropic of Cancer) and hence spring des
are caused. Such tropical des move westward along the Tropic of
Cancer. Spring des are also caused along the Tropic of Capricorn
which is opposite to the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, successive high
and low water occurring along the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
are of unequal heights. Such des and ebbs are of higher and
lower heights than the normal des and ebbs respec vely. Such
des recur twice every month when the moon’s rays fall ver cally
on the tropics of Cancer (during northward posi on of the moon) and Capricorn (during southward posi on of
the moon). Thus, the des occurring along the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn are called tropical des. There
is no diurnal inequality of des in terms of heights of two neap des and two spring des because the moon is
ver cal on the equator every month. Such des are called equatorial des.

Apogean and Perigean Tides

The nearest posi on of the moon with the earth is called perigee when the distance between them is
3,56,000 km. The dal force of the moon is most powerful during this posi on and hence high des are caused.
Such des, called as perigean des, are 15 to 20 per cent higher than the normal des. On the other hand, the
dal force of the moon is minimum during the posi on of apogee when the moon is at the farthest distance
(4,07,000 km) from the earth and hence low des are caused. Such low des, called as apogean des, are 20
per cent lower than the normal des. When the spring de and perigean high de occur at the same me,
the resultant de becomes abnormal. Similarly, when neap de and apogean de occur at the same me, the
water level becomes significantly low.

Daily and Semi-diurnal Tides

The des recurring at the interval of 24 hours 52 minutes daily are called diurnal or daily des while the
des recurring at the interval of 12 hours 26 minutes are called semi-diurnal des.

Equinoctorial Spring Tides

The des recurring at an interval of 6 months due to the revolu on of the earth around the sun and sun’s
varying declina ons are called equinoc cal des.

Zenith and Nadir Tides

As stated earlier the strength of gravita onal a rac on of the moon is greatest at the earth’s water surface
that faces the moon at zenith, with the result high dal bulge (high de) is created at the zenith. This is called
zenith de or direct de. Simultaneously high de is also created at the opposite side of the earth at nadir. Please

74
remember this opposite side of the earth does not face moon but is opposite to that side of the earth (zenith)
which faces the moon. This nadir lunar dal bulge (high de) is called nadir de or indirect de because it is
not generated by the gravita onal a rac on of the moon, but is generated by the centrifugal force resul ng
from the rota on of the earth and the moon.

THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF TIDES

Numerous theories have been propounded from me to me to explain the origin of des in the oceans.
Since the origin of ocean des depends upon the de genera ng force resul ng from the interac ons between
the earth and the moon, and between the earth and the sun i.e. the gravita onal a rac on of the sun and the
moon, the rota on of the earth-moon system, it requires the understanding of principles and laws of astrophys-
ics, physics, geophysics, mathema cs, hydrodynamics etc. The spa al varia ons in dal waves complicate the
problem of the origin of des. In the beginning Bernoulli, Laplace, Airy, Poincare etc. ventured in this precarious
field and based their hypotheses and explana on on hypothe cally conceived oceans. This is why their concepts
could not hold on for long me because they could not explain actual des in real ocean basins of heterogeneous
character. Basically, the following 2 models of the origin of des in the oceans have been postulated:
• equilibrium model of des, and
• dynamic model of des.
The basic difference between these models of the origin of des in the oceans is related with the move-
ment or no movement of lunar dal bulges. The equilibrium model of des assumes con nuous ocean water
surface on the earth’s surface with infinite depth and no movement of dal bulges with the rota ng earth. On
the other hand, dynamic model of des assumes both land and ocean surfaces on the earth, and movement of
dal bulges as rotary waves. Most of the theories of the origin of des revolve around these models of des.
These theories include the following:

Equilibrium Theory of Newton

Sir Issac Newton propounded his theory of gravita on in his Principia in the year 1687 wherein he stated
that every celes al body of the universe possesses gravita onal force. The celes al bodies a ract each other
through their gravita onal force in such a way that they remain in equilibrium. Thus, the sun, the earth and the
moon are also in equilibrium due to their respec ve pull towards each other. Though the gravita onal force
of the sun is far greater than that of the moon but the lunar gravita onal force has more effect on the earth
than the sun because of its nearness to the earth. The earth and the moon while a rac ng each other revolve
around their common centre of gravity and thus two types of force are produced e.g. (i) centrifugal force which
works outward from the centre, and (ii) centripetal force which works towards the centre.
Centrifugal force is similar at all points on the earth’s surface. The earth’s surface under the moon is 6,400
km (4,000 miles) nearer to the moon’s surface than its (earth’s) centre so that the centripetal or gravita onal
force (a rac ve force) is greater than the centrifugal force at the earth’s surface. Consequently, the water of
the earth’s surface under the moon is a racted and pulled and high de is caused. The opposite side of the
earth’s surface also experiences de because the reac onary force (centrifugal force) of the gravita onal force
(centripetal force) of the moon is more effec ve. In other words, the centrifugal force of the moon is greater
than the a rac ve force at the opposite side of the surface of the earth and thus a bulge of water is caused.
Gravita onal and centrifugal forces balance each other along the line joining both the poles resul ng in
a resultant force which is directed towards the centre of the earth. This forces causes lowering of sea level and
depression i.e. low de. It is apparent that each place experiences two high des every day. Similarly, there are
two des on the earth’s water surface at the same me, one is caused due to gravita onal (centripetal) force
being greeter than the centrifugal force while the second one is caused due to centrifugal (outward) force be-
ing greater than the gravita onal force so that both may balance each other. It may be stated that the highest
points of rise of water or say high des lie nearest to and farthest away from the moon while the lowest points
of water surface or say lowest des lie at places perpendicular to the above places. These four phenomena viz.
two high des and two low des occur simultaneously at one me on the earth’s surface.

75
 EvaluaƟon of Newton’s Theory of Tides
• Since the earth’s surface is comprised of land and water and hence the gravita onal force of the moon
will not be so effec ve as it would have been if the earth’s surface would have been composed of only
water.
• Secondly, the bulge of water may not be possible unless some sort of horizontal movement of de is
involved. In other words, changes in the posi on of water masses in the form of horizontal movement
is essen al for the bulging of sea water outward. In order to overcome this shortcoming the theory
was subsequently amended. The theory envisages that waves are generated during the occurrence
of des and these waves move westward with their crests directly under the moon.
• Thirdly, the me of high de should be the same at all places along each meridian but this never
happens. For example, Liver¬pool and Leith, both are situated on 8°W longitude (meridian) but the
me difference of high des of these two places is of three hours.
• Fourthly, the proposed theore cal me by this theory for a dal wave to move round the earth would
be slightly more because there is vast varia on in the configura on of the coasts of different oceans
and their depths and thus the dal waves have to move under internal as well as external fric ons. In
fact, the dal waves are not free but are forced waves which are very o en obstructed by con nental
and oceanic barriers (bo om reliefs). G.B. Airy regarded this equilibrium theory as an erroneous
approach to explain ocean des. According to him it is erroneous to explain the origin of des on the
basis of gravita onal force.
• The dal bulges are seldom sta onary but they move as rotary waves within an ocean basin as envisaged
in dynamic theory of ocean des.
• The equilibrium theory ignores the presence of con nents and their obstruc ons in the free movement
of dal bulges. This hypothe cal considera on is far from reality.

Progressive Wave Theory of Tides

W. Whewell propounded his progressive wave theory in the year 1833 to explain various problems of the
occurrences of des in the oceans such as origin of des, mes of des, propaga on of dal waves etc. Whewell
prepared a map of co dal lines of the world oceans which he himself revoked a er he was convinced by the
concepts of ocean des as forwarded by G.B. Airy in the year 1842. The theory of ocean des propounded by
Airy is known as ‘canal theory’. The ‘progressive wave theory’ and ‘canal theory’ of ocean des is based on the
following facts:
• The earth is a heterogeneous body and not a homogenerous perfect fluid as was conceived in equilibrium
model of ocean des. In other words, the earth consists of both con nents (lithosphere) and oceans
(hydrosphere).
• Tide occurs at different points of loca on at different mes on the same longitude.
• There is me-lag of des away from the source of origin i.e. the me of the occurrence of des varies
(is delayed) as we go away from the source.
• There is varia on in the magnitude and amplitude of des at different places.
• Tide is in the form of dal wave which travels from east to west. The crests and troughs of such dal
waves become des and ebbs respec vely. These waves are originated in the oceans under the influence
of dal force of the moon. The length and velocity of dal waves depend on the depth of seas and
oceans. In a globe completely surrounded by water the dal waves would travel freely from east to
west but the posi on of land and water hinders the velocity and direc on of these waves.
Since the con nents roughly stretch from north to south and hence they hamper the free movement of
dal waves. These waves are least hampered in the oceans surrounding the Antarc c con nent.

76
 Thus, dal waves are generated in the southern ocean in the southern hemisphere under the influence
of de-producing force of the moon. These waves are called primary waves which move from east to west
in the form of forced waves. These waves are obstructed by the con nents and are consequently refracted
northward. Secondary waves are generated when the westward movement of primary waves is obstructed by
land masses. These northward moving waves are called secondary waves or derived waves which also move
from east to west.
Further minor waves are generated from these secondary waves. These secondary and minor waves
progressively move northward though there is gradual decrease in their magnitude and amplitude but these
waves generate des every where. It may be pointed out that the primary waves are influenced by the moon
but the minor waves move freely. It is, thus, apparent that the dal waves a er being originated in the south-
ern ocean progressively move northward with con nuous lag of me and dissipa on of wave energy. In other
words, the arrival of these progressive waves at successive places northward along the same longitude is also
progressively delayed. This is why there is difference of me of de at different places on the same longitude.
In other words, the me of des is progressively delayed northward along the longitude. These progressive
waves become ineffec ve a er reaching north pole. The crests and troughs of these waves a er reaching the
coasts cause des and ebbs respec vely. Fig. 12.9 depicts the co- dal lines (the lines joining the points of high
waters occurring at the same hour are called co- dal lines) of the Atlan c Ocean.

Evalua on of the Theory

According to the progressive wave theory the age of des increases northward. In other words, if de
is generated in the south on a par cular longitude it reaches quite late at the points located further north on
the same longi¬tude. On the other hand, the data available so far about the me of des denote that the me
of spring des is almost the same from Cape Horn to Greenland in the Atlan c Ocean. Normally, the des are
local or regional phenomena rather than phenomena origina ng in the southern ocean and moving progres-
sively northward. At some la ¬tudes daily and semi-diurnal, both types of des are observed. Further, there
is spa al varia on in the irregularity of des in different oceans. These varia ons cannot be explained on the
basis of progressive wave theory.

Sta onary Wave Theory

R.A. Harris of the U.S. Coast and Geode c Survey propounded the concept of sta onary waves as opposed
to the progressive waves. This theory offers almost sa sfactory explana on for local differences in des, their
types and their age. According to Harris de phenomena are not due to progressive waves which originate in
the southern oceans as claimed by William Whewell but are due to sta onary waves which originate indepen-
dently in each ocean. In other words, de phenomena are regional phenomena.
The sta onary wave theory can be explained with the help of an experiment. If a rectangular tank of
‘developing tray’ containing water is rocked from one side
to the other or is simply lted, the water level rises along
one side of the tray but falls along the other side. This
generates oscilla on in the water contained in the tray.
Such oscilla ons in the water are called sta onary waves.
There is such a centre in the middle of the tray where
there is no change in the level of water. This point is called
nodal point. The water level moves rhythmically from one
end of the tray to the other end along a line which is called
nodal line. The period of oscilla on of water in the tray
depends on the length and depth of the tray and the force
of shocks applied to the tray. The aforesaid example is the
case of uninodal system but there may also be binodal
oscilla on system.

77
 Based on above analogy, different oceans of the earth are like giant water containing trays. The dal
forces of the sun and the moon cause oscilla ons in the oceanic waters but the oscilla ons do not occur along
straight limes as in the case of the tray rather they occur around central point because of the rota onal force of
the earth, with the result several araphidromic points are generated. The dal bulges lag behind the rota onal
speed of die earth and hence these break into numerous cells in the open ocean. The crests and troughs of
the dal wave rotate around a point located in the center of each cell. This central point is called amphidromic
point. The oceanic water remains calm and sta onary at these points whereas water level changes around
them. This mechanism results in the forma on of waves which move in an -clockwise direc on around these
amphidromic points. Such oscillatory mechanism of water occurs in every ocean and is collec vely called as
oscilla on system. Numerous sta onary waves are generated from these amphidromic points. Every sta on-
ary wave has a definite me of its oscilla on. The oscilla on system and mechanism are affected by the depth,
configura on and length of the ocean basins and the rota onal speed of the earth. The sta onary waves a er
being originated from the amphidromic centres move towards the coasts. The forward movement of these waves
is hampered by the con nental peninsulas, islands, bays etc. When these waves reach the coasts, their crests
and troughs cause des and ebbs respec vely. There is posi ve correla on between the depth of the oceans
and the height of des. In other words, if the depth of the ocean becomes greeter, higher sta onary waves are
generated and high waves generate high or spring des. Low des are generated in shallow seas because of
lower height of sta onary waves.

TIDAL BORES
Tidal bores are steep wall of seawater moving upstreams from their mouths when the dal waves enter
the low-lying rivers. “A dal bore (bore = crest or wave) is a wall of water that moves up certain low-lying rivers
due to an incoming de. Because it is a wave created by the des, it may be considered to be true dal wave”.
Tidal bores are formed when dal waves with greatheight i.e. high dal range (here dal range means height
of the crests of dal waves), enters a narrow and low-lying river, which debauches in the sea or bay, and rushes
upstream and is obstructed by the flow of the river. Consequently, the de water is forced to have a steep wall-
like crest. The following condi ons are conducive for the occurrence of dal bore:
• Narrow and low-lying coastal river with gentle channel gradient,
• A bay with narrow opening and tappering head,
• Large dal range (wave height), usually more than 5 meters,
• Upward decreasing water depth, meaning thereby decreasing depth of water in upriver sec on, etc.
When de water enters the coastal river with high dal range, the seaward flow of the river obstructs the
incoming de, with the result the front of dal wave crest is forced to assume high dal range. Thus, the dal
wave with steep dal wall of more than 5 m in height rushes upstream or [Link] wall-like high dal waves
are called dal bores which move upstream with average speed of 20-22 kilometers per hour. As the dal bores
move upstream, their effects con nue to decrease. The Amazon river of South America has 800 km long estuary
which is travelled by dal bores. The estuary of the Chientang river of China is known to have the highest dal
bore, measuring more than 8 meters in height, in the world. Large dal bores are no ced in Pe tcodiac river of
New Brunswick of Canada, the Seine river of France etc. Tidal bores also occur in Hooghly river of India.
It may be men oned that it is not the dal range which always determines the height of dal bores. For
example, the Bay of Fundy of Nova Sco a has the largest dal range in the world (17 meters) but the dal bore has
the height of about one meter or so. This is because the Bay of Fundy has quite wide mouth at its opening.

TIDAL CURRENTS
Water currents are generated by des due to upward and downward movement of sea level in the open
and nearshore regions. The coastward movement of des causes flood currents which pile up seawater against
the sea coast. The current caused by returning des are called ebb current. Thus, flood currents move coastward
while eb currents move away from the coasts.

78
 The currents associated with des in the open ocean are called rotary currents which turn nicounterclock-
wise direc on in the northern hemi sphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. When the rotary currents
enter the shallow water of nearshore areas they suffer from fric on am ul mately they change to alterna ng
or reversing currents. The velocity of rotary currents in this open sea is very slow, around one kilometer per
hour, but the reversing currents move very fast with the velocity of 44 kilometers per hour. This reversing dal
currents assume greater veloci es in the region of irregular coastlines, in narrow and constricted bays, and in
narrow coastal rivers.
The rise and fall of des, and flood currents and ebb currents have great poten als for the genera on of
electricity wherever there are bays with narrow openings and constricted dal inlets or narrow estuaries.

79
MARINE SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITS:
NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE

The unconsolidated materials, derived from various sources and deposited at the ocean floors are called marine
sediments, which include weathered and eroded particles of rocks, fragments of dirt, dust, volcanic ashes,
remains of marine organisms, fragments of meteorites etc. The settling of marine sediments on the ocean floors
is called ‘marine snow falls’. The analysis of marine sediments cores derived through deep drilling from the ocean
floors provides valuable clues to the oceanographers to reconstruct the past geological and tectonic history of
the earth. Thus, the study of marine deposits is geologically, biologically, culturally and climatologically very
significant as follows :

 The analysis of nature of marine sediments in terms of lithological succession, nature and disposition of
sedimentary beds provides vital proxy data for deciphering the tectonic history of the earth, mainly plate
movements.
 The analysis of sediments cores provides vital clues (proxy data) to find out the chronology of
palaeoclimate. The nature of sediments and fossils of marine organ isms (both phytoplanktons and
zooplanktons) embedded in different layers of sedimentary deposits provide significant proxy data which
enable the geologists and climatologists to find out the past climate changes and sea level fluctuations.
 The nature and patterns of deposits of marine sediments on the ocean floors give clue to trace the
variations in the flow patterns of ocean circulation mainly of ocean currents.
 The analysis of fossils of marine organisms embedded in sedimentary layers enables the biologists to
trace the history of evolution of marine life and mass extinction of marine organisms.
 Besides, the analysis of marine sediments and deposits provides vital clues to the following
 to assess the impacts of meteorites on the composition of marine sediments.
 to investigate the nature and frequency of submarine volcanic eruptions and the materials coming
therefrom.
 to understand the nature and pattern of movements of ocean floors (sea floor spreading) that might have
taken place in the past geological history of the earth.
 to ascertain the nature of nutrients supply to marine organisms.

It may be submitted that the marine sediments and the ocean floors are significant archives of human culture and
civilization, science and technology. The large number of sunken ships and boats, submarines and warships,
weapons of various kinds, missiles etc. are lying on the ocean floors which have preserved the cultural wealth of
humans. Similarly, the ‘ancient marine sediments are the information high ways into earth’s ancient past’.

Thus, ‘the epic stories can be read from the record that is preserved in the vast sedimentary accumulation on the
sea bottom’. The proxy data and clues from the ancient marine sediments about the aforesaid aspects may be
summarized as follows:

• Clues about tectonic history of the earth and plate movements,

• Reconstruction of palaeoclimate,

• Understanding flow pattern of ocean water, mainly ocean currents,

• Evolutionary history of marine organisms,

80
• Impacts of meteorites on the composition of marine sediments,

• Nature of undersea volcanic eruptions,

• Nature and pattern of movement of ocean floors i.e. sea floor spreading,

• Reconstruction of palaeomagnetism,

• Nutrients supply to marine organisms,

• Occurrence of mass extinction of marine organisms,

• Reconstruction of sea level and climate changes,

• Cultural heritage from the sunken ships, and boats etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE SEDIMENTS:

The marine sediments register large variations in terms of their origin and formation, size and shape,
composition, locational aspect etc. On the basin of source, marine sediments can be divided into four major
categories as:

(1) Terrigenous or lithogenous sediments,

(2) Biogenous sediments,

(3) Hydrogenous sediments, and

(4) Cosmogenous sediments.

The sediments derived from the above mentioned 4 major sources are alternatively named as inorganic
sediments (terrigenous sediments), organic sediments (biogenous sediments), calcareous and siliceous sediments
(hydrogenous sediments) etc.

Thus, on the basis of sources and mode of formation marine sediments are classified into the following
categories:

1. Terrigenous (lithogenic) marine sediments

(1) Continental lithogenous sediments (2) submarine volcanic lithogenous sediments examples :

(i) Gravels

(ii) Sands

(iii) Silt

(iv) Clay

(v) Mud

(a) Blue mud

(b) Green mud

81
(c) Red mud

2. Biogenous marine sediments

(1) Neritic sediments

(2) Pelagic sediments examples:

(i) Calcareous oozes

(ii) Pteropod oozes

(iii) Globigerina oozes

(iv) Siliceous oozes

(v) Radiolarian oozes

(vi) Diatom ooze

3. Hydrogenous marine sediments (authigenic sediments)

(1) manganese nodules

(2) phosphates

(3) oolites (CaCo3, limestone particles)

(4) metal sulfides (5) gypsum, halite, other salts

4. Cosmogenic marine sediments

(1) space dusts

(2) meteors particles

(i) iron-nickel meteorites

(ii) silicate chondrites

5. Volcanogenic marine sediments

1) volcanic dusts

2) volcanic ashes

CLASSIFICATION OF OCEAN DEPOSITS

The unconsolidated marine sediments are lithified due to tectonic activities and thus we can find layered
consolidated materials on the deep ocean floors. Such consolidated marine sediments are called ocean deposits.
In fact ocean deposits include both loose and unconsolidated materials lying on the ocean floors, and layered
consolidated sediments in the form of sedimentary rocks.

Ocean deposits are classified on different bases as follows :

1. On the basis of location

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2. On the basis of depth of ocean water

3. On the basis of origin of sediments

1. On the Basis of Location

This classification is based on the typical locations of particular marine sediment. Though several scientists have
attempted to classify ocean deposits on the basis of their location, the classifications of Sir John Murray and J.T.
Jenkins are widely acclaimed.

Generally, ocean deposits are classified on the basis of location into the following two categories :

• Shelf deposits

• Pelagic deposits

Shelf deposits include the deposition of marine sediments of variable origin on the floors of continental shelves,
while pelagic deposits consist of sedimentation of fine particles on the floors of deep sea plains.

Classification of Murray:

Sir John Murray has classified the ocean deposits into two broad categories viz. (a) terrigenous deposits, and (b)
pelagic deposits. Terrigenous deposits are found mainly on the continental shelves and slopes whereas pelagic
deposits predominate on the deep sea floor. Terrigenous deposits are composed of coarser materials and are
derived from the continents through weathering and erosional processes and are transported to the oceans by
various agencies. Their colour may be blue, yellow, grey or red. Pelagic deposits consist of the materials formed of
skeletons and shells of marine organisms and a few inorganic substances. They are generally blue, grey or red in
colour.

Classification of Jenkins:

Jenkins has divided marine deposits into three groups viz (a) deep sea deposits, (b) shallow water deposits, and (c)
littoral deposits. The following is the detailed classification of Jenkins :

(A) Pelagic deposits

(1) Red clay

(2) Radiolarian ooze

(3) Diatom ooze (4) globigerina ooze

(5) Pteropod ooze

(B) Terrigenous deposits

(1) Blue mud

(2) Red mud

(3) Green mud

(4) Coral mud

(5) Volcanic mud

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6) Gravel

(7) Sand

2. On the Basis of Depth

(A) Deep sea deposits (below 100 fathoms)

(a) Pelagic deposits

(1) Red clay

(2) Radiolarian ooze

(3) Diatom ooze

(4) Globigerina ooze

(5) Pteropod ooze

(b) Terrigenous deposits

(1) Blue mud

(2) Red mud

(3) Green mud

(4) Coral mud

(5) Volcanic mu

(B) Shallow sea deposits (between low tide water and 100 fathoms)

(1) gravels

(2) sands

(3) mud

(C) Littoral deposits (between high and low tide water)

(1) gravels

(2) sands

(3) mud

3. General Classification

(1) Terrigenous deposits

(i) littoral deposits

(ii) shallow water deposits

(iii) terrigenous mud

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(2) Neritic deposits

(i) shallow water neritic deposits

(ii) deep seawater neritic deposits

(iii) pelagic deposits.

4. Classification on the Basis of Origin of Sediments

(1) Littoral deposits (derived from land)

(i) shore deposits (ii) shelf deposits

(2) Heunpelagic deposits (partly from land and partly from marine origin)

(i) green mud (ii) volcanic mud (iii) coral mud

(3) Eupelagic deposits (of marine and cosmic origin)

(i) red clay (ii) radiolarian ooze (iii) globigerina ooze (iv) pteropod ooze

DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN DEPOSITS

Distribution of ocean deposits may be attempted in various ways as follows:

• vertical distribution of ocean deposits

• regional distribution (ocean-wise distribution)
• marine province-wise distribution, such as ocean deposits on continental shelves, and on deep sea plains.
• sediment-wise distribution, such as terrigenous deposits, and pelagic deposits.

Distribution of Terrigenous Deposits

Terrigenous deposits are classified into 3 categories on the basis of location and depth as :

 littoral deposits
 shallow water deposits
 deep water deposits

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(1) Littoral deposits are generally found on the continental shelves mainly near the coastal margins up to the
depth of 100 fathoms (600 feet) but they have been also traced up to the depth of 1000 m-2000 m. Littoral
deposits consist of gravels, sands, silt, clays and muds.

(2) Shallow water deposits include terrigenous sediments deposited between the low tide water level and 100-
fathom depth. These deposits consist of gravels, sands, silt and clays of varying proportions. Sea waves and tidal
waves help in the gradation and sorting of sediments but undersea landslides, slumping, strong storm waves, and
storms sometimes disturb the vertical stratification of sediments.

(3 ) Deep water deposits include the sediments deposited below the depth of 100 fathoms. There is marked
gradation of sediments in vertical succession where the sequence of sediments with increasing depths is blue
mud, red mud, green mud, coral mud and volcanic mud.

Distribution of Pelagic Deposits

Pelagic deposits consisting of remains of marine organisms in the form of different types of oozes cover about
75.5 per cent of the ocean areas. Pteropod, diatom and radiolarian oozes cover 0.4, 6.4 and 3.4 per cent areas of
all the oceanic deposits respectively. Red clay constitutes 31.1 percept of the total ocean deposits.

86
87
Philippi has described a vertical stratification of different pelagic sediments wherein the sequence from top to the
bottom includes pteropod ooze, globigerina ooze, radiolarian ooze, diatom ooze, and red clay. Figs. 6.4, 6.5,6.6 &
6.7 depict, general pattern of horizontal distribution of ocean deposits. It is apparent from the figures that
terrigenous deposits are found along the coasts mainly on continental shelves but they cover greater extent near
the East Indies, in the North Pacific and along the Labrador coast. Globigerina ooze, red clay and diatom ooze
dominate in the western, eastern and southern parts of the Indian Ocean whereas it contains maximum areal
extent in the Pacific Ocean.

Ocean Deposits on Continental Shelves

It may be recalled that continental rocks are the most significant source of marine sediments, as continental rocks
are weathered by different weathering processes (physical, chemical and physico-bio-chemical weathering) and
are eroded by surface runoff. The eroded materials are carried by the rivers and are ultimately unloaded in the
oceans. Thus, terrigenous source is the major contributing source of sediments to be deposited on the
continental shelves. The following factors determine the process of sedimentation on continental shelves:

• amount of terrigenous materials brought

• by the rivers from the lands,
• velocity of river flow at their mouths,
• distance from the coast,
• depth of water,
• Energy conditions of waves, and currents, etc.

Since the energy of bottom currents decreases from the shoreline with increasing distance of continental shelves
and increasing depth of seawater, and hence there is marked gradation (sorting) of terrigenous sediments on the
floors of continental shelves in the following sequence:

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Shoreline : gravels (boulders, cobbles, pebbles granules)—>coarse to medium grained sands —> fine grained
sands—>sand and mud —> sandy mud —>mud in offshore region —> shelf break (outer margin of continental
shelves).

It appears from the above discussion that grain size of sediments on continental shelves is proportional to the
energy level of the waves and currents. As the energy level decreases away from the shoreline, the grain size of
shelf sediments also decreases i.e. becomes finer towards outer margin of shelf (shelf break). Thus, shallow water
is characterized by high energy condition and coarser sediments whereas deeper water denotes low energy
condition and finer sediments.

It may be mentioned that the aforesaid ideal sequence of marine sediments on continental shelves is seldom
found in reality because fluctuation in sea level causes transgression and regression of seawater on coastal lands
and the environment of energy levels of waves and current also changes. At the time of fall in sea level (negative
sea level change caused either by tectonic activities or glacial age) the inner parts of the continental shelves
(coastward part) emerges above sea level while during the rise in sea level (positive sea level changes caused by
either tectonic activities or deglaciation of ice sheets during the interglacial period) seawater transgresses on to
land. These events disturb the normal sequence of marine deposits on continental shelves. The geological records
reveal the fall of sea level due to late Pleistocene glaciation by about 130 meters 15,000 years ago from the
present sea level. Thereafter, the deglaciation during Holocene period enabled the sea level to regain its present
level by rising 130m from the late Pleistocene sea level. This is why major portion of sediments on continental
shelves is relict sediment. Around 60-65 per cent of outer continental shelves is characterized by the relict
sediments of coarse texture (gravels and sands). It may be mentioned that the outer continental shelves (seaward
portion) have relatively deeper water where low energy condition predominates. Thus, coarse grained sediments
cannot be deposited on quiet sea condition of present time. On the other hand, the inner parts of continental
shelves are characterized by coarse to fine grained sediments which are in accordance with the high energy level
of bottom currents at present time. In other words, the coarse and fine grained sediments on the floors of the
inner continental shelves are modern sediments.

The worldwide distribution of marine de posits on continental shelves denotes latitudinal variation. K.O. Emery
(1969) has identified zonal pattern of distribution of marine sediments on the continental shelves at world level
as follows:

(1) Tropical shelves are dominated by bio genic sediments.

(2) Temperate (multitudes) shelves are characterized by the dominance of terrigenous sediments brought by
the rivers.
(3) Continental shelves in the polar areas are dominated by glacial marine sediments (tills and ice-rafted
debris).

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Deep-Sea Ocean Deposits

As already stated, the pelagic deposits predominates the deep sea marine deposits. The areal distribution of deep
sea ocean deposits consisting of calcareous oozes (globigerina and pteropod oozes), silicines oozes (diatom and
radiolarian and red clay) has been shown in table 6.2 while percentages of these deposits in different oceans
(Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans) have been shown in table 6.3. It is apparent from table 6.3 that globigerina
ooze is the most widespread deposits on the floors of deep oceans, as it occupies 47 per cent of total global deep
sea deposits. Except the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are dominated by globigerina ooze as they
account for 65 and 54 per cent of their total deep sea deposits respectively. It is the red clay which is most
widespread in the Pacific Ocean (49 per cent). The Atlantic and Indian Oceans account for 26 and 25 per cent of
their respective total deep sea deposits. Diatom ooze is the third significant deep-sea deposit (12 per cent of total
global deep sea deposits). The Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans contain 20, 10 and 7 per cent of their total deep
sea deposits respectively. Radiolarian ooze is almost insignificant as it shares only 3 per cent of total global deep
sea deposits.

MARINE RESOURCES: MEANING AND IMPORTANCE

World oceans are archives of world culture and civilization because sea floors have kept and preserved numerous
boats, vessels, , ships and war equipment etc. of different types ranging from ancient times to modern age of
advanced culture of science and technology. The sunken boats, vessels, cargo ships, warships lashed with nuclear
weapons, nuclear submarines not only tell the story of the stages of development of skills and technology of ship
building but also reveal the history of sea wars and piracy. Thus, besides the treasure of natural marine resources
including both biotic and abiotic (minerals) resources, sea beds also have immense treasure of world culture and
civilization, and historical records of sea wars, sea piracy, sea trade and commerce, great voyages, exploration
and discovery. Such marine resources may be termed marine cultural and historical resources.

The biotic and abiotic resources found in the oceanic water and bottoms are called marine resources, which
include marine water, inherent energy in the oceanic water (e.g. wave energy, tidal energy etc.), biotic life of
marine water (plants and animals), marine deposits and abiotic elements (minerals, fossil fuels etc.), biotic and
abiotic matter of ocean bottoms, benthic organ isms etc. The marine resources are unique in the sense that they
are renewable as most of the organisms can be regenerated. Since time immemorial, oceans have always been
useful for human society and have attracted man in different ways. Man has been using oceans in a number of
ways since long e.g. for transport, communication and trade, fishing, defence purposes, mineral extraction,
recreation, medicines, waste disposal etc. Presently, the importance of oceans has increased manyfold because of
increased demand of food and minerals. Consequently, man, besides traditional ways of exploitation of marine
resources, has become capable of modernizing traditional methods through his skill and advanced science and
technologies. For example, the productivity and production of marine organisms (plants and animals) have been
increased many fold through marine culture (mariculture), aquaculture, ocean ranching etc.

There has begun a race for the exploitation of minerals associated with oceanic water, ocean deposits and ocean
crusts and accordingly, the strategic importance of oceans has also increased. Many branches of oceanography
have been developed for specific purposes e.g. marine geology, marine biology (for detailed study of marine
organisms), and economic oceanography (for the systematic study of marine resources), resource oceanography
etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE RESOURCES

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Seas and oceans are endowed with different varieties of biotic and abiotic resources of two major sources. Firstly,
the rivers while draining through land areas of the lithosphere bring different types of materials into the seas.
These materials contain a variety of mineral elements of different type of plants and animals. Secondly, some
resources are manufactured by plants in shallow waters. It may be remembered that the oceans are vast
reservoirs of biotic resources. Nearly, 40,000 species of molluscs, and 25,000 species of fishes are found in marine
waters. Besides mineral resources, different types of vitamins and medicinal elements are also found. Generally,
marine resources are divided into three categories as biotic resources, abiotic (mineral and energy) resources and
commercial resources (navigation, aviation, trade and transport etc.).Similarly, marine resources are also
classified into living resources and non-living resources. Alternatively, marine resources can also be divided into
mineral resources, energy resources and food resources. Based on above mentioned considerations marine
resources can be divided into the following categories.

1. MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

(A) Food resources

(i) Animal resources (fishes, crabs, prawns, zoo planktons etc.)

(ii) Plant resources (phytoplanktons, sea grass etc.)

(B) Non-food resources-Corals

Alternatively, marine biological resources can also be divided into the following 3 categories:

(A) Plankton communities

(i) Phytoplanktons

(ii) Zooplanktons

(B) Nekton communities

(i) Pelagic fishes

(ii) Demersal fishes

(C) Benthos communities

(i) Epibenthic community

(ii) Benthic organisms

(iii) Inflora and infauna

2. MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES

(A) On the basis of location

(i) Minerals of the continental shelf deposits

(ii) Minerals of the continental slope deposits

(iii) Minerals of the deep sea bottom deposits

(B) On the basis of nature

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(i) Metallic minerals

(ii) Fuel minerals (petroleum, natural gas)

(iii) Construction materials (gravels, sands, etc.)

3. ENERGY RESOURCES

(A) Conventional energy

(i) Petroleum

(ii) Natural gas

(B) Non-conventional energy

(i) Tidal energy

(ii) Wave energy

(iii) Biomass energy

(C) Other Possibilities

1. Energy from Temperature gradient (OTEC)

2. Energy from Salinity gradient

3. Wind farms along the suitable coastal areas

4. Energy from Ocean currents

5. Solar panels over the oceans etc.

4. Freshwater resources

Manufactured water (transformation of saline sea water through the processes of desalinization into potable
water)

MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES (MBR)

The richness and reserves of marine biological resources (marine biomass) depend on the penetration of solar
radiation (sunlight) into seawater and efficiency of biological cycle. The marine biome is divided on the basis of
habitats of marine organisms into upper marine water surface zone, middle zone and lower deep sea zone. It may
be mentioned that there are up and down vertical movement of marine animals. Thus, there is transfer of
nutrients from the upper surface downward. The upper surface is called photic layer (up to 200m depth) where
the one celled phytoplanktons thrive through the process of photosynthesis. This upper or photic layer is also
called as marine green pasture. This layer is succeeded below by dimly lighted zone and aphotic zone.

The plant and animals communities of marine environment and the environment of their habitats are collectively
called the marine biome which is vertically divided into two types as 1. Pelagic biome and 2. Benthic biome.

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The pelagic biome on the basis of depths and plant life is further divided into two types as 1. Neritic pelagic
biome, which includes continental shelves with an average depth of 200 m, and 2. Open sea pelagic biome. On
the basis of the availability of sunlight, marine biomes are divided into two major divisions as 1. Photic biome (up
to the depth of 200 m), and 2. Aphotic biome (from 200 m depth to the bottom of the sea). Aphotic biome is
divided into three subtypes viz. (i) mesopelagic biome (depth up to 1000 m from sea level), (ii) bathypelagic
biome (depth up to 4000 m from sea level, and (iii) abyssopelagic biome (extends up to the depth of 6000 m or
more).

Benthic biome is divided into 3 zones as 1. Littoral zone includes those areas of sea shores and sea coasts which
lie within the high and low tide waters, 2. Sub-littoral zone includes the sea bottoms below the water of the
continental shelves, and 3. Deep sea benthic zone (from 200m to 6000m or more depth).

Again, the marine organisms (plants and animals) are divided into 3 categories on the basis of their habitats as 1.
Planktons- are floating and drifting micro plants and animals of photic zone. These are further divided into
phytoplanktons (plant planktons) and zooplanktons (animal planktons). 2. Nektons include algae, strong and
powerful floating and swimming marine animals mainly fishes. These marine animals move in all the zones of the
oceanic environments. 3. Benthos include those plants (non-photosynthetic or non-phototrophs) and animals
which live at the bottom of the seas and oceans.

1. Plankton Community

They include the groups of buoyant and floating marine plants and animals which live in the photic (euphotic zone
or eupelagic zone) up to the depth of 200 m from the sea level. Plant planktons, called as phytoplanktons produce
food through the process of photosynthesis with the help of sunlight, water and atmospheric carbon dioxide and
thus, they are the primary producers and are also called the autotrophs. Algae and diatoms are the most
important members of this community. This community grows so quickly that within a short span of time they
cover very large area of sea surface. Such area of dense cover of algae and diatoms is called marine pasture.
There is reproduction explosion in some of the red-grey microscopic plants. Consequently, extensive area of red-
gray plants is developed. Such area is called the red tide. The size of zooplanktons ranges from one millimetre to
several meters. Zooplanktons are of three types. 1. Herbivore zooplanktons, 2. Carnivore zooplanktons and 3.
Detrivore zooplanktons. In fact, zooplanktons act as a bridge between the marine pastures of phytoplanktons of
photic zone and the largest sea animals.

2. Nekton Community

They consist of swimming animals of various depths of the seas and oceans. Most of the animals of nekton group
are vertebrates. Fishes of numerous species are important members of this community. Sea fishes are divided
into two groups viz. pelagic fishes and demersal fishes. These fishes are main sources of marine biological
resources. The swimmer marine mammals of nekton community are divided into two groups e.g. 1. Those marine
animals which live in waters as well as on lands such as scales, and (ii) the second category of swimming marine
mammals includes those animals which spend their entire life in sea water such as whales. Whales are divided
into two families viz. 1. toothed whales, and 2. whale bone whales. Toothed whales are predators and range in
size from smaller one (such as sperm whale) to giant size (such as killer whales). Dolphins and porpoises are also
included in the toothed whale family. Whalebone whale family of fishes includes blue whales and humpbacked
whales. Sea cow such as manatees is also important species of swimming mammals of nekton community. Guano,
mainly boobies and cormorants are important swimming birds.

3. Benthos Community includes all those plants and animals which live on the sea bottoms right from the littoral
marine biome to the open sea biome. The organisms of this community are characterized by large species
diversity. The total known species of benthos animals represent 16 per cent of the total species of all the marine

93
animals. Benthos organisms are divided into two categories on the basis of their habitats e.g. 1. epiflora and
epifauna, and 2. Inflora and infauna. Epiflora and epifauna live on the surfaces of sea bottoms whereas infauna
and inflora live in the detritus and are generally buried whether completely or partially in the ocean bottom
deposits. Sea weeds, large algae, eel grass and turtle grass are important benthos plants. Benthos animals mostly
include several species of molluscs e.g. bivale mussels, oysters and cockles. Majority of the benthos animals are
scavengers (e.g. shark, sable fish, hagfish, octopus etc.). The life of marine benthic animals living on the 1000-
4000m deep sea bottom largely depends on the organic matter of the upper surface of sea water and remains of
nekton animals.

Net primary Productivity of Marine Biome

The average net primary productivity of different marine biomes (according to I. G. Simmons, 1974) is 350 dry
gram per square meter per year for continental shelf biome; 125 dry g/ m2/yr for open sea biome; 500 dry
g/m2/yr for upwelling zone biome; and 155 dry g/m2/yr for the entire oceanic biome. The total primary
productivity is 9.30 x 109 tonnes/yr for continental shelf biome; 41 x 109 tonnes/yr. for open ocean biome; 0.2 x
109 tonnes/yr for upwelling zone biome; and 55 x 109 tonnes/yr for the entire oceanic areas.

Corals are important animals in the groups of marine organisms. These are generally called as rainforests of the
oceans. The coral colonies provide different types of habitats for different purposes of marine organisms. Most of
sea fishes lay eggs in the coral colonies. In fact, corals are the base of marine biological community. The marine
biological health depends on the richness of corals. Human economic activities are responsible for coral bleaching
causing mass coral deaths due to global warming consequent upon deforestation, rapid rate of industrialization
etc. (see chapter 13 of this book for coral bleaching). The average sea temperature increased 2°C from the normal
during 1997-98 due to which there was large-scale destruction of corals worldwide through coral bleaching. More
than 70 per cent corals of Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep were destroyed.

FOOD RESOURCES

On the basis of use, marine food resources are divided into two types e.g. (i) protein rich food resources for the
use of human being (e.g. fishes), (ii) animal feed mainly for domesticated animals. The contribution of fish in the
world annual income from marine resources of all categories stands second. The largest share of world annual
income comes from trade and transport. Fin fish make 90 per cent share of total world catch of fish while
remaining 10 per cent is contributed by whales, crustaceans (e.g. lobster), molluscs and several types of
invertebrate animals. The following are the main forms of fishing and fish farming:

1. FISHING

Fishing refers to the direct catching of sea fish through different means and methods. Sea fish are grouped in
different categories on different bases. On the basis of depth, these are grouped into two categories e.g. (i)
clupeids, which lives in the upper water surface e.g. herring, sardine, pilchard, shads, ancovy etc., and (ii) gadoid,
living in the deep sea mainly at the sea bottom, e.g. cod, haddack, hake etc. The fishes of clupeid family account
for 45 per cent of the total world catch while gadoid family contributes 15 per cent. Flounders (small flat fishes)
contribute 15 per cent of total world catch. The remaining 25 per cent is contributed by tuna, mackerel etc. (7 per
cent), and other types of flatfishes, rose fishes, sea perches, mullets, jacks etc. On the basis of location sea fishes
are grouped in 3 categories viz. (i) pelagic fishes (e.g. mackerels, tunas, herrings, anchovies etc.); (ii) demersal
fishes (e.g. cod, sole, haddock, halibut etc.); and (iii) anadromous or migratory fishes (e.g. salmons).

Fishing areas (fisheries) are divided in two categories on the basis of temperature of sea water

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(1)Cold water fisheries, which have already been developed since long, and (2) tropical and subtropical fisheries,
which have the potential for further development. The tropical and subtropical fishing areas have high potential
for extensive fish catch in future. In fact, fishing has been greatly developed in the northern hemisphere and the
continental shelves of mid-latitude temperate seas have become the largest fishing ground because of availability
of plenty of important and specific species of fishes (like mackerels), relatively low content of oil and fat, large
demand of fish as human food, modern and advanced techniques and related means for fishing, provision for
canning and preservation of fishes etc. On the other hand, high content of fat and oil in the fishes of tropical and
subtropical water and the resultant less demand for human food, lack of abundance of a few lucrative species of
fishes in specific areas, mixed presence of several species in a place (area) etc. have discouraged the development
of fishing up to the desired level in the tropical and subtropical seas.

Major Fishing Areas are identified and grouped into definite fishing zones on the basis of concentration,
abundance and catch of fishes. The following 3 major and 13 sub-regions of fishing have been identified:

Diagram: Major Fishing Grounds of the World.

(1) Pacific Ocean fishing area includes five sub-areas: (i) north Pacific area, (ii) western, middle Pacific area, (iii)
eastern middle Pacific area, (IV) south-western Pacific area, and (v) south-eastern Pacific area (mainly the
Peruvian coast).

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(2) Atlantic fishing areas comprise 6 sub- areas e.g. (i) north-west Atlantic area (coastal areas of north-eastern
USA—New England region and eastern Canada—coastal areas of New Brunswick, Nova scotia, Newfoundland and
Quebec), (ii) northeast Atlantic area (coastal area of north - western Europe), (iii) western - middle Atlantic area
(Caribbean Sea), (iv) eastern – middle Atlantic area (western coastal areas of north and middle Africa), (v) south -
west Atlantic area (Coastal area of Argentina), and (vi) southeast Atlantic area (western coastal zone of south
Africa).

(3) Indian Ocean fishing areas include two sub-areas e.g. (i) western fishing area, and (ii) eastern fishing area.

As regards the total world catch of fishes, the Pacific, the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean fishing regions account for
53, 40 and 5 per cent of world catch respectively. Besides, Mediterranean Sea contributes 2 per cent share of
total world catch. As regards world catch of single species of fish, ancovy accounts for the largest share, followed
by herring, Atlantic cod, Alaskan walleye pollock and South African pilchard. On the basis of degree of the
development, world fishing areas are divided into 5 major fishing regions:

1. North-east Pacific region extends from Aleutians in the north to Philippines in the south. This region includes
eastern coastal waters of Russia, and fisheries of China, S. Korea, Japan and Philippines. Salmon, tuna, king crab,
herring, pollock, halibut and cod are the main fishes of this region. China, Japan and South Korea contribute 13, 8
and 3 per cent of total world catch.

2. North-east Atlantic region extends along the European coasts from Portugal to Iceland. Major fishing countries
are Norway, Great Britain and Denmark. North Sea is a prominent fishing area. This region accounts for the
largest world catch of cod. Herring and haddock are other important fishes of this region.

3. North-west Atlantic region includes the continental shelves of New England region of the USA, New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland of Canada. Grand Bank and George bank are important fishing grounds of the
world. The productivity of fishes becomes very high due to meeting of cool Labrador Ocean current and warm
Gulfstream near Newfoundland. Cod is the most important fish of this region. Besides, herring, halibut, squids,
flounders and redfish are the other important varieties to be caught in this region.

4. South-east Pacific region includes the western coastal areas of South America mainly the Peruvian and Chilean
coastal waters. Peru is famous for rich haul of anchovy species. The coastal waters of Peru are characterized by
continuous upcoming of nutrients from below due to upwelling of cold water mass. The Peru cold current thus,
flowing from the south to north is beneficial for the growth and abundance of anchovies. In the event of strong El
Nino, which cause the southward movement of warm water mass along the western coast of South America, Peru
cold current is weakened, the upwelling of cold water mass stops and the supply of nutrients is also stopped and
hence anchovies die of starvation. Now Peru has become the leading country in fishing. As regards the catch of a
single species of fish, Peru stands first in the world as Peru catches more than 10 million tonnes of anchovies per
year. Peru has registered sudden phenomenal growth in fishing since 1957.

5. West Central Pacific region extends from Philippines to the eastern coastal areas of Australia. The important
fishes of commercial value of this region are mackerel, tuna, mullet, redfish bass, oyster, crabs etc.

Fishing has not been developed up to the mark in India though its total coastlines run for a length of 7,517 km and
ideal platforms of continental shelves for fishing are spread over an area of 311,680 square kilometres. The
western and eastern coastal areas account for 75 and 25 per cent of total annual fish catch respectively. The
potential of annual fish catch of India has been estimated as 20-25 million metric tonnes but actual annual fish
catch is less than one million metric tonnes due to a host of factors e.g. tropical climate; lack of ample number of
bays, coves, estuaries, backwaters etc. along the coasts; herbivore attitude of majority of Indian population and

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related less demand of fish as human food; traditional old methods of fish catching and limited means; lack of
modern techniques of canning and storage of fishes etc.

2. MARINE FARMING

Marine farming, also known as mariculture or marine culture, includes the processes of increase in productivity,
reproduction, breeding and production of certain sea animals by making them captive in certain localities of sea
water, feeding them on additional nutrient feed on a commercial basis. In fact, mariculture is a form of
aquaculture, wherein certain young animals are kept captive in certain well marked localities of sea water for
certain period of time in order to fatten them on additional feed for the market. In other words, young sea
animals of certain species are taken away from their native spawning grounds and are kept captive in another
area where they are fattened on additional feed until they are ready for the market.

Mariculture is not entirely a new method rather it was practiced even in ancient time in a few countries like
Japan, China, Java etc. Evidences of oyster farming (rearing) in ancient times have been found in Japan. Marine
farming of carps was prevalent in Roman and medieval periods in Europe while rearing of milk fish was in practice
in the 15th century in Java. The following sea animals are used for rearing under the process of mariculture:
oyster, mussels, scallops, shrimp, carp, salmon, trout, catfish, Asian milkfish, mullet, tuna etc.

It may be pointed out that the food demand is increasing alarmingly due to ever-increasing world population. It
may not be possible to meet the increased food demand in the future exclusively from the land resources and
therefore it has now become necessary to focus attention towards marine food resources to increase the world
food supply to feed the teeming millions. It has now been realized that instead of overfishing there should be
marine farming (rearing) of fishes for sustainable yield. Keeping this fact in mind, several countries have initiated
the mariculture. The oyster rearing is the most prevalent form of mariculture. First, they are collected and then
these spawns of oysters are seeded in new sea areas specially marked and prepared for this purpose. One female
oyster lays 10 million eggs at a time. Since oysters flourish on sea bottoms and hence before seeding of spawns all
the predators are combed and removed away.. After the spawns become young, they are brought to other
specified areas known as Claires for fattening, where they feed on diatoms. Different methods have been
developed for oyster farming in different countries, e.g. suspension culture in Japan, rack and stick cultivation
system in Australia etc. There is marine farming of pampano, Pacific sardine and mackerel at commercial level in
the USA. Lobsters are reared in the coastal areas of New England region while shrimps are cultured in Gulf of
Mexico. Prawn rearing has got momentum in the coastal waters of many countries. Prawn farming has proved
success in India, Thailand and Philippines.

3. Ocean Ranching

Ocean ranching, also called as ocean husbandry, refers to the taming and training of sea mammals (like porpoise,
dolphin, whale etc.) in marine environment. A host of scientists are busy in active researches for the development
of scientific techniques to tame and train wild sea mammals to be used for different purposes. Porpoises are
being trained to obey the signals and directions given by remote control and to mimic human sounds. Dolphins
are trained for the following purposes: to help divers, to carry and bring back tools for the repair of anchored
ships, relief work etc. In some areas porpoises are being trained as aqua-cowboys. Though the ocean ranching is
in its initial stage, there are ample possibilities for its development in the near future.

4. Whaling

The catching of whale is called whaling. It may be remembered that whale is a mammal and gives birth to calves.
Generally, whales are divided into 2 categories e.g. (i) Toothed whales feed on fishes, squids and crustaceans.
Sperm whale is the major species of this family and is found in tropical and temperate seas. It may be as large as

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18 m in length with average weight of 35 tonnes. Killer whale is the most dangerous species of toothed whales
and feeds on seals, porpoises, penguins and other small whales, (ii) Toothless whale is generally called as baleen
whale and comprises the species of blue whales, finback whales, humpback whales, gray whales, sei, minke etc.
Blue whales are the largest of all the species of toothless whales and are on verge of extinction. It may be pointed
out that blue whales breed in subtropical seawater during the winter and then migrate to polar areas during the
summer for feeding. Fishermen find this period as the most convenient time for their catching. Blue whales now
need protection and conservation. Since long ago, man used to hunt whales to get different materials for various
purposes e.g. meat and blubber for human food, oil for lighting and ambergris. The oil from sperm whales is used
as lubricants in the factories and to prepare soaps and cosmetics. Meat of whales is also used as feed for other
animals while whale bones are used to manufacture fertilizers.

In the beginning traditional tools and methods were used for whaling (like open boats and hand harpoons) and
thus whales were not put to severe threats of extinction but now these have become endangered species
because of the introduction of modern techniques of whaling like ‘steam whaler’, ‘pelagic whaling’ etc. A few
species of whales, like large baleen whales, have been so massively killed that they are on the verge of extinction.
Blue whales, humpback whales and gray whales have also been victims of massive over whaling. Attempts are
being made at world level for halting massive killing of whales and a few international regulations have been
formulated for their conservation. The International Commission on Whaling (ICW) determines the limit of whale
catch in terms of BWU (blue whale unit, one BHU = one blue whale, 2 fin whales, 2.5 humpback whales, or 6 sei
whales) per year from time to time. A few countries have imposed self-restriction on whaling (e.g. USA, Great
Britain, Norway, and Netherlands) known as whaling moratorium. Killing of mother whales with their calves has
been banned.

MINERAL RESOURCES

Different metallic and non-metallic minerals of the seas are found in two forms as follows:

• Minerals mixed with seawater dissolved is seawater.

• Minerals of sea deposits on sea floors

(i) Minerals of continental shelf and slope deposits

(ii) Minerals of Deep Ocean bottom deposits

(iii) Subsurface minerals

Minerals Dissolved in Seawater

Important minerals of this category are salt, bromine, magnesium, gold, zinc, uranium, and thorium etc.
According to an estimate one cubic kilometre of seawater contains 41.25 million tonnes of solid materials in
dissolved form. Nearly 85 per cent of salt dissolved in seawater is constituted by sodium and chlorine. The
popular method of manufacturing of salt from seawater involves the processes of holding of seawater in the
evaporation basins prepared in the coastal land areas and evaporation of water by solar heat. The crude salts,
obtained through evaporation of water by sunlight and precipitation of salt contents, are made for human use
after these are further refined. About one third of total world salt is manufactured in this manner. In India salt is
made from seawater along the coasts of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Gujarat alone produces 50 per
cent of total salt production in India. Seawater is saline and hence it is refined and is transformed into freshwater
so as to make it potable water, which is called manufactured water. There is increasing demand for the
manufactured water in the coastal countries of warm arid regions due to rapid rate of urbanization.
Consequently, several techniques of desalinization have been developed.

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According to an estimate 4 grams of gold can be obtained from every one million tonnes of seawater. It is
estimated that the total reserve of gold dissolved in seawater is 5 million tonnes. It may be pointed out that it is
not economical to extract gold from seawater as the commercial exploitation is not possible because of high cost
involved.

Minerals of Sea Deposits

On the basis of sources and location, minerals of sea deposits are divided into two categories viz. (1) minerals of
surface deposits, which are further divided into 3 subcategories e.g. (i) minerals of continental shelves, (ii)
minerals of continental slopes, and (iii) minerals of deep sea bottom deposits; (2) subsurface minerals.

1. Minerals of the Deposits of Continental Shelves and Slopes

Minerals of deposits on continental shelves and slopes include zircon, monazite, magnetite, gold, placer,
diamond, platinum, sulphur, phosphorite and several types of building materials (like sands, gravels, boulders
etc.). Monazite reserves are found in the coastal areas of India, United States of America, Brazil, Sri Lanka,
Australia and New Zealand. India has the largest reserve of monazite in the world (90 per cent) in the placer
deposits of Kerala coasts. About 29 per cent of rutile mineral of the world is found in Australian coasts. In fact,
rutile is titanium dioxide and is used for coating on welded rods. Magnetites are associated with volcanic rocks
and thus these are found in those continental shelves and slopes which are characterized by valucanicity.
Magnetites are, thus, found along the circum-Pacific volcanic belt i.e. along the western coastal areas of North
and South America and eastern coasts of Asia. Japan coastal areas are estimated to have a magnetite reserve of
36 million tonnes. Cassiterite is a type of tin which is separated due to weathering of granites. Maximum reserves
of cassiterites are found in the coastal areas of Thailand, Malasia and Indonesia. Gold deposits are found in the
continental shelves of Alaska and Oregon (USA),Chile, South Africa and Australia but its extractionis commercially
not beneficial because of extraction coast. Phosphorites are mixed with muds and sands of continental shelves
and slopes and are found in nodule form. Phosphorites are used for the manufacturing of fertilizers. Their
estimated world reserves are 50 million tonnes, which are found in the continental shelves of Mexico, Peru,
Australia, Japan and South Africa and their extraction at commercial level has yet to be started.

Sands and gravels are significant building materials which are widely found on the beds of continental shelves of
those areas which are characterized by strong sea waves and currents. Such marine resources are very important
to those coastal lands which have industrial and urban complexes. Sands and gravels are used or may be used in
future for the construction of different types of buildings, roads and bridges. It may be mentioned that the mining
of sands and gravels from seabeds of continental shelves may prove hazardous for marine life mainly for benthos
biocommunities. Sand and gravel mining can change the ecological system of coastal water by

• interfering with photosynthesis by phytoplanktons due to disturbance in the otherwise

 calm coastal water except waves and tides;

• clogging the filtering device of marine organisms such as fishes and coral animals,

• transferring major portion of nutrients from seabeds to upper zone of seawater,

• forcing some animals to migrate to other non-mining areas,

• killing coral polyps and hence retarding their growth etc.

2. Minerals of Deep Ocean Bottom Deposits

(1) Manganese nodules

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Manganese nodules are the most significant minerals found in the ocean bottom deposits. Pacific Ocean contains
the largest deposit of manganese nodules which is found up to the depth of 4000 m. The manganese nodules
comprise several minerals like nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, zinc, iron, silicon etc. along with the maximum
percentage of iron and manganese. Blake plateau is the second largest area of manganese nodules. These are
derived through two most prevalent techniques e.g. (i) air lift technique, and (ii) continuous bucket line system.
Commercial mining of manganese nodules has not been developed due to very high mining cost. The following
figure depicts world distribution of manganese nodules.

World distribution of manganese nodules. Source : after D.S. Cronan, Deep-sea nodules : Geochemistry, in
Marine manganese deposits, edited by G.P. Glas by, 1977.

(2) Cobalt

Cobalt is a strategic mineral because of its use in military aircrafts (jet fighter planes), mainly in the manufacturing
aircraft engines, and also in other industries. Cobalt-rich marine deposits have been discovered to be associated
with seamounts, guyots and some islands. There are rich cobalt deposits around the Hawaiian Islands in the
Pacific Ocean. Seamounts in the Pacific Ocean carry large deposits of cobalt as each seamount is expected to have
3 to 4 billion metric tons of cobalt ore.

(3) Phosphate

Since phosphate is the result of organic matter, it is believed that phosphates would be abundantly found in those
areas of the oceans where the biological productivity is very high. Thus, phosphates are found in the shallow
water zone of continental shelves and other offshore regions where the depth of seawater does not exceed 1000
meters. The coastal waters of upwelling zones account for large deposits of phosphates. It may be mentioned that
the phosphate is a very essential element as it is required by both plants and animals including man. Phosphate
rocks are also found on the land areas and are extensively used in the manufacturing of phosphate fertilizers.

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Phosphate, are generally found in the form of phosphoric nodules on shallow sea [Link] are three important
areas of marine phosphate :

• Off the coast of Morocco

• Off the coast of southern California (USA)

• Off the coast of Carolinas (USA)

• Small deposits around Nausu Island (smallest independent nation, area of the country= 5000 acres) in the
Pacific Ocean

3. HYDROCARBONS

The subsurface minerals (hydrocarbons) are mostly found in the oceanic crust of continental shelves and include
gas hydrates, petroleum (mineral oil) and natural gas.

(1) Gas Hydrates

Gas hydrates having methane (CH4) are the white deposits of solid and frozen water molecules and are found
along the fissures on the sea beds at the depth ranging from 300 to 500 meters in the continental margins. Large
deposits of gas hydrates have been discovered in the sediments of the Arctic Ocean, Mexican Gulf, continental
margins of North and South Carolinas (USA), Japan etc. It may be mentioned that the processing of gas hydrates
for energy purposes may also release unwanted polluting gases as is the case of combustion of present
hydrocarbons (mineral oil and natural gas). Thus, while developing technologies for processing gas hydrates, care
should also be taken to tame any pollutants coming out of the process of transformation of gas hydrates into
energy.

(2) Mineral Oil and Natural Gas

Subsurface minerals are mostly found in the oceanic crust of continental shelves and include mineral oil and
natural gas. Many countries have already started commercial production of petroleum and natural gas. Mineral
oil and natural gas are the most developed marine mineral resources. There is great possibility of their expansion
and development in the future. Mineral oil and natural gas together contribute 90 per cent of all marine mineral
resources. Offshore oil fields have been developed in the continental shelves of Mexican gulf, Persian gulf, North
Sea, North Alaska, South Californian coast, Arctic Sea, India, Brazil, Australia, Taiwan, Japan etc. Besides, offshore
oilfields are being developed in Indonesia, east Africa, north-west Africa, Tasmania, East Asia etc.

Reserves of offshore mineral oil have been explored in the offshore regions of Konkan coast (Maharashtra),
Gujarat coast, Malabar and Coromandal coasts, Krishna-Cauvery delta Sundarban etc. From the standpoint of
production, three offshore oil fields of India are most significant e.g. Bombay High, Bassein and Aliabet. The
Bombay (Mumbai) High offshore oil fields are located 176 km north-west of Mumbai and are spread over an area
of 2,500 square kilometres. The estimated oil reserve is 200,000,000 tonnes. Production started in 1976 and oil is
drilled from the depth of 1400 m. Bassein offshore oilfields are located to the south of Mumbai High, the
production from this field may be more than that of Mumbai High oilfields if fully developed. Aliabet offshore
oilfields are located in the Gulf of Khambat which is 45 km away from Bhavnagar. Recently, there is a discovery of
vast reserves of hydrocarbons, measuring 15.5 billion tonnes of mineral oil and 84.5 trillion cubic meters of
natural gas over an area of 6.2 million square kilometres on the sea beds of the Arctic Ocean. Now, Russia has
staked her claim over an area of 1.2 million square kilometres of the Arctic sea beds which is expected to have a
reserve of 10 billion tonnes of hydrocarbons. The United States has refuted the claims of Russia and is also

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claiming large area of sea beds under her command. Besides, Norway, Canada and Denmark have also staked
their claims over hydrocarbon reserves in the Arctic Ocean.

NON-CONVENTIONAL MARINE ENERGY RESOURCES

Ocean tides, sea waves and thermal gradient between upper warm surface of sea and lower cold water mass etc.
are the main sources of generation of electricity. Tidal and wave energy have been developed in the coastal areas
of some of the countries. Two favourable conditions are necessary for the development of tidal energy viz. large
tidal range and narrow water passage having swift tidal currents. Thus, the tidal electricity can be generated only
in those coastal areas where these conditions are met. A minimum tidal range of 5m is a prerequisite for the
electricity generation. Fundy Bay in Nova Scotia of Canada is characterized by a tidal range of up to 15m, while
most of the coastal areas are frequented by low tidal range of 2m or even less. Thus, the areas for generation of
electricity from tidal energy are limited. Big power plants have been established in the Rhine estuary of Brittany
of France, at the Kislaya Guba in Marmansk of CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), at Kandla in India etc.

Sea waves carry enormous amount of energy but only limited effort and progress have been made to develop
wave energy due to the cost factor. Three methods have been developed to generate electricity from sea waves
e.g. (i) vertical displacement method, (ii) Salter device, and (iii) dam atoll method. A pilot power plant to generate
electricity from sea waves has been planned at Vijinijham.

The offshore winds mainly in the North Sea have great potential for wind energy. Holland has started harnessing
the wind energy in her offshore region by establishing the wind mills. Numerous poles measuring 380 feet have
been erected in the offshore region. A length of 210 feet of the poles remains above the sea surface, 70 feet
length is under water and the remaining 100 feet length is buried in sea beds. The turbines can withstand
powerful sea waves up to 14 m height. One such offshore wind mill generates enough electricity that can
illuminate 3000 houses in Holland. In future other nations may also harness offshore wind energy.

VITAMINS AND DRUGS RESOURCES

Marine pharmacologists are presently busy in researches to use marine organisms (plants and animals) as
vitamins and medicines to cure different diseases. It may be pointed out that a distinct discipline of marine
pharmacology has been developed. Marine pharmacologists are busy in investigating physiological, physical and
chemical properties of marine organisms like crabs, sea weeds, sea cucumbers, barnacles, horseshoe crabs,
sharks, cods etc. Shark oil and cod liver oil are already in use as energy tonics. Now cod liver oil is also available in
capsule form.

CONSERVATION OF MARINE RESOURCES

It is evident that the pressure on marine resources would increase in the future; therefore, it is necessary to
initiate necessary suitable steps for exploitation, utilization, conservation and preservation of marine resources.
After land resources, marine resources are the resource frontier for human community and, therefore, there are
possibilities of their extensive exploitation and utilization in different forms.

• The intensity and magnitude of exploitation of marine resources would increase under the pressure of
ever-increasing world population. Thus, there is a need for in depth study and understanding of abiotic
and biotic aspects of marine environment.

• Some of the marine biological resources (like fishes) are overexploited while abiotic (physical) resources
(minerals, energy, and building materials) still await their exploitation at commercial level.

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 • Decrease in the abundance of fishes due to overfishing has been reported from different parts. This may
lead to reduction in world production of fishes in future.

• There has been spatial difference in the development of different fishing areas due to dynamics of
different species of fishes (movement of fishes for breeding, spawning, feeding in different areas).

• Changes in marine biological environment due to overfishing.

• Marine biological environment is adversely affected by the introduction of modern methods and
equipment of fishing.

• Fish production (catch) depends on the estimate and prediction of future demand of fish for human food
and animal feed. Sometimes, the estimated and predicted future demand of fishes comes true while
some times proves false.

• It becomes difficult to estimate the total number and quantity of marine living organisms. The accurate
estimate of the growth and mortality rate of marine organisms is a prerequisite condition to ensure their
sustainable yield. There should also be accurate knowledge of their absolute quantity.

• Marine organisms do not honour any artificial boundary fixed by man because they freely move in
different areas of seas both horizontally and vertically.

• It becomes practically difficult to enforce any international regulation related to exploitation of marine
resources. Thus, unregulated exploitation of marine resources generates more competitions and makes
exploitation process more costly.

• Successful fishing does not depend on the size of their (fishes) areas and richness of their reserves but
depends on their concentration and abundance at a particular time in a specific area.

• The knowledge of nature and dynamics of fishes is necessary for successful and profitable fishing.

Measures of Management

The following points should also be taken care of for the efficient management of marine resources in order to
ensure sustainable yield, rational exploitation, optimum utilization, conservation and preservation (of rare
species) or marine resources and pollution free marine environment.

• There should be well regulated exploitation of marine resources. This requires the accurate knowledge of
exact quantity of abiotic resources and process and rate of regeneration of biological (living, plants and
animals) resources

• There should be efficient exploitation of marine resources. It requires the quantification of these
resources. This may be achieved through proper survey of fishing areas by applying ‘Eco sounder
technique’, by maintaining catch statistics, determination of their age on the basis of the study of ring
growth on fish scales, mapping of breeding places of fishing and determination of their numbers etc.

• Accurate estimate and prediction of the future demand of fishes for human food and animal feed.

• Proper arrangement of canning and refrigeration for storage of fishes.

• Efficient methods and techniques of fishing.

Pollution Control

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Efforts should be made to keep the seas and oceans free from anthropogenic pollution for rich and healthy
condition of marine environment and ecology. The following are the major sources of marine pollution:

(1) Discharge of waste water, sewage, and toxic chemicals from the urban areas and industrial establishment of
coastal areas into the seas;

(2) Dumping of urban and industrial garbage of coastal cities and industries into the seas;

(3) Disposal of solid waste materials mainly plastics in the sea water;

(4) Leakage of enormous quantity of mineral oil from oil tankers.

(5) Pollutants from offshore oil wells (according to an estimate on an average about 241 million gallons of oil are
leaked every year from oil tankers in the oceanic water);

(6) Increase in the acidity of seawater due to increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide consequent upon
rapid rate of deforestation;

(7) Increase in the concentration of heavy metallic materials like lead, copper, zinc, chromium, nickel etc. from
land areas brought by the wind;

(8) Arrival of radioactive substances from nuclear plants, nuclear-powered ships and testing of nuclear weapons
into seawater etc.

CONSERVATION

It is expected from the world community to initiate concrete and effective steps to keep the oceanic water free
from pollution in the interest of both marine biological community and human community. If complete check on
the discharge and disposal of pollutants of different sorts into oceans is not possible, minimum quantity of
pollutants to be discharged should be determined and agreed upon. There are two formidable problems in the
conservation of marine resources as the international character of marine resources and equal right of all
countries for their use; high mobility of marine organisms. It is necessary to formulate and enact international
laws and to enforce them strictly for the sustainable utilization of marine resources. Several attempts have been
made in this regard and many laws have been formulated like the law of high sea; laws related to piracy, trade of
slaves, law of exploitation of sea bottoms etc. but these laws are not enough for the desired purposes. There is a
need for effective laws related to the exploitation of deep sea resources, strategic and military uses of seas,
scientific researches and international cooperation to make marine resources useful for world human community.

There is earnest need for serious ecological researches for the understanding of marine biological processes (both
chemical and physical). Further development of marine biology is required for the study of marine ecology. The
endangered species of marine organisms mainly fish, which are at the verge of extinction due to overfishing need
immediate protection. For example, 8 species of whales which have become endangered are facing extinction.
Baleen whales are the most endangered among them. The number of blue whales and humpback whales has also
been fallen alarmingly due to modern and efficient methods of whaling. A few countries like the U.K, Norway,
Netherlands etc. have self-imposed moratorium on whaling for the protection of whales. International
cooperation is the need of the hour in this regard.

CORAL REEFS

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INTRODUCTION

Coral reefs and atolls are the significant submarine features. They are formed due to the accumulation and
compaction of skeletons of lime secreting organisms known as coral polyps. Coral polyps which live on lime thrive
in the tropical oceans confined between 25°N-25°S latitudes. They live in colonies made up of calcareous matter
and form calcareous shells around them. Coral reefs are formed over the submarine platforms at suitable depth.
Since the coral polyps cannot survive above the sea level, they are always found either up to the sea level or
below it. They are generally attached to submarine platforms or submerged islands. It may be mentioned that the
coral reefs are more diverse than the tropical rain forests. Coral reefs have about 1,000,000 species of which only
10 per cent have been studied. Thus, they are called as the rainforests of the oceans.

COMPONENTS OF CORAL REEFS

The coral reefs have the following components:

• Corals or polyps as living organisms,

• Corallite, the external skeleton or house of the corals, and polyps, and

• Reef, cemented and hardened structure of calcium carbonate.

Definition of Coral Reef:

Vaughan (1917) has defined coral reef as “a ridge or mound of lime stone, the upper surface of which is near the
surface of the sea and which is formed of calcium carbonate by the actions of organisms, chiefly corals.”

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of
coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps
cluster in groups. Coral belongs to the class Anthozoa in the animal phylum Cnidarian, which includes sea
anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons that support and
protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water. More than 50 per cent
of calcium carbonate of coral reefs is contributed by the algae.

CORALS OR CORAL ANIMALS

Corals are lime secreting sea organisms belonging to the class Anthozoa in the animal phylum Cnidarian, which
includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Corals may live as solitary individuals or in a colony but only the corals living
in groups as big colonies can form coral reefs. Polyps are cup-shaped animals of the size of average ants. The close
examination of the body of coral animals (polyps) reveals the fact that the outer layer of its body consists of
unicellular photosynthetic plants, called as zooxanthella, which comprise more than 75 per cent of the tissue
weight of Coral polyps. In other words, inside each coral polyp lives single-celled algae called zooxanthellae. The
zooxanthellae capture sunlight and perform photosynthesis, providing oxygen and other nutrients to the coral
polyp that aid in its survival. In turn, the zooxanthellae are provided with the carbon dioxide expelled by the polyp
that it needs to undergo photosynthesis. The presences of the zooxanthellae also provide colored pigments to
help protect the coral's white skeleton from sunlight. Thus, there is a symbiotic relationship (mutualism) between
coral animals and photosynthetic zooxanthella, which live together. There are many tentacles at the mouths of
polyps, which help them catch preys. In this way coral animals get their food from two sources, namely (1)
zooxanthella algae, and (2) predation.

CORALLITE

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The exterior skeletons of coral animals are called corallites or the house of polyps. In fact, coral animals build their
own skeletal houses of calcium carbonate in which they are protected from predators. That is the corallites are
the bodies of living coral animals, which is composed of compact and rigid calcium carbonate (limestone) and are
called exoskeletons. The bottom portion of the corallites consists of a few vertical compartments. These vertically
divided compartments are called the septa. These corallites or exterior skeletons of coral animals are the basic
raw materials for the formation of coral reefs

REEFS

They are the cemented and compacted rigid massive structures of countless corallites (skeletons) of dead coral
animals. It may be mentioned that only the upper and outer parts of coral reefs are housed by living coral polyps.
In fact, the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral animals are deposited one upon another after the death of coral
animals. These carbonate skeletons are cemented and compacted to form a reef. The process of reef formation
continues and a massive large coral reef, like the Great Barrier Reef off the east coast of Australia, is formed.

CONDITIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF CORALS

1. Temperature of Seawater

Coral polyps are temperature sensitive shallow sea organisms and therefore, they cannot survive in either very
high or very low temperature conditions. Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans and seas where mean
monthly temperature remains more than 18°C with an upper limit of 30°C throughout the year. If the average
monthly temperature exceeds 30°C, it will result in the coral bleaching and the eventual death of corals. Suitable
thermal conditions are found in the broad tropical zone of oceans of which the pole ward boundary is determined
by the 20°C isotherms in both the hemispheres. Since the annual range of temperature is usually less than 3°C in
the Indo-Pacific Ocean, the largest variety of corals is found in this region. There are more than 50 genera of coral
polyps in the tropical Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. At times, the temperature of seawater rises above
normal and hence many corals die due to coral bleaching. Such situation arises when the El Nino phenomena
become strong and the La Nina becomes weak. Such a situation was created during the year 1997-98 when 50 to
75 per cent of corals died on account of coral bleaching caused by the rise in normal sea temperature. In the
western margins of ocean basins, where the warm ocean currents flow poleward, the poleward limit of the coral
reefs extends up to 35° latitudes in both the hemispheres. Suitable depth of seawater with sufficient sunlight
should be available for the growth of coral polyps. It may be mentioned that the sunlight does not favour coral
animals directly rather it helps them indirectly because the zooxanthellae (a microscopic algae) which are
embedded in the outer bodies of coral animals (polyps) need sunlight to manufacture food through the process of
photosynthesis. Since the sunlight decreases with increasing depth, the depth becomes a limiting factor for the
growth of coral polyps. Normally, sunlight cannot penetrate beyond the depth of 200 meters. The zone of sunlight
from the sea level to 200 m depth is called photic zone. Thus, only the upper part of photic zone is suitable for the
coral polyps to thrive.

The oxygen is another factor that limits the growth of coral polyps. As oxygen also decreases with increasing
depth, corals cannot survive in waters deeper than 80 meters. According to M.S. Land and J.E. Hoffmeister (1936)
the maximum depth for the ideal growth of coral polyps is 61 to 91 meters (200 to 300 feet) below the sea level
while Gardiner observed some corals thriving at the depth of 150 to 170 fathoms (one fathom = 6 feet) (274
meters to 310 meters) below the sea level.

2. Turbidity of Seawater

Turbidity of seawater means the cloudiness of water caused by the presence of suspended materials of organic
and inorganic origin. So, it is the density of suspended materials which determines the degree of turbidity of

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seawater. As a rule, the higher the density of suspended materials, the greater the turbidity of seawater and vice
versa. Turbidity of ocean water also determines its transparency which decreases with increase in turbidity and
muddiness. The coral polyps require clean sediment-free water for their growth because muddy water clogs the
mouths of coral animals; as a result, they die. Thus, generally corals are not found in the vicinity of the mouth of
major rivers as big rivers dump huge quantity of sediments from the continents increasing the turbidity.

3. Flux of Fresh Water

It may be mentioned that though the coral polyps require sediment-free water, the fresh water is also injurious
for the survival and growth of coral animals. Thus, the corals avoid coastal land and build their colonies away from
the areas of river mouths. There is total absence of big rivers on Sea Islands and hence corals form large colonies
around these islands. Rich coral colonies have developed around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
Lakshadweep Islands of India, and the Maldives.

4. Ocean Salinity

Very high proportion of oceanic salinity is injurious for the growth of coral polyps because such waters contain
little amount of calcium carbonates whereas lime is important food of coral polyps. The oceanic salinity ranging
between 27%o and 30%o is most ideal for the growth and development of coral polyps.

5. Ocean Currents and Waves

Ocean currents and sea waves are favourable for coral polyps because they bring the necessary food supply to the
symbiotic zooxanthellae algae which are embedded in the outer tissues of coral polyps. It is to be remembered
that these symbiotic algae manufacture food through photosynthesis and provide 60 per cent of food
requirement of coral animals. Since the ocean currents and sea waves bring nutrients with them, the symbiotic
zooxanthellae algae use these nutrients and supply them to the coral polyps. Thus, the corals grow in open seas
and oceans where there is ample wave energy and they die in lagoons and small enclosed seas due to lack of
supply of nutrients and food supply. Currents and waves also determine the shapes of coral reefs. High energy sea
waves also damage coral reefs by eroding them.

6. Submarine Foundation

There should be extensive submarine platforms for the formation of colonies by the coral polyps. Such platforms
should not be more than 50 fathoms (300 feet or 91 m) below the sea level. The polyps start their colonies from a
firm base of hard rocks and grow upward until they reach the sea level. Besides, polyps also grow outward from
the submarine platforms.

CORAL ECOLOGY

The coral ecology means the interactions between the coral animals (coral polyps) and its physical environment,
and between the coral polyps and other marine organisms. Let us first discuss the types of corals in different
marine environment. Corals are basically divided into the following two categories (1) Hermatypic corals or
hermatype corals, and (2) Ahermatypic coral or hermatype corals.

(1) Hermatype corals:

They live in groups and build colonies and hence they may be called the colonizer corals. These corals thrive in the
tropical seas and oceans mainly in the tropical western Pacific and Indian Oceans. The hermatypic corals can
survive only in such environment of tropical seas and oceans where the temperature of seawater ranges between
20°C-30°C; water depth is up to 80 meters from sea level; there is not high turbidity of seawater; salinity range is

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between 2796o and 30%o; there are ocean currents and waves; presence of extensive submarine platforms up to
desirable depth; nutrient level is high etc. The zooxanthellae algae, which are embedded in the outer tissues of
the bodies of coral animals, are phytoplankton plants and thus prepare food through photosynthesis. The coral
animals get 60 per cent of their food requirement from internal sources i.e. from zooxanthellae algae. There
exists a symbiotic relationship between the hermatypic corals (hernia = secret) and the zooxanthellae algae as the
latter provides food to the coral animals which in turn provide nutrients to zooxanthellae algae. This is the reason
that the corals survive in tropical seas where the nutrients are not plenty. Coral animals get remaining 40 per cent
of total food requirement by capturing tiny zooplanktons through their stinging tentacles. The total biomass of a
coral animal consists of two third of algae biomass and only one third of animal biomass.

(2) Ahermatypic corals:

They do not live in groups rather they live in isolation because they are solitary by habit. This is why ahermatypic
corals do not build colonies. They are not confined to particular localities of certain environmental conditions.
Thus, ahermatypic corals are found across the world oceans in varying environmental conditions. They are found
from shallow waters to deep waters, warm waters to cold waters, from illuminated (through sunlight) water to
dark waters etc. Thus, ahermatypic corals are found from warm tropical ocean waters to cold polar waters and
from shallow seas to deep seas.

The coral animals are adapted to varying locations of coral reefs which consist of several morphological features
as follows:

1. Algae ridge

2. Buttress zone

3. Reef face

4. Reef terrace

5. Patch reef

Vertically, the coral reefs consist of 3 major morphological zones from top to down as (1) algae ridge, (2)
Buttress zone, and (3) reef face. The algae ridge, composed mostly of algae, faces the fury of sea waves, say surf
surges. These algae reefs absorb most of the energy of surging waves and thus weaken the pounding waves and
save the reefs from wave erosion. The second morphological zone is called the buttress zone which consists of
numerous alternating ridges and furrows i.e. two reef ridges are separated by a furrow. It is, thus, evident that
buttress zone represents the undulating topographic features characterized by alternating ridges and furrows of
channels. Such irregular and undulating topography also disrupts wave energy. The third zone is the Reef face
which extends downward to greater depth and hence there are no corals since the polyps cannot grow beyond
the depth of 80 m. There is Reef terrace toward the landward side of algae ridge. Reef terrace is characterized by
flat and broad surfaces of reefs and are at or slightly above low tide water (LTW). This is the zone of rich growth of
encrusting algae, i.e. such algae which can help in building shells of calcium carbonate. In between the inward
edge of Reef terrace and land, there is broad shallow water lagoon which has the deposits of dead coral rubbles
of calcium carbonate (limestone) at its base. There are a few organically formed mounds projecting above the
water level of lagoon. These mounds or knolls are called the Patch reefs.

These morphological features provide different suites of habitats for coral growth. Since the environmental
conditions of various morphological features of reef vary mainly in terms of wave energy, we find different
growth forms of hermatypic or colonizing corals in different ecological conditions of different morphological
features as given below:

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  Encrusting corals grow along the algae ridge because they can withstand the fury of strong pounding
waves. It may be remembered that the encrusting corals with the embedded algae build crusts of calcium
carbonate which help them to face strong wave energy.

 Buttress zone is colonized by brain corals and branching corals which can easily withstand wave attack.

 Deeper parts of Reef face are colonized by fan corals, branching corals, platy corals etc.

 Since the lagoons which are behind the reef terrace are well protected from wave attack, different
varieties of corals flourish in such lagoons.

DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS

Coral reefs are found in certain pockets and patches of the tropical seas and oceans as they need certain suitable
environment for their formation and development. As the conditions are favourable in the certain areas of
tropical seas and oceans, there is concentration of corals in the tropical seas and oceans, and the poleward
boundary of which is determined by the 20°C isotherm of surface water of the oceans. The coral reefs are
abundantly found in the tropical Indo- Pacific Oceans between 30°S latitudes and 20°N latitudes. The largest
concentration of coral reefs is found in the tropical western Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean accounts for more
than 55 per cent of the world corals, whereas the Indian Ocean accounts for more than 30 per cent of the world
corals. It is interesting to note that the corals abound in the western tropical regions of the oceans, i.e. along the
east coasts of the continents, because the warm equatorial currents bring high energy and sufficient nutrients
needed by the symbiotic zooxanthellae algae.

The major concentration of coral reefs is found in the following locations of Oceans:

1) Indian Ocean: Eastern coasts of-Kenya, around Madagascar, eastern coasts of South Africa, western coasts of
Australia, Red Sea, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar etc.

2) Pacific Ocean: Around Philippines, off the southern coasts of Japan, Polynesia and Micronesia, off the coasts of
the Northern Territory of Australia, east coasts of Queensland of Australia (Great Barrier Reef) etc.

3) Atlantic Ocean: Continental coasts bordering the Caribbean Sea, around islands of the Caribbean Sea, east
coast of Brazil etc.

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Local Corals: Local corals mean the small colonies of corals in limited areas such as, Baja (California), off the
coasts of Central America (Cocos Island off Costarica, north-eastern coasts of Pearl Islands, (Gulf of Panama),
around the isles of Gulf of Guinea (Anoobon), equatorial Guinea, off the coasts of Ghana, around Cape Verde
Islands, west and south of the Persian Gulf, Qatar, Gulf of Aqaba, Hawaii islands etc.

TYPES OF CORAL REEFS

The submarine coral reefs are classified in two ways as follows:

1. On the basis of geology, nature, shape and mode of occurrence as recognized by Charles Darwin during his
studies of coral reefs in the Pacific Ocean.

• Fringing reef

• Barrier reef

• Atoll

2. On the basis of location

• Tropical coral reefs in extensive belts

• Marginal belts of coral reefs

1. Fringing Reef

Coral reefs developed along the continental margins or along the islands are called fringing reefs. Here the
seaward slope is steep and vertical while the landward slope is gentle; the upper surface is uneven and
corrugated. Though fringing reefs are usually attached to the coastal land, at places, there is gap between them
and the land and thus, the lagoon is formed between the fringing reef and the land. Such lagoon is called the boat
channel. Fringing reefs are generally long but narrow in width. The continuity of fringing reefs is broken where the
rivers drain into the seas. Fringing reefs are basically of two types e.g. (i) coral reefs facing the open ocean, and (ii)
coral reefs protected by a barrier. Such fringing reefs are found along Sakau Island, southern Florida, Mehetia
Island (of Society Group of Islands) etc.

2. Barrier Reef

The largest coral reefs off the coastal platforms which are parallel to them are called the Barrier reefs. Barrier
reefs are the largest, most extensive, highest and widest reefs of all types of coral reefs. The average slope is
about 45° but some barrier reefs are characterized by 15°-25° slope. There is extensive shallow lagoon between
the coastal land and the barrier reef. Barrier reefs are seldom found as continuous chains rather they are broken
at many places and thus, the lagoons have contact with the open seas and oceans through the tidal inlets.
Sometimes, the tidal inlets are so wide that the ships enter the lagoons through them. Sometimes, the base of
barrier reefs exceeds the limited depth for the development of coral polyps i.e. 300 feet (91m). Thus, the
existence of barrier reefs at such greater depth (beyond the permissible depth of 60-77 m) poses a challenge in
the understanding of their formation. It may be argued that the barrier reefs might have been formed at suitable
depths and later on there might have been subsidence.

Great Barrier Reef, located parallel to the east coast of Australia, is the largest barrier reef in the world. This reef
is located between 9°S and 22°S latitudes and stretches for a length of 1200 miles (1920 km) and covers about
two-third of the coastal length of Queensland province of Australia. The northern and the southern parts of this
reef are 80 miles (128 km) and 7 miles (11 km) away from the coast respectively. Thus, the average distance of

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the reef from the coast ranges between 20 to 30 miles (32 to 48 km). The depth of the lagoon between the coast
and the reefs is 40 fathoms (240 feet) whereas the width ranges between 7 to 80 miles (11 km to 128 km). The
reef is broken at places and hence there are frequent openings in the form of tidal inlets which enable the lagoon
to be connected with the open ocean.

3. Atoll

A ring of narrow growing corals of horseshoe shape and crowned with palm trees is called atoll. It is generally
found around an island or in elliptical form on a submarine platform. There is a lagoon in the middle of the coral
ring. The depth of the lagoon ranges between 40 to 70 fathoms (240 to 420 feet). Atolls are divided into 3 types,
e.g. (i) True atoll characterized by a circular reef enclosing a shallow lagoon but without an island, (ii) Island atoll
having an island in middle of the lagoon enclosed by a circular reef, and (iii) Coral island or atoll island, which does
not have an island in the beginning but later on island is formed due to the processes of erosion and deposition
performed by the marine waves. Atolls are found in Antilles Sea, Red Sea, China Sea, Australian Sea, and
Indonesian Sea etc. Funfutti Atoll of Ellice Island is a famous atoll. The enclosed lagoon is 12.8 km wide and 19.2
km long. Shallow lagoon reefs are minor reef features which are annular in shape and are found in epicontinental
seas like the Indonesian Sea, South China Sea etc. The lagoon is a small pool. Faros Islands are chains of small
atolls having small shallow lagoons. Coral banks are the isolated shapeless reefs. Coral pinnacles are the small
ridges which rise within the lagoons.

ORIGIN OF CORAL REEFS AND ATOLLS

The problem of the origin of coral reefs in general and atoll in particular is highly complex. Several contrasting
theories have been advanced to explain the formation of different types of coral reefs. If the salient features of all
the theories are considered carefully, it becomes obvious that the theories have been based on 3 considerations
pertaining to the stability of the land forms:

• Stable or stationary land or island

• Subsiding land or island

• Emerging land or island

The origin of coral reefs is quite simple and easy to explain but the origin of atoll and barrier reefs is highly
complex and hence difficult to explain. The theories on the origin and evolution of coral reefs and atolls are
grouped into the following two categories:

1. Subsidence theory

2. Non-subsidence theory

Diagram: Shows the formation of Fringing Reef, Barrier Reef and Atolls as explained by the Subsidence theories

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1. Subsidence Theory of Darwin

Charles Darwin postulated his subsidence theory first in 1837 and modified it in 1842. After close observation of
different types of reefs in the oceans, Darwin was convinced that the coral polyps could grow only in shallow
oceanic waters though the reefs were found at greeter depths where the coral polyps cannot not survive at ll.
Darwin postulated his theory in order to solve the riddle of this contradiction i.e. the confinement of coral polyps
to shallow depths but the extension of reefs into greater depths. According to him the landform or the island
involved in the origin and growth of coral reefs is seldom stationary rather it undergoes gradual subsidence. Thus,
as per the theory, the fringing reefs, the barrier reefs and the atolls are successive stages in the development of
coral reefs.

Initially, the coral polyps flock together along a suitable submarine platform, grow upward and ultimately reach
the sea level to form the fringing reefs. Thus, the fringing reefs are formed over stable landforms. Once the
fringing reef is formed, the land is subjected to subsidence due to tectonic forces. With the subsidence, the coral
polyps reach greater depth where the conditions may not be conducive for their survival. Consequently, they
grow upward and outward at much faster rate for their survival. During their upward growth, the reef building
towards shoreline is retarded while it is very phenomenal and vigorous seaward. Consequently, a lagoon is
formed between the coast and the fringing reef and thus, the barrier reef is formed. In the next stage, there is
further subsidence of the land and the island is completely submerged under water and a ring of coral reef in the

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form of atoll is formed. It may be pointed out that Darwin did not invoke sudden and rapid subsidence of land
rather he conceived a gradual and slower rate of subsidence than the rate of the upward growth of corals so that
they could never find themselves in the deeper waters. It may be noted that the depth of lagoon does not
increase in spite of gradual subsidence of the land because there is continuous sedimentation in the lagoon. The
following evidences and points strongly support the validity of Darwin’s subsidence theory:

Evidences in Support of the Theory

• The shallowness of lagoons indicates the gradual subsidence of land. If the land is taken to be stable, the
lagoons would be filled with the sediments due to continuous depositions.

• The absence of cliffs along the coral islands validates the idea of subsidence of land because the cliffs are
formed along only those coral islands which are stationary.

• The coasts and the islands of the Pacific Ocean having raised beaches, which are indicative of the
emergence of land, are devoid of barrier reefs and atolls.

• The islands having atolls are characterized by very steep slopes. It may be mentioned that very steep
slopes are found only along the upper parts of the islands. This fact also denotes subsidence of the land.

• The thickness of coral reefs increases downward. This feature reveals the fact that coral reefs are formed
along the subsiding base of submarine platforms.

Evaluation of the Theory

If fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls as maintained by Darwin, are merely the three stages of the evolutionary
growth of a reef system, then the fringing reef and the barrier reef should not be found on either side of the same
island at the same level, but the observations and new discoveries have revealed the existence of such situations.
As per the subsidence theory, most of the Pacific Islands would have been submerged. There are also some
evidences to show that the existence of coral reefs associated with the emerging islands. The critics of the
subsidence theory propounded by Charles Darwin have raised the following points against the theory:

• The fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls are not the three successive stages in the development of coral
reefs because there are examples to show that the fringing and barrier reefs grow together along the
same islands, example : Narai Island of Fiji. If the subsidence theory is accepted, most of the islands of the
Pacific Ocean would be submerged. There is no geological evidence to support the submergence of Pacific
islands.

• The geological evidences show that the atolls were formed on the submarine platforms of shallow water
depth.

2. Stand Still Theory of Murray

Theories based on the concept of non- subsidence or stand-still situation (Stability of the platform) falls into two
categories. According to the first group, the corals grow upon suitable stable submarine platforms with an
unchanging sea level while according to the second group, the necessary suitable submarine platforms become
available due to the fall in the sea level and consequent erosion of the land by sea waves but the land always
remain stable. The theory of Murray belongs to the first group.

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Murray propounded his theory on the formation of coral reefs in 1880 on the basis of the information received
during the Challenger Expedition (1872-76). According to him, the coral polyps can live up to the depth of 30
fathoms (180 feet or 55 meters). Sea level and submarine platforms are stable. Several submarine platforms such
as volcanic peaks, seamounts etc. are present below the sea level. If the submarine land platforms are above the
required depth for the survival of coral polyps, they are subjected to wave erosion so that their heights are
lowered down. On the other hand, if the submarine platforms are below the required depth, their height is
increased due to the deposition of marine sediments. After finding a platform at suitable depth, the coral polyps
begin to grow upward along the coasts to form the fringing reefs. In the next phase, the coral polyps begin to
grow outward on the foundation of their own debris. Thus, the continuously outward growing fringing reef is
transformed into the barrier reef in due course of time. The lagoon is formed between the land and barrier reef
because of the dissolution of dead corals. Atolls are formed due to the outward growth of corals in all directions
from the top of submarine platforms. Thus, a ring of coral reef is formed around the lagoon. According to Murray,
the lagoon-ward side of atoll is characterized by dead corals while the seaward side is characterised by the living
corals which continuously grow outward. The dead corals are gradually dissolved and thus, the lagoon is
continuously widened. The lagoons also become shallower because of the deposition of dissolved dead corals.

The non-subsidence theory of Murray acclaimed wide popularity in the beginning, but later on it was severely
criticised on the following grounds:

 Murray’s theory requires the existence of numerous suitable submarine platforms at the depth of 180
feet (55 meters) but the existence of such features are not possible.

 Murray has described two contradictory views of marine erosion and deposition at the depth of 30
fathoms (180 feet or 55 meters) at the same time over different submarine peaks. Such proposition is not
possible.

• A limit of 30 fathoms (55 meters) for deposition and erosion cannot be accepted.

 According to Murray, the lagoon is formed due to the solution of dead corals. This mechanism is also
doubtful because if the lagoon may be formed due to solution of corals, the pelagic deposits laid down on
the submarine platforms or peaks would also have been dissolved.

 If the land or submarine platform is stable then the lagoons would have been completely filled up with
the marine sediments and thus, the lagoons would gradually be disappeared.

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  According to Murray, coral reefs cannot be found beyond the depth of 30 fathoms (55 meters) but the
reefs have also been found at greater depths.

3. Glacial Control Theory of Daly

Daly propounded his theory of coral formation in 1915 when he was convinced that the coral reefs were formed
after the Pleistocene Ice Age. According to him, the sea level fell by 33 to 38 fathoms (60 to 69 meters) (198 feet
to 228 feet) due to the glaciation (confinement of sea water in the form of ice on the continents) during the
Pleistocene Ice Age. Then, the all existing corals died due to fall in global temperatures. Wave-cut platforms were
formed along the continental coasts and islands due to abrasion by the sea waves. After the end of ice age, the
sea level again rose by 33 to 38 fathoms (60 to 69 meters) due to the melting of glaciers formed during the ice
age. Thus, the wave-cut platforms were submerged under sea water up to the depth of 33 to 38 fathoms (60 to
69 meters). The corals which could survive through the ice age along with new coral polyps began to grow and
establish their colonies on the seaward edges of the submerged platforms. Thus, the fringing reefs were formed
on the narrow wave-cut platforms while the barrier reefs were formed on the broad wave-cut platforms. Atolls
were formed around the isolated wave eroded island peaks. Lagoons uniform depth was formed between the
reefs and the land because of uniform lowering of sea level due to glaciation during the Pleistocene Ice Age.

Evaluation of the Theory

The glacial control theory of Daly has been criticised on the following grounds. According to this theory, there
should be uniform depth for all the lagoons of atolls and barrier reefs but actual observations do not validate this
concept. According to W.M. Davis the depth of different lagoons varies considerably. Moreover, the depth at
different parts of the same lagoons ranges between 120 to 300 feet (36 to 91 meters). In some lagoons, the depth
varies between 20 feet to 600 feet (7 meters to 183 meters).

4. Concept of W.M. Davis

The famous American geomorphologist, W.M. Davis postulated his concept of the origin of coral reefs during
1914-18 and revived the subsidence theory as postulated by Darwin and others. He presented several
physiographic evidences in support of subsidence theory and to explain hither to unsolved problems related to

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the formation of coral reefs. According to him, the corals grow along the subsiding land forms. The presence of
indented and embedded coast lines found in the coral seas validates the subsidence and the consequent
submergence of land. According to him the flatness of the bottoms of lagoons and their uniform depth are not
due to the uniform lowering of sea level and these (bottoms) are not true bottoms but they are formed due to
the deposition of marine sediments. The shallowness of lagoons is because of deposition of debris. If the
submarine platforms are taken to be stable, then the deposition of marine sediments would fill up the lagoons
and the overflowing of water would kill the living corals on the seaward side of the reefs. On the other hand, any
amount of debris may be accommodated in the lagoons on the basis of subsidence theory because the bottom is
subjected to continuous and gradual subsidence. Davis has presented many more evidences in support of the
subsidence theory.

CORAL BLEACHING
The Importance of Coral Reefs
Corals are one of the most productive ecosystems on the Earth. Much of the productivity derives from substantial
concentration of marine biodiversity in coral reefs. The coral reef is the most complex, species-rich, and
productive marine ecosystem. One estimate proposes that the coral reefs have about 1 million species, with only
10% per cent is described. Large species of fish and other organisms typically school along the reef, while the
small ones pack into the extensive network of crevices. The benefit from the coral reef services is both immediate
and long-term, making them a priority for conservation and a major resource for sustainable development. The
importance of Coral ecosystems can be seen from different dimension as

 Coral Reefs are shallow water tropical ecosystems characterized by the remarkably high biomass
production and rich floral and faunal diversity, consequently, they are of great value to the world at large,
as the hotspots of marine bio-diversity.

 Coral Reefs are particularly important to millions of people around the world as sources of high quality
protein and cultural products.

 Tourism. Where the coral reefs exist, substantial income can be derived from tourism. People from all
over the world come to this ecosystem for snorkelling, diving, fishing, and basking on the coral sands etc.
Island populations living in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, as well as the Caribbean Sea, are dependent on
the income derived from the tourism. Tourism, on the Great Barrier Reef, generates 1.5 billion dollars
each year for Queensland, Australia. Florida’s reefs bring in approximately 1.6 billion dollars annually;
Maldivian economy depends heavily on coral ecosystem.

 Fisheries. Most of the world’s poor are live within the coastal zones of developing regions, and depend
directly on reef species to meet their protein needs. Although reefs cover less than 0.2% of the ocean’s
area, they contain 25% of marine fish species. Fish shelter in reefs, and use them as feeding, spawning
and nursery grounds. Coral reef fisheries yield at least 6 million metric tons of fish catches around the
world annually, excluding the local sustenance fisheries. Reefs provide one-quarter of the fish catch in
developing countries and employment for millions of fisherman. Reef damages bring about substantial
losses to fisheries, and consequent loss of employment opportunities.

 Mainland and Island Protection. The protective services provided by reefs reduce storm damage, coastal
erosion and flooding by intense wave action. Over geologic time, coral reefs have enabled the formation
of lagoons and calm shorelines where seagrass beds and mangroves can flourish, providing habitat for
numerous species at the interface of land and sea.

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  Medicine. About one half of the potential pharmaceuticals being explored are from the oceans, many
from coral reef ecosystems. The calcium carbonate source provided by the corals is used for bone marrow
transplantation

 Ecological Indicators. Due to the potential vulnerability of modern corals to high temperature, the coral
reefs may be among the first systems to show the signs of ecological stress from the events like the global
warming .Detecting this change will require an extensive network of monitoring sites throughout the
coral reef regions of the world.

Coral Bleaching and Death

Coral bleaching refers to the loss of colouration of the corals. During the event of coral bleaching, the corals lose
the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and will die within a matter of weeks unless the zooxanthellae are replaced. The
term bleaching is used because the dazzling colours of living corals are due to the colours of zooxanthellae, and
when zooxanthellae are lost, corals appear white, or “bleached.” In some species, tissue growth is halted and
skeletal accretion is stopped. Bleaching occurs when

• The densities of zooxanthellae decline, and/or

• The concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.

During the event of coral bleaching, the corals usually lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each zooxanthella
may lose 50-80% of its photosynthetic pigments. The pale appearance of bleached scleractinian corals and
hydrocorals is due to the cnidarian’s calcareous skeleton showing through the translucent tissues (that are nearly
devoid of pigmented zooxanthellae). Once mortality occurs, the coral’s soft tissue becomes a food source for
scavengers, making them increasingly vulnerable, presenting a feasible site of attachment for rapidly growing
seaweeds and other opportunistic organisms.

As long as the structure of coral reefs is maintained, they offer protection to a wide variety of marine life. If
favourable conditions return and sustain for long, coral larvae may settle on the reef structure, renewing the reef
building process. Once the reef is reduced to rubble, fish and other marine organisms are no longer supported.
Local human populations are thus placed at risk; over time fisheries stocks are greatly diminished, shoreline
erosion increases, and the tourism industry based on the coral ecosystem system collapses.

The onset of mass coral bleaching can range from gradual and patchy to rapid and uniform, and can occur with
varying synchrony over hundreds or thousands of square kilometres. Detecting the early signs of a mass-bleaching

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event requires a wide network of observers providing regular reports on the conditions of coral ecosystem
throughout the region. The isolated cases of coral bleaching does not harm coral population but mass coral
bleaching causes mass deaths and destruction of living corals and extensive coral reefs.

There have been different world-wide episodes of mass coral bleaching in the past but the two episodes of such
mass coral bleaching which occurred in the last century (20th century) have been well recorded and documented.

(1) 1982-83 episode of mass coral destruction due to massive coral bleaching.

(2) 1997-98 episode of mass coral bleaching.

These two episodes of coral bleaching have been related to the rise in normal sea temperature caused by strong
El-Nino—Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events which occurred during 1982-83 and 1997-98.

1.1982-83 Coral Bleaching

The strong El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event during 1982-83 caused mass coral bleaching resulting in the
death of 70 per cent of coral organisms off the coasts of Central America in the Pacific Ocean. The coral organisms
in the eastern Pacific Ocean thrive in the temperatures ranging between 18°C and 27°C. If the temperature of
seawater around Galapagos Islands rises even by one or two centigrade the symbiotic zooxanthellae algae, which
are embedded in the outer body of coral organisms, will be expelled by the corals and hence living corals lose

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their colour resulting in the coral bleaching. The strong ENSO event of 1982-83 raised the sea temperature above
normal for longer duration resulting in the mass coral bleaching. It may be mentioned that the coral bleaching
was so intense that two species of corals off the Pacific coast of Panama were become extinct.

2. 1997-98 Coral Bleaching

The coral bleaching during 1997-98 has been recorded as the most catastrophic event as it accounted for large -
scale death of corals in the tropical oceans spread over 60 countries and island nations. Though, the coral
bleaching was observed by Alfred Mayer as back as 1919, it was widely noticed only in 1998 when large-scale
coral bleaching accounting for 70 per cent death of corals off the coasts of Kenya, Maldives, Andaman’s and
Lakshadweep islands, the Seychelles Marine Park System and the Mafia Marine Park off Tanzania was reported by
Clive Wilkinson of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) of Townsville (Australia). He identified four
overlapping levels of coral bleaching.

(1) Catastrophic bleaching adversely affecting 95 per cent of shallow water corals in Bahrain, the Maldives, Sri
Lanka, Singapore and Tanzania;

(2) Severe bleaching accounting for 50-70 per cent death of corals in Kenya, Seychelles, Japan, Thailand and
Vietnam.

(3) Moderate bleaching resulting in 20-50 per cent coral mortality but with quick recovery.

(4) Insignificant bleaching or no bleaching. In the case of a bleaching event, the percentage of coral deaths
remained below 20 per cent.

The cases of large-scale coral bleaching have been reported from the Andaman and Nicobar islands of India. It
may be pointed out that the real coverage of coral reefs in India has been estimated to be 18,000 km2. The corals
have mainly colonized around the Lakshadweep Islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Besides, small
patches of coral reefs are found in the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Mannar. According to the study conducted by
the Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology (SANE) based at Port Blair, there has been mass coral bleaching (in
1998) around the Andaman reefs and 30-70 per cent bleaching around the Nicobar reefs. This bleaching is related
to the 2°C rise in temperature from the normal temperature in the Andaman Sea during 1997-1998. According to
the study by National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) based at Goa, the coral reefs of the Kavaratti and Kadamat
islands in Lakshadweep have suffered great damage from coral bleaching due to bacterial diseases and warmer
sea temperatures. The corals in the Gulf of Kutch have been bleached due to siltation.

Causes of Coral Bleaching

The reasons advanced to explain the cellular mechanism of bleaching, are all based on extreme sea temperatures
as one of the causative factors. High temperature and irradiance stress have been implicated in the disruption of
enzyme systems in zooxanthallae that offer protection against oxygen toxicity. Photosynthesis pathways in
zooxanthallae are impaired at temperatures above 30°C; this effect could activate the disassociation of coral /
algal symbiosis.

It has also been hypothesized that bleaching is an adaptive mechanism which allows the coral to be repopulated
with a different type of zooxanthellae, possibly conferring greater stress resistance. Different strains of
zooxanthellae exist both between and within different species of coral hosts, and the different strains of algae
show varied physiological responses to both temperature and irradiance exposure. The coral/algal association
may have the scope to adapt within a coral’s lifetime. Such adaptations could be either genetic or phenotypic.

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 Stress-related bleaching can also be induced if corals are subjected to intense solar radiation (especially
ultraviolet wavelengths), a reduction of marine salinity, and exposure to the air (by low tides or low sea level),
sedimentation, or xenobiotic (chemical contaminants, such as, copper, herbicides, and oil). Often, these
conditions are at least an indirect consequence of extremes in weather (such as tropical cyclones) which may be
proceeded by or occur concurrently with elevated sea surface temperatures. As a consequence, multiple factors
may act in unison to cause bleaching. High solar irradiance (particularly ultraviolet wavelengths) is thought to be
especially stressful to corals when coupled with elevated sea surface temperatures.

As coral reef bleaching is a general response to various stresses, it can be induced by a variety of factors,
individually or in combination. It is therefore difficult to unequivocally identify the causes for the bleaching
events. The following stressors have been implicated in coral reef bleaching events:

1. Temperature

Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature range, and anomalously low or high sea temperatures
can induce coral bleaching. Bleaching events occur during sudden temperature drops accompanying intense
upwelling episodes (-3°C to -5°C for 5-10 days), seasonal cold-air outbreaks etc. Bleaching is much more
frequently reported from the elevated sea water temperatures. A small temperature increase of 1-2°C for 5-10
weeks during the summer season will usually induce bleaching. Coral bleaching is most often associated with a
significant rise in sea surface temperatures. Water temperatures of even one degree Celsius above normal
summer maxima lasting for at least two or three days appear to provide a potentially useful predictor of
consequent bleaching. Like all living things, corals and zooxanthellae survive and grow well within a preferred
range of environmental conditions. Temperatures outside their operating range are detrimental to them. Unlike
fish that can move to more suitable environmental conditions, corals cannot escape areas of high temperature
because they are attached to the reef structure. If temperatures are too hot for too long, the symbiotic
relationship between the coral animal and its tenants, the zooxanthellae, collapses.

When corals are stressed by high temperatures and light, some of the chemical reactions during the
photosynthesis break down. The Sun’s energy which is normally used to produce food for the algae and coral is
diverted to the production of oxygen radicals. These oxygen radicals, similar to the chemicals (Free radicals)
implicated in human aging, are highly corrosive. They damage the parts of the zooxanthellae - the chloroplasts -
where photosynthesis takes place. The result is that large number of damaged zooxanthellae leaves the coral
polyps

Rising water temperatures block the photo synthetic reaction that converts carbon dioxide into sugar. This results
in a build-up of products that poison the zooxanthellae. To save itself, the coral spits out the zooxanthellae and
some of its own tissue, leaving the coral a bleached white. The bleached corals can recover, but only if
appropriate water temperatures return and the algae are able to grow again. Without the zooxanthellae - the
corals slowly starve to death.

If high temperatures are relatively short-lived, the zooxanthellae that remain within the coral tissue divide rapidly
and the coral gradually regains its colour and thus, survives. If the stressful conditions are prolonged or
particularly severe, the zooxanthellae cannot reproduce, and many corals will die. There are great variations in
the susceptibility to bleaching events between different coral species, and even between colonies within a
species. Even without a high incidence of solar radiation, bleaching can occur because of transport of unusually
warm water by two other mechanisms.

1) Doldrums conditions. Weather patterns typified by clear skies and slight or still wind or waves, result in
little or no movement and prevents mixing of warm and cold waters. Under these conditions, solar

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 radiation progressively warms surface and shallow waters (particularly during the summer when the sun
is overhead).

2) Current aided transport. Ocean currents transport “pools” of warm water, sometimes delivering them to
reef regions. These warm waters can linger for months before moving on or dissipating.

2. Solar Irradiance

Bleaching during the summer months, rapid seasonal temperature changes and irradiance maxima often occurs
disproportionately in shallow-living corals and on the exposed summits of colonies. Solar radiation has been
suspected to play a role in coral bleaching. Both photosyntheticaly active radiation (PAR, 400-700nm) and
ultraviolet radiation (UVR, 280-400nm) have been implicated in bleaching.

3. Low tide and Sub aerial Exposure

Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during the events such as extreme low tides, ENSO related
sea level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching. The consequent exposure to high or low
temperatures, increased solar radiation, desiccation, and sea water dilution by heavy rains could all play a role in
zooxanthellae loss and consequent coral death.

4. Sedimentation

Relatively few instances of - coral bleaching have been linked solely to sedimentation. It is possible, but has not
been demonstrated that the sediment loading could make zooxanthellae more vulnerable to bleaching

5. Fresh Water Dilution

Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated precipitation and runoff has been demonstrated to cause
coral reef bleaching. Generally, such bleaching events are rare and confined to relatively small, near shore areas.

6. Inorganic Nutrients

Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an increase in ambient elemental nutrient concentrations (e.g.,
ammonia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3 times. Although eutrophication is not directly
involved in zooxanthellae loss, it could cause secondary adverse effects such as lowering of coral resistance and
greater susceptibility to diseases.

7. Xenobiotic

(A xenobiotic is a chemical which is found in an organism but is not normally produced or expected to be present
in it). Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to elevated concentrations of various chemical
contaminants, such as Cu, herbicides and oil. Because of high concentrations of xenobiotic are required to induce
zooxanthellae loss, bleaching from such sources is usually very localized and / or transitory.

8. Epizootics

Epizootics (from Greek epi- upon + zoion animal) is a disease that appears as new cases in a given animal
population, during a given period). Pathogen induced bleaching is different from other sorts of bleaching. Most
coral diseases cause patchy or entire colony death and sloughing of soft tissues, resulting in a white skeleton (not
to be confused with bleached corals). A few pathogens have been identified the cause of translucent white
tissues, such as a protozoan.

Spatial and temporal range of coral reef bleaching

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Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef regions (Caribbean/ Western Atlantic, eastern Pacific, central and
western Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea) experienced some degree of coral bleaching and mortality
during the 1980s. Mass bleaching has now affected every reef region in the world. The spatial extent and severity
of the impacts of coral bleaching have been increasing the world over in the last few decades. A particularly
severe worldwide bleaching event occurred in 1998, effectively destroying 16 per cent of the world’s reefs. The
Great Barrier Reef was affected by this global bleaching event and also by another event in 2002. A localised
bleaching event occurred in the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef in 2006.

The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994,
1998, 2002, and 2006. While most of the areas recovered with relatively low levels of coral death, some locations
suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality. The most widespread and intense events occurred in the
summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54% of reefs respectively bleached to some extent, and 18% of the
reef system severely bleached.

Prior to 1980s, most of the mass coral moralities were related to non-thermal disturbances such as storms, aerial
exposures during extreme low tides, and Acanthaster outbreaks. Some of the mortality events prior to 1980s,
accompanied with the periods of elevated sea water temperatures, but these disturbances were geographically
isolated and restricted to particular reefs zones. In contrast, many of the coral bleaching events observed after
1980s occurred over large geographic regions and at all depths. Most of the coral reef bleaching events after
1980’s has been occurred during the years of large-scale ENSO activity.

Conclusion:

The impacts of global warming on shallow tropical and subtropical seas can cause an increase in the frequency,
severity and scale of coral reef bleaching. Coral mortality could exceed 95% regionally with species extermination
and extinctions. A conservative temperature increase of 1-2 degrees C would cause the regions between 20-30°N
latitudes to experience sustained warming that falls within the lethal limits of most reef-building coral species. In
conjunction with the rise in sea temperatures, there would be sea level rise, and it has been suggested that sea
level rise would suppress coral growth or kill many corals due to drowning or lower light levels. Some of the coral
populations and their endosymbiotic zooxanthellae may be able to adapt to the extreme conditions predicted
during the global climate change. Refuges in benign habitats, such as deep, sunlit reef substrates, oceanic shoals
in relatively high latitude locations might exist, but widespread coral mortality and reef decline would be
expected in shallow reef zones of low latitudes. Even if significant sea warming and elevated irradiance levels do
not occur, coral reef degradation from anthropogenic pollution and overexploitation will still continue as a result
of unrelenting human population growth.

ADAPTATION, SURVIVAL AND RECOVERY OF THE CORALS

1) Adaptation

For corals to survive the projected increase in seawater temperatures during this century, they would need to
adapt to the higher temperatures. There are 3 ways of possible adaptation as:

1. Firstly, corals could alter their physiology through a process known as acclimatisation. Corals found in
warmer waters are more tolerant to high temperatures than the corals found in cooler waters, so some
changes in coral physiology seems possible. However, there is no evidence that the corals have
acclimatised to resist the bleaching in the last 20 years, as many corals have bleached two or three times.
If global temperatures rise in the predicted way, rise in sea water temperatures in the next hundred years
will be much greater than the rise in sea water temperatures that triggered the recent bleaching events,
thus, the corals would need to continuously acclimatise to survive.

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 2. The second way of adaptation may be through the natural selection. This would result in a gradual
increase in the temperature tolerance ability of the coral populations. If only the most temperature-
tolerant corals survive a bleaching episode, the offspring from those corals might be more temperature-
tolerant than the previous generation. Again, there might be limits in how high the temperatures can go
before the corals reach the limits of adaptation. Such adaptations could only occur slowly, over several
generations, with most corals having generation times of at least 5 to 10 years. Alternatively, the already
warm-adapted coral populations may disperse to cooler areas, thereby short-circuiting the normally
lengthy process of adaptation.

3. Adaptation of zooxanthellae is also a possibility, with natural selection for more temperature-resistant
strains of algae. Faster rate of changes is possible for zooxanthellae than the coral animals because of the
shorter generation times of algae. Adaptation of zooxanthellae to high temperatures has not yet been
observed. Research is currently underway to investigate these different adaptation possibilities

2) Survival

In the past, climate change has led to extinction episodes. The dinosaurs were wiped out 65 million years ago, and
there have been several such mass extinctions. Thus, with the rapid environmental changes, the survival of the
corals has become a question mark. Australian scientists have found that corals contain a kind of sunblock called
florescent pigments. These pigments form a kind of shield around the zooxanthellae and protect them from the
harmful effects of sunlight at high temperatures. The pigments change the harmful UV and blue wavelengths in
sunlight to softer, lower energy wavelengths like green and yellow. Fluorescent corals survive bleaching events
better than non-fluorescent corals, and every species of coral has some varieties that have fluorescent pigments.
Over time, more fluorescent pigments may develop to protect the corals. Even though the non-fluorescent
varieties may die out, there will be some corals that have the fluorescent pigments and therefore may survive. If a
channel of cold water constantly runs through the warm water, thus keeping the zooxanthellae cool, then the
corals can survive. Another way in which corals can survive is just by being tougher than others by acquiring
immunity against the bleaching events.

3) Coral Recovery

There has been short-term recovery of coral reefs after bleaching events. When a reef is only slightly stressed, a
few scattered corals will die, and the effect will barely be noticeable. When a reef has been exposed to prolonged
and extreme heating, most corals will die, and it can take many years for the area to recover. Corals recover as
the surviving corals grow and new coral recruits settle and grow. The rate at which a reef recovers from coral
bleaching depends on many factors. Recent research has shown that some reefs are more likely than others to
receive large numbers of coral larvae carried to them by the ocean currents. The reefs that receive large numbers
of larvae can have many young corals growing on them within a few years. As a result, coral cover can return to
the normal level within about 10 years. Other reefs that do not receive a plentiful supply of coral larvae will take
considerably longer time to recover, perhaps decades.

The coral communities on a recovering reef may be different from those that were present before the bleaching
event. A few species appear quickly after a reef is damaged and grow rapidly. Other species that are slower to
appear and grow may not be present on the reef up to their previous levels for some decades. The community on
a reef may shift from the coral species that are prone to bleaching to those with higher resistance or those with a
more rapid recovery rate. If a recovering reef is subjected to high levels of dissolved or organic nutrients or has
few grazing animals, the reef can become dominated by algae, which inhibits the recovery of the corals. The long-
term recovery of reefs from bleaching will depend on the frequency of bleaching events. If maximum
temperatures become higher and bleaching becomes more frequent in the 21st Century, the reefs may change

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greatly in their character. Unless there is a greater capacity of corals to adapt than the scientists currently believe
it to be, today’s diverse community of corals may be replaced by a few tolerant species. Some vulnerable species
may be found only in cooler areas. A major shift in the nature of tropical reefs is possible. Other reef organisms
that are dependent on hard corals for their habitat or food may also be seriously affected.

CORAL REEFS PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION.

The best thing that the mankind can do is to protect the coral species that do survive bleaching better than other
species. One such measure is the demarcation marine parks: areas protected in some way from souvenir hunters
and activities such as fishing and boating etc. Currently, almost a third of the Great Barrier Reef is protected from
fishing. An important consideration is to locate marine parks in areas where the coral is resistant to bleaching. If
the coral dies, eventually the fish and other marine species will die too. The second is to keep an eye on it. The
reef always has some visitors and these people go to places where the scientists cannot always get to. Therefore,
an agency should be formed to take the public feedback. This helps the scientists to form an overall picture of the
areas which are vulnerable to bleaching. Significant attention needs to be put on the monitoring of coral reef
ecosystems, research on the projected and realized impacts of global climate change, and measures to curtail
greenhouse gas emissions etc.

SEA-LEVEL CHANGE
Sea-level change has been a feature on Earth for billions of years, and it has important implications for coastal
processes and both erosional and depositional features. There are three main mechanisms of sea-level change, as
described below.

Eustatic sea-level changes are global sea-level changes related either to changes in the volume of glacial ice on
land or to changes in the shape of the sea floor caused by plate tectonic processes. For example, changes in the
rate of mid-ocean spreading will change the shape of the sea floor near the ridges, and this affects sea level.

Over the past 20,000 years, there has been approximately 125 m of eustatic sea-level rise due to glacial melting.
Most of that took place between 15,000 and 7,500 years ago during the major melting phase of the North
American and Eurasian Ice Sheets (Figure 17.25). At around 7,500 years ago, the rate of glacial melting and sea-
level rise decreased dramatically, and since that time, the average rate has been in the order of 0.7 mm/year.
Anthropogenic climate change led to accelerating sea-level rise starting around 1870. Since that time, the average
rate has been 1.1 mm/year, but it has been gradually increasing. Since 1992, the average rate has been 3.2
mm/year.

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1) EUSTATIC CHANGES – They have global impact which can result from climatic changes or even from tectonic
activities.

A) By climatic changes or glacial causes

Such sea-level changes are the result of long term changes in climate which lead to either glacial or inter-glacial
phases. When the earth passes through the period of low temperatures it is called the glacial phase. During this
period, average temperatures decline leading to the extension of glacial cover over land. This glacial expansion
become possible as water is extracted from the sea. This causes global fall in sea level. On the other hand, where
the earth passes through warm phase, it is called interglacial phase. Increase of temperatures during interglacial
phase causes melting of glaciers. The melt water ultimately flows into the oceans causing global rise in sea level.

In the past geological period, several such eustatic sea level changes have occurred. Pleistocene epoch witnessed
several such eustatic sea level changes. It was characterized by 4 glacial and inter-glacial phases which had their
corresponding eustatic influence on sea level. Another such important sea-level changes were witnessed during
the carboniferous period during which the Gondwanaland was located near the South Pole. This led to the
formation of thick glacial cover ultimately causing Eustatic fall in sea level.

B) Tectonic Causes

During cretaceous period, very high sea level was believed to have been present. Such an event is called
cretaceous flood. During this period, sea level would have been as high as 180m higher than the present level.
Such sea level changes cannot be explained by climatic changes because even if all glaciers present on earth today
melt, they can cause only about 100m rise in sea level. Thus, other causes primarily tectonic causes have been
suggested as responsible for such changes. Although there exists a debate and confusion over the exact nature of
such tectonic forces.

One of the prominent views forwarded is related to the formation of Fold Mountains. According to this view, prior
to the formation of Fold Mountains or orogenetic phase, the geosynclinal stage is characterized by large scale
deposition of sediments on the ocean basins. This causes reduction in the capacity of ocean basin leading to
corresponding rise in sea level. It is cited as primary reason for cretaceous floods. The geosynclinal phase is

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followed by orogenetic phase whereby sediments are removed from ocean basins and plastered onto the
continents in the form of Fold Mountains. This leads to increase in the capacity of ocean basin which causes
eustatic fall in sea level.

Although appealing, it is able to explain several sea level changes which occurred during geosynclinal and
orogenetic phases, the theory has certain shortcomings. Most importantly, it fails to take into account the
consequent isostatic adjustment which would occur due to loading and unloading of sediments on the ocean
floor. Thus, most of scientists today agree that geosynclinal orogeny can have impact on sea level as isostatic
adjustment is never complete. It is agreed that such geosynclinal and orogenetic phase cannot account for large
scale sea-level changes as occurred in cretaceous period.

To fill the gap in the understanding of sea-level changes, another view has been forwarded. It asserts that sea
level changes are directly related with the rates of sea floor spreading. According to this view, periods of high sea
floor spreading are those when warm buoyant and elevated rocks are pushed far away from the ridges causing
increase in the width of mid-oceanic rides. This would correspond with reduction in the capacity of ocean basin
leading to eustatic rise in sea level. This explanation perfectly fits with the cretaceous data as we know sea floor
spreading rates were higher during cretaceous which would have been the cause of cretaceous floods.

However, slower sea floor spreading rates would manifest in narrower mid-oceanic ridge. This would increase the
capacity of ocean basin and thus corresponding fall in sea level occurs as happened after the cretaceous flood in
tertiary period.

2) Isostatic Changes

These are local to regional which is occurring due to isostatic adjustments occurring in certain localities/regions.
One of the most common causes of such local to regional sea level changes is related to isostatic adjustments
which follow the formation and melting of glaciers causing loading and unloading over the land. E.g. – after
Pleistocene, area around the Baltic Sea seems to have risen by 150m. Similarly, in Hudson Bay this rise has been
9m. Such regional sea level changes can also result from other tectonic activities like volcanism, folding, faulting,
subsidence, upwarping, tilting etc. Whatever be the cause of such local to regional sea level changes, they
complicate the measurement of eustatic sea level changes as they are super-imposed upon eustatic causes.

LAW OF THE SEA

LAW OF SEA: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The present ‘law of the sea treaty’, which is in force, has been agreed upon by international communities after
several deliberations, seminars and conferences on this subject. The history of the ‘law of the sea’ dates back to
the year 1609 when Hugo Grotius, who was a jurist of Netherlands (Holland), propounded the doctrine of ‘mare
liberum’ meaning thereby ‘free oceans’. His doctrine envisaged that the oceans belong to all nations and hence
they are free to use oceans for various purposes. This doctrine of ‘mere liberum’ aroused the controversy
regarding the actual control of nation on a particular portion of the ocean or on any part of the world oceans.
Later on, Cornelius van Bynkershonk had attempted to delimit the portion of the sea attached to a nation in 1702
on which the concerned nation could have full control. Thus, the concept of territorial sea was evolved, the
seaward limit of which was to be decided by the fire range of a canon, i.e. 3 nautical miles from the sea shore.

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The first international initiative to delimit the territorial sea was taken by the United Nations (UNO) in the year
1958, when the First U.N. ‘Conference on the Law of the Sea’ was organized and first treaty was signed. This
treaty envisaged the guidelines for the control of continental shelves of a nation. Since the continental shelf was
not clearly defined in the treaty, it invited disputes among the nations regarding the use of resources of coastal
waters.

The Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, which was held in Geneva in the year 1960, could
not achieve a concrete agreement regarding the control of coastal waters. The Third U.N. Conference on the Law
of the Sea was held during 1973-1982 and finally the ‘Law of the Sea Treaty’ was agreed upon by majority of
nations in the year 1982, though 17 nations abstained from the voting while the United States, Turkey, Israel and
Venezuela had voted against the treaty. The treaty of Law of the Sea was ratified by the required number of
nations in 1993 and it became an international law. The following are the basic components of the ‘Law of the Sea
Treaty’:

• Jurisdiction of coastal nations

(1) Territorial sea

(2) Exclusive economic zone (EEZ)

• Ship passage

 Free passage of ships of all nations in the High Seas and within the territorial sea for international
navigation.

• Extraction of minerals from deep ocean

 control of exploitation of mineral resources of deep sea beds by private companies under the regulation
of International Seabed Authority (ISA) of the UNO.

• Arbitration of disputes by the United Nations Law of the Sea Tribunal

MARITIME ZONE

Marine zones have been divided from time to time into different zones on the basis of different purposes viz.
sovereignty, exploitation of marine resources, trade and transport, recreation, war practices etc., and a number
of international laws have been enacted to give them legal recognition. The offshore areas of a country have been
divided into 3 zones e.g. territorial sea, exclusive economic zone and high sea. Besides, a few more terms are in
practice such as internal waters, marine belt, marginal sea, contiguous zone etc.

1. Territorial Sea

The shore and coastlines of a coastal country are seldom straight rather are crenulated and indented. The
imaginary line joining the land projecting towards the sea is called the base line. Sea waters lying between the
coastal land and the base line is called the internal waters which are never contiguous. The seaward area from the
coastland of a nation is called territorial sea, the distance of which is measured from the base line generally up to
12 nautical miles towards the sea. In the beginning, the seaward limit of territorial sea was determined as 3 miles
(4.8 km) but now, generally the limit of territorial sea of different nations has been determined differently e.g.
Latin American countries have determined the limit of their territorial sea as 320 km (200 miles) while the USA
accepts 4.8 km (3 miles) as the seaward limit of the territorial sea. Territorial sea has been variously named as
marine belt, marginal sea etc. The coastal nation has the right of its sovereignty over its territorial sea and has the

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full and exclusive right of its use. No other country can enter the territorial sea of a country without the
permission of the concerned country.

The continuous portion of the sea beyond the seaward limit of territorial sea up to a distance of 12 nautical miles
is called contiguous zone over which the concerned coastal country commands limited exclusive rights. It may be
mentioned that the seaward limit of the contiguous zone is 24 nautical miles from the base line. The concerned
coastal nation has the rights of custom duties, fiscal, strategic, defence, immigration and sanitary regulations
within the territorial sea and the contiguous zone and also enjoys the right to punish the concerned parties for
the infringement of these regulations.

2. Exclusive Economic Zone

Exclusive economic zone extends up to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the base line. The concerned coastal
state has the exclusive right of the survey, exploitation, conservation and management of mineral resources of
ocean deposits, ocean floor (crust), marine water energy, water and marine organisms within the exclusive
economic zone (EEZ). No other country can venture into any economic activity (e.g. fishing, mining etc.) in this
zone without the permission of the concerned coastal state but this zone is open for laying down submarine

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cables, navigation of ships, flying of aeroplanes etc. It may be pointed out that such rights are enjoyed by other
states only outside the seaward limit of the territorial sea.

3. High Sea

High Sea extends beyond the seaward limit of the exclusive economic zone and includes the vast oceanic areas.
All the countries have equal rights of navigation, aviation, fishing, mining, lying down of Submarine cables,
scientific researches, exploration etc. Recently, claims and counterclaims by Russia, United States, Norway,
Canada, and Denmark etc. have been made for the use of immense quantity of hydrocarbons, measuring about
10 billion tons on the sea beds of the Arctic Ocean. Russia first made a formal claim of her right to command the
vast mineral resources of the Arctic Ocean in 2001 but the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the
Continental Shelf ruled out Russian claim on the ground that sufficient scientific evidences could not be produced
by Russia to prove the extension of her continental shelves covering major portion of the ocean floor.

The Russian sources say that the sea beds of the Arctic Ocean contain 15.5 billion tonnes of mineral oil and 84.5
trillion cubic meters of natural gas over an area of 6.2 million square kilometres. It is estimated that this vast
reserve of hydrocarbons, which is preserved in the sea beds of the Arctic

Ocean is 20 per cent of the known global resources of world hydrocarbons. The Russian government launched
massive exploration works using advanced nuclear submarines in 2007 to explore the hidden treasures of
hydrocarbons in the sea beds of the Arctic Ocean.

MARINE POLLUTION
Let us first define pollution and thereafter marine pollution. Since pollution is viewed from different angles, as an
environmental problem by the geographers in general and environmental geographers in particular; as a social
problem by the sociologists; as an economic problem by the economists; as an ecological problem by the
ecologists etc., it may be defined in a number of ways. It is agreed that the pollution is, without doubt, the
outcome of urban- industrial and technological revolution and rapacious and speedy exploitation of natural
resources, increased rate of exchange of matter and energy and ever-increasing industrial wastes, urban effluents
and consumer goods. According to Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, 1970) pollution is defined in the
following manner.

“Residuals, or wastes, are generated in all stages of production and consumption of goods or services. Residuals
become pollutants or an environmental problem of some kind and in some degree when they have harmful effects
in the atmosphere, the oceans or the terrestrial environment. Harmful effects are effects that are harmful to man,
or to animals, plants or inanimate objects or conditions that are important to man. Their importance to man may
be biological, economic, religious, moral, aesthetic or intellectual”. Savindra Singh has defined pollution in a very
simple manner. This definition, as given below, may be applied to all types of pollution ranging from physical to
economic, political, social and religious pollution.

‘Disequilibrium condition from equilibrium condition in any system is called pollution’

Savindra Singh, 1991

A pollutant is defined as any form of energy or matter or action that causes disequilibrium state from equilibrium
state in any existing natural ecosystem.

Water pollution may be defined in the following manner: “Water pollution refers to deterioration of physical (such
as colour, odour, turbidity, taste, temperature etc.), chemical (such as acidity, alkalinity, salinity etc.) and

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biological (presence of bacteria, Coliform MPN, algae etc.) characteristics of water from various storages (such as
river water, lake water, pond water, groundwater) through natural (e.g. fallout of volcanic dust, landslides near
the water bodies, sediments supplied by soil erosion and weathering processes) and anthropogenic (e.g. industrial,
urban, agricultural, domestic, radioactive, mining sources etc.) processes to such an extent that it becomes
harmful to human beings, plants and animal communities.’’ Savindra Singh, 1991

Marine pollution has been defined by the United Nations Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of
Marine Pollution in 1982 as follows:

Marine pollution is the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine
environment, including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living
resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance of marine activities, including fishing and other
legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities

Nature of Seawater Pollution

Sea water is polluted mostly near the coast through the disposal of urban and industrial waste matters into the
coastal waters. Concentration of a single matter in the littoral water causes serious environmental problem. For
example, the concentration of mercury in the Mina Mata Bay (Japan) due to dumping of mercury-rich sludge from
Mina Mata city into the bay caused severe mercury poisoning. The resultant disease, known as the Mina Mata
Disease, claimed several lives in this city of Japan in early 1950s. Dumping of industrial wastes, urban effluents
and toxic chemicals into the coastal water leaves adverse effects on many marine organisms. Many of the corals
are reported to have been killed off the Andaman and Nicobar coast (islands in the Bay of Bengal, India) because
of toxic industrial effluents. Fish are severely affected due to sea water pollution.

Along with the anthropogenic marine pollution, there are also natural sources of seawater pollution such as
natural seepage of oil from seabed, emission of gas hydrates through the fissures on seafloor, submarine volcanic
eruptions which emit different gases etc.

The most formidable hindrance in the study of marine pollution is the absence of baseline data regarding the
natural conditions of different components of marine habitats, and hence it becomes difficult to ascertain the
degree of marine pollution. The following are the difficulties in the study of marine pollution:

• It becomes difficult to ascertain the degree of marine pollution as there are no sufficient data regarding
the natural conditions of marine environment before the occurrence of anthropogenic pollution.

• Marine scientists do not have the baseline data to distinguish between the polluted and non- polluted
regions.

• It is difficult to distinguish between the natural and anthropogenic processes of marine pollution.

• It is not easy to determine as to how much marine pollution has been caused by anthropogenic and
natural sources separately.

• Since the ocean water is mobile, pollutants are distributed over larger areas and hence concentration of
pollutants cannot be precisely determined.

• The only reliable technique to measure the level of marine pollution is standard laboratory bioassay but it
suffers from two shortcomings: 1) this technique cannot predict the long term effects of sub lethal doses
on marine organisms. 2) this technique is unable to detect and predict new chemicals which are produced
when some pollutants combine with other chemicals in the oceans.

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Areas of Concentration of Marine Pollutants

Since the major marine pollutants come from anthropogenic sources, it is logical to think that maximum
concentration of marine pollutants occurs in the coastal waters or marginal seas. Some pollutants, such as oil
spills and oil slicks, are also discharged in the open oceans by oil tankers due to accident or mechanical failures
but such pollutants are dispersed over larger areas and hence no harmful concentration occurs. The following are
the areas where there is maximum concentration of marine pollutants:

• on the sea bottoms,

• along the pycnocline layer,

• coastal waters, and

• at the interface between the air and the sea.

• on the sea surface

1. On the sea bottoms: Solid pollutants, such as silts, sands and heavy chemicals sink and settle down on the
seafloor. Chemicals, if attached with silt particles, sink to the seabed. A few benthic animals, mainly the
burrowing animals mix these pollutants with sea bottom deposits. Many of the boats, ships and vessels ranging
from transport ships to commercial and warships have sunk and are settled on the seafloors since the beginning
of ancient human civilization. The sinking of giant 269 m long RMS Titanic, the largest passenger ship of her time,
is a fine example to demonstrate the garbage of man- made structure to be deposited on sea the bottoms. Titanic
sunk on April, 14, 1912 in the Atlantic Ocean, near the Grand Banks to the south of Newfoundland. The ship was
broken in two parts and the wreckage settled on seabed at the depth of 3844 meters. The passengers numbering
1513 out of total 2224 passengers on board were killed. The wreckage was discovered during 1985-86, nearly
after 75 years. Numerous cases of sinking of ships of varying dimensions have been reported since the tragedy of
the RMS Titanic. A few nuclear submarines, equipped with nuclear warheads have sunk in the oceans. The
wreckage of nuclear submarine and warships becomes environmental hazard to deep pelagic and benthic marine
organisms.

2. Along the pycnocline layer: A pycnocline layer, located between the depths of 300m to 1000m from the sea
surface, is the zone of sharp change in seawater density. In fact, pycnocline separates 2 water masses of varying
densities. Pollutants brought by the rivers are trapped in pycnocline and the repetition of this process increases
the concentration of pollutants in such areas where the freshwater brought by the rivers is separated from the
saline and brackish seawater. Such situation occurs in the estuaries.

3. Coastal waters: They are the areas of maximum concentration of pollutants in the oceans because the sources
of pollutants, such as ports, cities and towns, industries etc. are located in the immediate vicinity of sea shore.
These economic and commercial centres produce and discharge huge quantities of pollutants of various sorts into
the coastal waters. Besides, large rivers also dump pollutants, which are carried by the rivers, into coastal waters.
Thus, the coastal zones of the sea, having sea ports, industries, urban centres etc., are most polluted areas of the
oceans.

4. At the interface of air and sea: A very thin layer of 0.1 to 10 millimetres thickness at the junction or interface
between the air and sea surface is called neuston layer. This is also called the sea surface micro layer. This layer
contains the concentration of chemicals, solid particulates etc. which become injurious to microscopic
phytoplankton and zooplankton communities.

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5. On the sea surface: The sea surface is polluted generally by oil slicks, that is the very thin layer of mineral oil on
the sea surface. The oil tankers spill enormous volume of mineral oil either due to accidents or due to mechanical
failures in the ships. The spilt oil quickly spreads over large areas of sea surface and forms extensive oil slicks.
Since the mineral oil comprises organic compounds, it is biodegradable but oil spills kill many sea organisms
within short period of time. Since the spilt oil is decomposed by organismic activities within short period of time
i.e. 24 hours to a few weeks, the marine organisms recover soon and maintain their growth.

The marine pollutants are generated from two basic sources as follows:

• natural sources

• anthropogenic sources

The natural sources include two basic sources:

• sea floors

• land areas

The natural sources include seepage of mineral oil and emission of gas hydrates from sea floors and volcanic
activities on the bottom of the oceans. The anthropogenic sources produce largest number and amount of
pollutants of marine pollution. These are elaborated below along with the pollutants of marine pollution.

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The following are the major marine pollutants:

• hydrocarbons, mainly mineral oil (fossil fuels),

• municipal and industrial effluents, sewage pollutants, metal pollutants,

• synthetic chemicals (chemical fertilizers

• and biocides),

• sediments from ocean dredging and mining,

• overfishing,

• Dumping etc.

The following are the relative percentages of marine pollutants from different sources

1. Hydrocarbons Marine Pollution

Hydrocarbons (mineral oil) are bio degradable chemicals comprising two main elements of hydrogen and carbon
and a few minor elements, such as nitrogen and metals. The seepage and spills of oil from natural as well as
anthropogenic sources are the major cause of hydrocarbon marine pollution. The major sources of oil pollution of
the oceans include the following:

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 • River runoff transports and dumps large quantity of industrial hydrocarbon wastes coming out of
numerous industries into the coastal water, and contributes largest percentage (31.1) of hydrocarbon
pollution load of the oceans.

• The transport of oil by tankers across the oceans contributes 21.8 per cent of total hydrocarbon pollution.
The oil spills at various stages of oil tanker operation i.e. at the places of loading of oil, in the transit, and
at the unloading places. Such spillage of petroleum from oil tankers along the oceanic routes is
considered normal situation, and is called ‘standard operational discharge’.

• There is leakage of substantial amount of oil from the oil refineries located along the sea coasts.

 The refinery leaks contribute 13.1 per cent of the total hydrocarbon pollution load of the oceans.

• The atmospheric fallout of hydrocarbons contributes about 10 per cent of hydrocarbon pollution of the
oceans.

• Natural sources include seepage of oil from ocean bottoms, emission of gas hydrates from fissures on the
sea floors. Natural seepage of hydrocarbons from seabed contributes about 10 per cent of total
hydrocarbon pollution load of the oceans

• The oil tanker accidents contribute only 3.3 per cent of the total hydrocarbon pollution load of the
oceans. Question arises, if the oil tanker accidents contribute only small percentage of oil pollution in the
oceans, then why it draws attention of different segments of society soon after the accident? This is
because of the following reasons:

 The hydrocarbon pollution of the oceans from other sources, except deliberate actions of man, is a very
slow process but oil spills from tanker accidents cause pollution immediately. It may be recalled that
millions of tons of oil were released by Iraqi Gov., in the Persian Gulf during 1991 Gulf war.

 There is quick spill of oil from the tankers due to accidents and hence oil immediately spreads over large
area of sea surface and forms oil slicks which covers vast area of sea surface and become biological, and
tourism hazards (on the beaches).

Since oil spills from tankers due to accidents cause immediate damage to the marine environment and marine
organisms through oil slicks, it is necessary to present a brief report of a few such oil spills.

1. Torrey Canyon Oil Spills, 1967

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Huge volume of oil spilled over from the oil tanker, named Torrey Canyon, which was carrying 100,000 tons of
crude oil on March 18, 1967 when the said oil tanker struck Seven Stone Reef off the coast of Cornwall, England.
The spilt oil soon spread over sea surface as extensive oil slicks which were soon carried by the winds across the
English Channel to the shores of France. Efforts were made to disperse oil slicks using toxic chemicals in order to
save the Cornish beaches of Cornwall for the tourists but the likely adverse effects of toxic chemicals on marine
organisms were ignored. Consequently, the marine organisms, mainly fish, limpets, barnacles etc., were adversely
affected by toxic chemical dispersants. It took 4 to 5 years for the adversely affected species to re-establish
themselves in their habitats.

2. Florida Oil Spills, 1969

About 680,000 litres of oil spilled from the oil tanker Florida in September, 1969 in the Buzzard Bay of
Massachusetts (USA) when the oil tanker ruptured near West Falmouth Harbour. The huge volume soon spread
over sea surface and formed extensive oil slicks which destroyed marsh grasses and killed marine animals of
intertidal and sub tidal biomes which were worst affected by oil slicks. It took 3 to 5 years for the marsh grasses
and sea animals to recover from oil disaster and re-establish themselves.

3. Argo Merchant Oil Spill, 1976

The oil tanker Argo Merchant ran aground on Fishing Rip Shoals off Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, USA in
December, 1976, with the result 29,000,000 litres of oil spilled from the tanker in the sea. Since the prevailing
winds are offshore, here the oil slicks were spread by easterly offshore winds in the open ocean and oil slicks
disappeared soon i.e. within a period of one month.

4. Mumbai High Oil Spills, 1982,1987

Oil disasters also occur off the Mumbai coast from the offshore oil wells. For example, one such oil spill accident
took place near Bombay High on July 30, 1982 when Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) suffered a loss of Rs.
900 million, involving damage of drilling rigs and precious crude oil. A major oil disaster from Bombay High
occurred on July 30, 1987 when a big oil tanker of Union Oil Company leaked 117,000 tons of crude oil into the
sea.

5. Exxan Valdez Oil Spiil, 1989

A supertanker, named Exxan, carrying crude oil measuring 200 million litres from the port of Valdez, onthe
southern coast of Alaska, ran aground on submerged rocky Bligh Reef just 40 kilometres away from theport of
Valdez, on March 29,1989. The accident was so severe that 8 of total 11 cargo oil tanks kept on the super tanker,
were ruptured and about 44 million litres of crude oil spilled into the sea. The resultant extensive oil slicks were
driven by the winds, tidal currents, waves etc. towards the Alaskan coasts wherein 1775 kilometres stretch of
Alaskan shorelines were heavily polluted and many seabirds and sea animals were killed.

2. Municipal and Industrial Effluents

The municipal and industrial wastes generated by urban centres, ports and industrial establishments located on
the coastal lands and along the major rivers are dumped into coastal waters by underwater pipes and rivers. The
municipal and industrial wastes are classified into 3 broad categories as follows:

• sewage effluents

• metals

• synthetic chemicals

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The municipal and industrial pollutants reach the coastal waters in two forms, namely in solid form, and in
dissolved form. These pollutants, when discharged into the coastal waters, are expected to be diluted by the tidal
currents, waves etc., but not all pollutants are diluted. Some portion remains undiluted and pollutes the harbours,
bays, estuaries, saltmarshes, other wetlands, tidal flats etc. and adversely affects the marine organisms as well as
humans.

(1) Sewage Pollution

Sewage effluents from the municipal corporations of urban and industrial areas located in the vicinity of the sea
coasts and along the rivers contain solid and semi-solid forms of organic and inorganic chemicals which are
discharged into coastal waters by underwater pipes and rivers. Besides, sewage effluents also carry some
inorganic nutrients such as phosphate and nitrates and bacteria and viruses. It may be mentioned that phosphate
and nitrate are essential nutrients which are used by phytoplanktons during the process of photosynthesis. The
greater concentration of these nutrients in the coastal waters, estuaries and wetlands increases photosynthesis
triggering phenomenal growth of phytoplanktons. This process of plankton bloom is called eutrophication.

The phenomenal increase in phytoplanktons increases BOD (biological oxygen demand) which causes decrease in
zooplanktons because they cannot survive in an ecosystem of depleted oxygen. Thus, the sewage pollution of
coastal waters adversely affects marine food chains. Near the shore waters of all the big coastal cities, ports and
industrial centres of the world have been heavily polluted by sewage effluents.

J.E. McDowell (1993) has studied the impact of sewage pollution mainly chemical pollution on organisms from cell
system to community level. The chemical pollution of coastal ecosystem causes physiological changes,
behavioural changes, diseases, reduction in reproduction, decrease in the viability of larvae etc. in marine
organisms. At community level, chemical contamination introduces changes in species abundance and
distribution, biomass etc.

(2) Metal Pollution

Metals, which contaminate seawater and enter the marine food chain via different trophic levels, include
mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper etc. These metallic elements reach marine ecosystems through (1)
natural, and (2) human sources. Under natural processes, these metals are released from the continental rocks
when they are weathered, eroded and brought to the oceans by rivers. Volcanic eruptions also discharge some
quantity of such metals which are blown by the winds and are dispersed in the oceans. Submarine volcanic
eruptions also contribute some quantity of such metals. Human source of metal pollution includes metals
discharged from urban and industrial areas. It may be mentioned that some small quantity of metals is required
by marine organisms and natural sources provide sufficient amount of these metals as nutrients required by the
marine organisms. The excess amount of metals such as mercury, lead, nickel in the bodies of sea animals
becomes poisonous and when they are consumed by human beings, these poisonous elements cause several
lethal diseases. For example, the concentration of mercury in the Mina Mata Bay of Japan due to dumping of
mercury-rich sludge from Mina Mata city into the bay caused severe mercury poisoning. The resultant disease
known as the ‘Mina Mata disease’ claimed several lives in the city of Japan in early 1950s.

(3) Synthetic Chemicals

Synthetic chemicals, the product of human activities, entering the marine ecosystems are known as halogenated
hydrocarbons or organochlorine. DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane) and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)
are the most lethal members of man-made synthetic chemicals. DDTs are used (now their use has been banned in
some countries) as pesticides to protect crops from lethal pests and to kill disease carrier bacteria and viruses to
contain certain human diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, typhoid etc. DDT has long residence period in the

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soils and sediments. These chemicals are washed out of the agricultural lands by surface runoff and are ultimately
discharged into coastal waters by the rivers. PCBs are synthetically produced by man and are used in the
industries which manufacture and produce electrical appliances, plastics, adhesives, paints, foams etc. These
chemicals reach the oceans via atmosphere. It may be mentioned that both DDT and PCBs have been banned in
some countries including the USA. The coastal waters mainly of the estuaries are contaminated by these lethal
toxic chemicals which reach the marine food chain through the processes of bioaccumulation and bio
magnification.

Every minute, one garbage truck worth of plastic is dumped into the ocean. Yearly, a colossal 1.4 billion pounds of
trash ends up in our beautiful oceans. Of this waste, much of it is plastic.

Garbage Patches in the world oceans

A garbage patch is a continuously increasing plastics and other debris concentration in the middle of the gyre
formed by the oceanic currents. The major garbage patches of the world oceans are shown in the figure

One of the much studied garbage patch is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

The Great Pacific garbage patch, also described as the Pacific trash vortex, is a gyre of marine debris particles in
the central North Pacific Ocean. It is located roughly from 135°W to 155°W and 35°N to 42°N.[1] The collection of
plastic, floating trash halfway between Hawaii and California extends over an indeterminate area of widely
varying range depending on the degree of plastic concentration used to define it.

The patch is characterized by exceptionally high relative pelagic concentrations of plastic, chemical sludge and
other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre. Despite the common public image
of islands of floating rubbish, its low density (4 particles per cubic meter) prevents detection by satellite imagery,
or even by casual boaters or divers in the area. It consists primarily of an increase in suspended, often
microscopic, particles in the upper water column.

The patch is not easily seen from the sky, because the plastic is dispersed over a large area. Researchers from The
Ocean Cleanup project claimed that the patch covers 1.6 million square kilometres. The plastic concentration is

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estimated to be up to 100 kilograms per square kilometre in the center, going down to 10 kilograms per square
kilometer in the outer parts of the patch. An estimated 80,000 metric tons of plastic inhabit the patch, totalling
1.8 trillion pieces. 92% of the mass in the patch comes from objects larger than 0.5 centimetres.

The Great Pacific garbage patch formed gradually as a result of ocean or marine pollution gathered by ocean
currents. It occupies a relatively stationary region of the North Pacific Ocean bounded by the North Pacific Gyre in
the horse latitudes. The gyre's rotational pattern draws in waste material from across the North Pacific, including
coastal waters off North America and Japan. As material is captured in the currents, wind-driven surface currents
gradually move debris toward the center, trapping it.

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