364 Modern Physics

P. 15. Evaluate the energy released in

electron capture by beryllium given by

Be + e }Li+ v

Evaluate the Q-value.

P. 16. 19K decays by negative B-emission.

19REACTIONS
NUCLEAR
P 17. An archuslogical sample weighing 25 g shows C aclivily ol 160 disintegrations per
minute. Assuming that living plants show a "C activily of 12 disinlegrations per minute
the sample.
per gram, calculate the age of

The information one gets about a nucleus from a

study of radioactivity is imited since only certain
nuclei are radioactive. In these nuclei, the radioactive processes tha
appear are also limited
Therefore, to understand nuclei better, we have to study different types of mnclei in both their
and excited states. Nuclear reactions offer one such way to gaiher
ground
knowledge about nuclei. In this
chapter we discuss the salient features of the different types of nuclear reacions with special
altention to two important ones, the nuclear ission and nuclear fusion.

19.1 NUCLEAR REACTIONS

19.1.1 Basics
In typical nuclear reaction experiment, a target material is bombarded by fast moving particles
a
Such as protons, neutrons, deuterons,
a-particles, or electrons. In the process, the incident particle
may change direction or may lose energy or may be absorbed by the target nacleus. Someimes
completely different particles may be emitted. The interaction betwen the target material and the
incident particles depends on the nature and energy of the particles and the target matenal. The mass
different
n ber or the atomic number or both of the target nucleus may change one iscompletely
anda

u s may be produced. Such transformation of a nucleus into another called

transmuta
ion. The process is called a nuclear reaction.
whose general tormm is
C
Chemical reaction, a nuclear reaction has a reaction equation

x+X >y +Y (19.1)

the residual or recoil

projectile particle that strikes the target nucleus producing
the X
1s as
and an outgoing particle y. In short, the reaction is witten
(19.2)
X(x, y) Y
bombarded
in which he
nuclear reaction in 1919
nerlord was the first report the first
to
nuclei are transtormed into oxYgEn
nitrog
Lrget with a-particles. In the process, the nitrogen
365
 Nuclear Renctions 367
366 Modern Physics
Thal is, he addition of cqual nurnbers
of eleciron mases n an sides dors not affect
iH as the outgoing
particle.
He his is done. the nuclear masses can te replae by the zirmic
Eq. (19.6)
nuclei with proton
He+ N } H + }o (19.3)
maes in Eq. (19.6).
N N (a,
(a, p)O.
p)0. Since
Since then, :

is wntten
as
innumerable
Therefore this reaction,
in the
been
short 1orm,
orted.
reported.
In
In many
many of
of them, with
with a given incident particle.
influenee
19.2.1 a-Value of a Nuclear Reaction
reactions have
the projectile often
number of nuclear
reaction takes place. The energy ol
which becomes a sla Rearranging Eq. (19.6).
we get
radi0acuve
more than one nucleus is after
Often the recoiling (K,+ Ky) (K, Kx) (m, +Mwi-m, M
-

reactions. + =
-

nuclear
which we have in nucle (19.8)
radioactive decay.
for a neutron-proton mutual conversion and withi That is, the net increase in kinetic
equal to the net decrease in ren
energy i5
The
The time scale
nuclear reacion,
the projectile target nucleus are
af a nuclear reaction is delined as the net increase in kineic energy. Trat [Link]. 2-value
of 1 0 s . In a
is of the order
nuclear forces only for arn exremeiy
short
ime of about 10-20 s. Hence he
of one another's
possibility of a
neutron-proton
mutual conversion is not expected in
a nuclear reaction. As a

on both sides of a nuclear reaction T

Q (K, + Ky) -

(K, +Kx) =
[m, +M)- (m, +
Mn] (19.9)
the number of protons
and neutrons must be the same th Normally, Kx = 0 because the target nucleus is at rest. If 2> 0, the reacion is said to be exothermic
momentum, and angular momentum since the reaction
conserved quantities are
the energy, linear
completely internal
or exoergic. That is, energy Is released in the reacüon and therefore the total kinetic energy after
that are
Lakes place under
the influence of forces the reaction is greater than that before the reaction:
Q 0 implies (K, + Ky) > (K, + K) or
(m+Mx)> (m, + A) (19.10)
19.1.2 Cross-section Q<0 implies (K, + Ky) < (K, + Ky)d or (m, + M) < (m, + M) (19.11)
All paricles that are incident on
a target do not produce
a
nuclear reaction, only a small fraction Reactions for which Q<0 are known as endothermic or endoergicreactions. Such reactions require
of nuclear reactüons, one needs to know the probability that a single
does. For a beter understanding energy input in the form of kinetic energy of x which should provide the additional rest energy of
individual target nucleus. Such reaction probability is usually
particle will interact with an the reaction products. Therefore, the kinetic energy of x must have some minimum or threshold
which is a type of effective area presented by the target
expressed in terms of the cross-section value below which the reaction cannot take place. For the products to have some additional kinetic
nucleus to that projectile for a specific reaction. The nuclear crosS-sections are usually denoted by
energy, the kinetic energy of x must exceed the threshold value.
the letter c. The cross-section a depends on energy the It
of the incident particle. has nothingto An expression for the threshold energy can be obtained by using the centre of mass coordinate
do with the geometrical cros5-section area of the target nucleus. It is expressed in units of area. The
(CMCS). the linear momentum is zero before and after the reaction. It is not
unit used is a barn (b) defined by system In CMCS,
difficult to prove that the kinetic energy of the incident particle in CMCS (K) is given by
lb 104 cm = 10-8 m? (19.4)
where nired (19.12)
19.2 NUCLEAR REACTION KINETICS m, +Mx
where
Consider nuclear reaction V is the velocity of the incident particle in the laboratory system and
a
represented by the equation mred is the reduced mass.
x+Xy+Y (19.5) For the endothermic reaction to take
place,
Let the rest mass of the bombarding
its kinetic energy be
particle be m, and
K, Let the target contain nuclei Of
of rest mass My and kinetic
energy Ky. The rest mass
of recoil nucleus and
outgoing particle be My and m, i2 lQ
and their kinetic
Fgure
energies be Ky and K, respectively. a) m,+M
19. lhustrates the nuclear reaction. The law of Fig. 19.1 lustration of a nuclear reacuo
conservation of enerEy requires (a) before collision and (b) after clision. (19.13)
m+K+ Ky +Mye m,c+ K, + =
(19.6)
The masses in
Eq. (19.6) are
My
the nuclear masses.
+ Ky Ce(1/2)m,ví is the kinetic energy of the incident particle in the laboratory system, the threshold
both sides of the Since the number of protons must energy is given by
equation, we can also write
De
u
Z, +Zy Z, +Zy (19.14)
(19.7)
 Nuclear Reactions 369
368 Modern Physics
is less if
il a light particle
particle is
ic s
incident hasG fformed compound nudeus which is in a highly excited vate. Synoolically. this
o r m e d is the compo
that the threshold energy Is
threshold
thus
noted from Eq. (19.14) nucleus
as
may be
represented
lt can be
a heavy target. incident particle + larget nucleuscompound nuceus
incident on a C u target and
are neutron are
Deuterons of energy 10 Me V Q-value for the reaction
ns x+X (CN)*
(19.15)
Example 19.1 the
of kinetic energy.
Evaluale
() 1.008665
observed with
15 MeV atomic
sses are
masses are
H
H == 2.014102
2.014102 u,
u, nn =
= 1.008665 u, 53Cu Trhe svmbol* indicates that the nucleus is in a high state of excitation.
Zn. The
the residual nucleus After its formation, the compound nucleus may exist for a relatively long time compered to the
63.929144 u.
Zn =

1s taken
62.929599 u,

involved is Nuclear time the ume

atuclear time.
1
by the bombarding particie to cross the diameter
10' m s), the nuclear
Solution The nuclear reaction
H+Ou >n+ *zn
af the (10
nucleus m). For a MeV (v-
proton time
(10-14 m/107ms) = 1 0 s . Since thelifetime of a compound nucleus (-1g
is of the order of
5) is much larger
than the nuclear time (- 10 s). according to Bohr, the compound nuceus forges" how it was
reaction from Eq. (19.9) is
)The Q-value for the formed and the excitation energy is shared by all the nucleons in the nucleus. Hence its decay mode
0 =(2.014102 u + 62.929599 u
-
1.008665u - 63.929144 u)931.5 MeV/u is independent of its formation. In the second step, the highly excited compound nucleus decays
into all the possible exit channels in coherence with the conservation laws. Symbolicaly.
= 5.488 MeV
nucleus is obtained as compound nucleus recoil nucleus outgoing paricle
(ii) From Eq. (19.9), the KE of the residual
Ky = Q+ K-K,
(CN) Y+y (19.16)
= (5.488 + 10 15) MeV = 0.488 MeV l is not certain that the compound nucleus will decay into which particle. Examples of the formation
and decay of compound nucleus are:
Example 19.2 Compute the Q-value and threshold energy for the reaction "F(n, p) "0. Atomic
masses are 1°F = 18.998404 u, H = 1.007825 u, "0 = 19.003577 u, and n = 1.008665 u. H+Cu Zn) Zn+n
62
Solution The Q-value for the reaction, as given by Eq. (19.9),is 30Zn+on+on (19.17)

Q (18.998404 u + 1.008665 u 1.007825 u 19.003577 u)931.5 MeV/u Cu+n+ H

-4.0362 MeV

Therefore, he threshold energy.

H+Al»GSi) Mg+He
Al+H (19.18)
(K)min Na+ He +H
Si+on
-
= 4.25 MeV
1.008665 u).n Mev
18.998404u 4.0362
The compound nucleus model is successful in explaining the nuclear reactions for incident particle

energies up -15 MeV and for targets of A

to > 10. For energies in the range 15-50 MeV, this model
gives somewhat satisfactory results.

19.3 REACTION MECHANISMS

19.3.2 Neutron Activation
Different mechanisms were proposed to explain the eutrons are electrically neutral. Hence they can interact more easily with nuclei. When a nucleus
the general
compond nucleus model, proposed by Bohr in 1936, features of nuclear
reactions. these,
nuclear reactions atlow energies (< 15 is the commonly used model that uns bombarded by a beam of neutrons, a compound nucleus is formed. As an example, consider the
for
energies in the MeV). On the other hand, direct exp ombardment of C a by neutrons. As a result of the interaction between the two, the compound
range 15-140 MeV. This reactions are morC suited
section explains some of nucle 48 8 1ormed. A common decay mode of this compound nucleus is the emission of a
these mecnanis*
19.3.1 gamma ray.
The
Compound Nucleus
According to Bohr, nuclear
strongly interacis with the reactions take place in two
steps. In the first step, the
The
r a y energies and intensities are characteristic of the "Cd nucleus. Since they unique, are
target nucleus, loses all its energy and inciu particle
tec w us to
identify the compound nucleus 11Cd and the original target "Cd. The general
becomes a part
or uu he
u e , called the neutron activation analysis, is a powerful method for idenutying elements.
 Nuclear Reactions 371
370 Modern Physics

19.3.3 Direct Reactions

(or equivalent energy) between the uranium nucleus and the fission fragments is about (8.5 7.6)
MeV 0.9 MeV per nucleon. Since a total of 23% ncieons are involved in this fission, the energy
the projectile spends only a short timmo
than 50 Me, he released per fission is
For bombarding
energies greater nucleus irom the target o r stripnino
one or more
nuclear force. Pickng up
in this range of energies.
It is also possihle s (0.9 MeV/nucleon)(236 nuclezns) = 212 MeV
range of the probable a the
reactions a r e called diroct
therefore more
are
off the projectile trom the target. Such reactions.
energetic
nucleons As many such fissions occur in a very short úme, an enormus amout of energy would be released
tinal residual nucleus may be left n any
knocks out
projectile reactions is that the in the process. About se ot the energy released in fission appeas s the kinetic energy of the
direct reactions, the nuclear excited sta
advantage of direct
The major different ales ca
stales. Using
fragments. The neutrons have energies of several MeV.
one to
ofthe many low-lying excited""O levels can be invesigaled by the reactions8 (n n 6
Fission fragments are highly unstable because they are rich in necirons. Ofen prompt neutrons
be invesigated. For example energy
°O: and C (°Li, d) o . are emitted at the instant of fission. Even after the release of prompt neutrons. the fission fragments
O(d ) O: "C (a, n)
undergo beta decay releasing more energy. The fission fragments often go throgh many B decáys
before culminaling into stable isotopes.
19.4 NUCLEAR FISSION

reaction in which a heavy nucleus such as uranium breaks into

Fission is a type of nuclear
special 19.4.1 Theory of Nuclear Fission
This discovered by Hahn and Strassman in 1939. When fission takes
two or more lighter nuclei.
was

amount of energy is released. Measurements show that this energy is of the order of Fission occurs for nuclei with large Z values. Nuclear fission reaction can be nderstood on the basis
place, large
a
reactions are possible-spontaneous fission and induced
200 MeV per fission. Two types of fission of the liquid drop model of the nucleus which was developed by Boir and Whaeler. According to
in which a nucleus in the ground state
fission. Some heavy nuclei undergo spontaneous fission this model, a fissionable nucleus in the ground state appears like a spherical liquid drop. In a
divides without bombarded by particles. In induced fission, fission is induced by a nuclear
being nucleus, the electrostatic ceulomb repulsion of the protons tries to break the uncleus apart whereas
reaction. A heavy nucleus absorbs a thermal
neutron and forms a highly excited compound nucleus
which may split quickly. A thermal neutron is one which is in thermal equilibrium with its
the surface tension (of the drop) effects (or
the surface
energyofterm as explained section 17.9
in

suroundings. I then has a kinetic enerey of (3/2)k7. A typical thermal neutron induced fission
tries to keep the nucleus in a spherical shape. Thus, the shape the drop depends on the balance
between the surface tension forces and the coulomb repulsive forces. If more energ is added to the
reaction is shown here drop, oscillations are set up within the drop which tend to distort its spherical shape Therefore, when
a nucleus absorbs a gamma
U+nHU > ' Ba+ Kr + 3n + Energy (19.19) ray, or a slow neutron. or some other particle the energy of nucleus
the

Normally two or three neutrons are emitted during fission. There are many possibilities that a fission
increases and the resulting deformation may cause the drop become ellipsoidal. If the excitation
to
is sufficiently large, the drop may attain the shape of the dumb-bell. If the coulomb repulsion
yields fission fragments with different Z and A values. Some of the common fission fragments are energy
1S greater than that of the surface tension, the excited nucleus breaks into two and each of the

barum, rubidium, molybdenum, tellurium, lanthanum, kryplon, cesium, iodine, xenon etc. The fragments becomes spherical in shape. That is, a fission ofthe nucleus has taken place. The sequence
fission yield Y(A) of a nuclear fission is defined as of steps leading to fission is illustrated in Fig. 19.3. If the
excitation energy is not large enough.
the distorted nucleus may return to the spherical shape by emitting a 7ay. This process is more
A) = x 100
(19.20)
where 10

NA is the number of nuclei of

formed in fission and
No is the Lotal number of fissions.
Figure 19.2 shows fission
mass

tion for the fission of 3°U yield Y(A) versus A varia-

nucleus. Though
number A

1.0 BO
o-0-
ission (equal Z symmetric
fragments) is possible, the probability

O
of occurrence of 0.1
asymmetric fission is more probable. (C)
Enormous amount of is released in a
reaction since the mass ofenergyU is
fission d) (e)
considerably FISsion
than the tolal mass of the
The binding
fission fragmenis and greater
energy per nucleon for
neutrons.
0.01 O
7.6 MeV and for the uranium is about 80 100 120 140 160
fission
8.5 MeV. As the fission fragmentsfragments (A 100) is about A
ents Fig. 19.3 The sequence of steps leading to fission: (a) nucleus before collission with incident
are more tiohtlu Fig. 19.2
bound, they have less
mass. The Mass distribution o particle, (b) after collision deformation to an ellipsoid, (c) and (d) further deformation,
difference in mass from fisSion or 235U. (e) fission, and () y-ray emission if the excitation energy is not sufficient.
372 Modern Physics
Nuclear Reactions 3733
for fission to take place sufficient enero
ergy needs
rather than fission. Thus, to be
of radiative capture LCk<1, he number of neutrons in a given generation is less than that in the
supplied. previous generation.
tn clch a case, the system is said to be subcritical or convergent. If k 1, the chain
few MeV are needed to produce fission in nuclei has. reaction becomes
Excitation energies of only
a ng mass =

nuclei °U, 5°U, and 239pu even critical. If k> 1, the chain reaction is said to be supercritical or divergent.
However, in the three
numbers between 230 and 240.
can cause fisSion. Hence, they
are Extremely useful to The chain reaction of Iission can either occur under slower and controlled conditions (k = 1)
with almost zero kinetic energy
The nucleus U needs a neutron of atleast 1 MeV kinetic or under very rapid and uncontrolled conditions (k > 1). If the system is under critical conditions,
target material for fission. 200 need very high excitatian 8
to
we would be able
mass numbers A to obtain a continuous supply of
fission while other nuclei with energy as in a nuclear reactor. Under supercritical
produce
fission.
gies conditions, the energy released is uncontrollable resulting in an explosion as in the case of an atom
(20-30 MeV) to produce
mode of the division of the bomb. If the system is subentical, the neutron number decreases continuously leading to the
According tothe Bohr-Wheeler model, the most probable nucleus
is into two equal fragments. However, in reality the Iission iragments have different atomic masce stoppage of the production of energy.

The Bohr-Wheeler theory could account only for some of the general features of fission, Atte
were also made to explain fission on the basis of other nuclear models such as shell model, collectiv
mpts
Example 19.3 Calculate the energy released in the fission reaction given by Eq. (19.19).
model, etc. Each model had only some success in explaining the general features.
Solution From table, the masses o f u , Ba, and Kr are 235.043924 u, 140.91440 u, and
91.92630 respectively.
19.4.2 Chain Reaction
Mass of reactants 1.008665 u + 235.043924 u =236.052589 u
As wehave seen, two or three neutrons are emitted during each induced fision. The
neutrons thus Mass of products = 140.91440 u + 91.92630 u +3 x 1.008665 u = 235.866695 u
emitted can be used to create subsequent fissions, that the process
so
muliplies as
illustrated in
Fig. 19.4. This process of fission that proceeds without the supply of additional neutrons from Mass difference 236.052589 u -235.866695u =
0.185894 u

outside is called a chain reaction. This self-sustained chain ieaction is Energy released = 0.185894 u x 931.5 MeV/u = 173.2 MeV
of neutrons produced in a given
possible only if the number
generation is equal to or greater than that in the previous generation.
It is convenient to define a
reproduction factor or multiplication
factor as (k) Example 19.4 How many fissions take place per second in a 300 MW reactor? Assume that 200
MeV is the energy released per fission.
k=Numberofneutrons inthe (n +1) generation
Number of neutrons in then" Solution Let be the number of fissions per second.
generation n

Energy released per second (200 x 10 ev)(1.6

= x
101" J/eV)n = n x 3.2 x 10J
Power = uCEgy
time

300x 10Js-' = "X3.2x10-

Therefore,
300 x 10
Neutron
= =9.38 x 10
3.2 x10-l
Oission
fragment nuclei

19.5 FISSION REACTOR

nucleus
In a fission reactor, the nuclear chain reaction is allowed to take place under controlled conditions.
Several problems have to be overcome to make any fission reactor function. The important components
of a nuclear reaclor are:

(1) Fissionable fuel

(2) Moderator to slow down neulrons
(3) Control rods o control criticality of reaction
(4) Reactor vessel and radiation shield
Fig. 19.4 A
typical chain reaction.
(5) Energy transfer systems for commercial power production
 374 Modern Phvsics Nuclkar Reactions 375

Fissionable Fuel Hed

U lakes place with thermal ncutrons. Each earc Eectric
that the fission in Son
We have already learned These neutrons may be
lost in two ways: (i1 Core
Hot water Dee n e generator
neutrons on an average. (fuel and moderator) or liquid vum
produces two to three the
fuel Heneo
either be absorbed v ithout produc1ng
iission or (11)
tney may escape irom zone.
called the crilical mass, of 5y is reau
certain minimum mass,
the reaction to be critical, a U. Ihe remaining 99.3% is 238
uranium has ony ./70 0
be maintained. Naturally occurring
fission reactor, lhe *°U concentration has to be incro.
which is not fissionable. To build a reased
enrichmenl. Dillerent enrichment techniques
substantially (2-4%). This process is known as nave Control
rods
also been developed. Coderse

Moderator
The fission neutrons may have 1-2 MeV of kinetic energy. Such energetic neutrons have a very law
Containment
vessel
probability of inducing new issions. Hence, the fission neulrons must be slowed down. For this,
the fissionable material is surrounded by a substance, known as moderator, which slows down the
neutrons. The fission neutrons lose energy through simple inelastic collisions with the atoms of the Pump
Shielding
moderator. A small object striking a heavy object bounces off with nearly the same speed. However,
if a small mass collides with another one of almost the same mass at rest, considerable exchange Cooing w
of energy would take place. Hence, the most effective moderator should consist of atoms whose mass Fig. 19.5 Schematic diagram of a pressurized watsr reartor.
is close to that of the neutron. Therefore, the best moderator is the one that contains 'H atoms. Since
H
atoms absorb neurons,
deuterium (H) serves as an moderator. Some of the most effective
ideal
moderators are heavy water D0), carbon (graphite), boron, and beryllium. 19.5.1 Breeder Reactor
Natural uranium contains 99.3% 235u. When U undergoes the (n. ) reaction in a reartor Pu
Control Rods
is produced via the following set of reactions:
Reactors are equipped with movable control
rods, whose function is to absorb neutrons and maintain
the reactor at the critical The
stage. commonly used materials as control rods are cadmium and U+ n U U +7
boron. Cadmium has a high (19.21)
absorption cross-section for thermal neutrons. By pulling the control
rods out, the slow neutron level can U 3 Np + e +
increased which increases the fission rate leading to an
increase in power level To decrease the
fission rate, the control rods are
3 Np Pu+e+ V

pushed in. The product P u has a half-life of 24100 years and is an a-emitter. The intemediate beta decays
Types of Reactors thermal and fast neutrons. AsPu produces
are completed in few days. It fissions easily with both from
Reactors 2.7 neutrons per fission, it is preferred as a fuel for both reactors and bombs. After separalion
are
designed and fabricated for different
Breeder reactors have
generation of power. Research purposes, mainly for use in research and uranium (by chemical methods), it can be used as a fuel in a nuclear reactor.
reactors produce high neutron 10 the slow build-up of
are used as
projectiles in nuclear reactions to produce nuclides fluxes for research. These neuro been built to convet, 59U to 2Pu. In this reactor when fission takesa place, breeder reactor breeds new
nuclides are used as tracers and for not found in nature. Some breed "Pu in the Thus,
medical purposes. In or nc Pu also occurs. That is, we slowly process.
to use fast
liSSion appears as heal power reactors, the energy released in Tuel (Pu) from otherwise useless U . Another advantage is that these are designed
which is used to u
generator. practice two different reactors
ln produce sleam to drive a turbine
connected to an electrica neutrons. Since P u fissions with fast neutrons, a fast breeder reactor needs no moderator.
are used-the radioactivee
One of the problems associated with nuclear power is the problem of disposal of the
water
reacior. In boiling water reuctors, water circulalesboiling water reactor and the pressun order of many years. The storage
generated in the core turns the waler to steam which through the core of the reactol ssion fragments. Some of them have very long half-lives of the
water reaciors. the heat is used to Or radioaclive waste from reactors poses a serious threat to the biological environment.

two-step process. Water circulateselectricity. the core

is extracled in a generate In
pressure
high pressure. The hot water heats a through
Figure 19.5 shows the schematic second water system which undc
consists of he fuel and a diagram of a pressurized water delivers steam to the turbine sy 19.6 NUCLEAR FUSION
moderator. In reactor. In all these reactors, core
radioacive and ruplure boiling u core,
il can become water reactor, as the
steanm of the of its constituent protons and neutrons.
pressurized water reactors as ihe
the pipes near
the turbine. This
enters the
reacto ne mass of every nucleus is less than the sum masses
nucleus, there is a loss of mass. This
n form
steam never enters
the reactor core. problem is
avou ence, when protons and neutrons together
come to a
of energy. The process of building larger
muss loss shows up through the release of a large amount
It is now believed that many of the
uciel by combining small nuclei is called nuclear fusion.
 Nuclear Reactions 377
376 Modern Physics
ocess of fusion
fasion and
and the fusion taking
takinp place within
nla Thus, four "H and one nuclej are required to prrduce "He and C, the C nucleus merely
the process ot
elements in the universe were formed by oi radiant energy. as a catalyst. Of course, the Q-valuc is the sane as that in the proton-proton cycle. The carbon
for the enormous supply
is responsible
the stars including sun
cvcle requires higher temperatures because of the higher coukmb tasrier of C eiative 'H. to

When all the available hydrogen has been conTverted t helium, the (or star) will contract
un

19.6.1 Fusion Reaction in

Stars and its temperature will increase until heliun starts burning. Tbe ivolved reaction will be

are required for

a
nuclear
fusion reacon to occur (Example 19.61
The 3 He C (19.25)
Extremely high temperatures Hence the atoms are completelv
ionized
inside the sun and the stars is 10-10° K. energy than that required for hydrogen fusion. When helium
more thermal
temperature with very high velocities collide d Helium fusion requires
and matter exists in the plasma
state. When nuclei moving
reacuons taking place
they
at such hiok. is used up, the sun will again
contract and its temperature will inCTease, ill carbon burning occurs.
amount of energy. Fusion unil °Fe is reached. The star then collapses under its o n gravita-
combine with the release of a large Such processes will continue
fusions. Though many thermonuclear reactions are ssible
Lemperatures are called
thermonucdear to become a white dwart star, or a neutron star, or a black hole or it may even
are the proton-proton cycle
and the carbon cycle. tional atlraction
in sun, the wo most common ones undergo a supernova explosion.

Proton-proton Cycle
19.6.2 Fusion Reactor
The proton-proton cycle includes a series of
reactions that converts four protons into an a-particle.
Three
The sequence of the fusion reactions is: nuclear fusion to generate power seems very attractive.
The possibility of using controlled
in a reactor involve the isotopes of hydrogen. the deuerium
H + e* + v (0.42 MeV)
H+ H (19.22) fusion reactions most likely to succeed
(H), and the tritium 'H).
H+H
aHe + y (5.49 MeV) (19.22a)
H+ H H e + n (3.27 MeV) (19.26)
He +He$He+H + H (12.86 MeV) (19.22b)
(4.03 MeV) (1926a)
H+ H > jH+}H
The entry given in parenthesis is the Q-value for the concerned reaction. The first reaction, (19.26b)
Eq. (19.22), is an extremely slow reaction where one collision in about 10 produces a reaction. If H+ }H -He + on (17.59 MeV)
than that
the reaction was a fast one, the sun would have exploded long back. For reaction given by Eq. (19.22b) released in fusion reactions can be much greater
For a given mass of fuel, the energy is suf+icient
The natural abundance of 0.015%
to occur, each of reactions (19.22) and (19.22a) must occur. Thus, the net effect of the sequence released in fission. Sea water is rich in
deuterium.
S
to support the present world energy consumption
for a few billion years.
nuclei and electrons
the atoms are ionized. The resultüng
4H $He + 2e* + 2v + 2y At the temperatures needed for fusion, condiions have to be
19.23) nuclear fusion, the following three
are in the plasma state. For controlled
Each of the two e quickly annihilates with an electron to
the total energy release for the net reaction is
produce 2m,c= 1.02 MeV. Therefore, satisfied
allow the ions (deuterium and tritium)
to
is needed to
(a) Temperature of the order of 10* K
I(2 x 0.42) +(2 x 5.49) + 12.86 + (2 x 1.02)] MeV 26.7 MeV = overcome the coulomb barrier and
fuse their nuclei together.
allow them to fuse. A recom-
The proton-proton cycle is very slow since reaction given by Eq. (19.22) limits the entire (6) The ions have to be confined together in close proximity to
The energy output of sun is process. mended ion density is 2-3 x 10
ions/m'.
mainly due to the p-p cycle. at high temperature
for a time of l-2 s to avoid plasma
(C)The ions must be held together
Carbon Cycle cooling.
In holter stars, the be used to contain high temperature
plasma. The two
energy output is mainly from the carbon cycle which consists of the followlng AS ordinarymaterials vapourize, they cannot confinement and inertial
are the magnetic
reactions are being pursued
plasma containment techniques that hot plasnma. Number
are used to contain the
In magnetic confinement, magnetic fields
confinement. bottle method (Fig. 19.6), the
H+CN+7 or magnetic confinement schemes have

paths of the charged particles are bent by

been tried. In the magnetic
the magnetic fields and where the field lines are close

NC+e' +v| Ogelher, the arrangement acts as a magnetic

mirror. In this arrangement,
the charged particles slip
device called tokamak, first
H+csN+7 (19.24)
fusion takes place. The
out before sufficient shows better
more sophisticated
results. Tokamak (Fig. 19.7)
consists of a torroidal vacuum

H+No+7 developed in the USSR,

Cnamber having a combination of two magnetic
fields, the toroidal field and poloidal
current carrying
field. The
conductor.
o N+e +v Lorroidal field is directed along the axis
of the torroid produced by
a

H+N C+ $He
 378 Modern Physics Nuclear Reactions 379
CuTent-camying wires

Mass of f H =
2(1.66 z 102" kg)
Solution
Energy released per fusion = (931.5 MeVlu)2 2.014102 u - 3.01609u 1.007825 u)
4.033 MeV
I gram of fuel has (0.001107k3103
21.66x kg) 3 10 nuclei
nuclei
kg)
Two deuterium nuclei release 4.033 MeV

Therefore, energy released per gram =

(3 x 10" nuclei) MeV/nuciei 6.05 Mev
=

. Example 19.6 Estimate the temperature required for the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction to occur
Magnetic field lines Plasma if the kinetic energy ofeach particle is 0,225 MeV. The radius of the deuterium nucleus =15 fm
Fig. 19.6 The magnetic bottBe. and that of tritium =1.7 fm.

Solution Assuming that the two nuclei approach head on, the distance between the two is equa
Torroidal vacuum chamber to the sum of their radii. The electrostatic PE of the two particles at this distance must be equal to
the KE of the two when they are far apart.

2KE = ke 8.99x10 Nm? C)1.6x10- C

ra+ (3.2 x 107 m) (1.6x 107 JleV)
= 0.45 MeV

Brorolda Kinetic energy for 1 particle = 0.225 MeV

poloidal Average kinetic energy kT, where k is Boltzmann constant

Extemal curent Or

total
Plasma
Plasma curent
T 2Xaverage kineticenergy
3k
Fig. 19.7 The tokamak for
magnetic confinement.
The poloidal field is
2(0.225 MeVL6x10 JMeV) = 2x 10° K
produced by a current that passes through the plasma which helps (3x 1.38 x 103 JK)
coniinement of the plasma and heats it as
well. The combination of these two fields
field which is helical. gives the total
In the inertial
confinement method, a small 19.7 TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS
simultaneously from different directions by very intensepellet of deuterium and tritium is struck
laser beams. The intense energy
laser heals and ionizes the
from tne When 23U is iradiated with neutrons, ission does not in allis the nuclei
take placewhich present. Instead,
pellet into a plasma and then heat, and active.
fusion can ocur. The
confinement time is very compresses it to the point al wnieu a alternative reaction produces an isotope of uranium (U)
the ions do not move short, of the order of 10-10-s, during
for a short interval of appreciably
because of their own inertia. whicn 3 U+n U> ??+e+
time. The power output is sustained oy
Apart from the problems of confinement, a The question mark in the above reaction represents some unknown element of atomic number 93
used in its construction that practical reactor requires development or ials which was latter named as neptunium (Np). In the same year (1940). plutonium (Pu) with
Z = 94
Fusion energy research is a
can withstand
such high d
temperature and high levels of radiauO discovered in a similar reaction. Since then several new elements
have been added to the
subject of great interest in many Was
laboratories around the woria. All these are radioactive and some are fissionable. These are called transuranium elements,
ist, 109 are already named. Ele-
Example 19.5 Calculate the eiements with more protons than uranium. The elements up to Z
energy release per gram of fuel named so far. The new elements are listed in
for the reaction ments with Z 110-114. though discovered, are
= not

H+H }H + {H Table 19.1.

380 Modern Physics
110-114 are also di Nuclear Rouctions 381
Elements with Z values
Transuranium
elements.
7able 19.1
but nol named
PROBLEMS
Name E1. Does the reaction fH (d, n) He require a threshold energy?2
Symbol Symbol
Name .2. Does the reaction Li (p. 4) /He require energy r des it relese erergy' How much
102 Nobelium No
Neptunium
Np energy
Pu 103 Lawrencium Lr P.3. Calculate the energy released in the reaction Be (a. n) 'C.
Plutoniun
104 Rutherfordium Rf P.4. Calculate the threshold kinetic energy for the reaction
Amenicium
Am
105 Dubnium Db
Curum
Cm P+ HH + 2H; if H is at rest
Berkelium Bk 106 Scaborgium
Bohrium P.5. In the reaction"N ( p) "O, the incident a-paricles have 7.5 Mev of kinetic energy
Californium Cf 107 Bh
Hassium Gi) Can this reaction occur? (i) If so, what is the kinetic energy of the produrs?
Einstcinium Es 108 Hs
109 Meitnerium P.6. Deuterons of energy 12 MeV are incident on a *Cu target and neutrons are observed i h
Fermium Fm Mt
100 16.8 MeV of kinetic energy. Find the kinetic energy of the product
Md Zn
101 Mendelevium P. 7. Calculale the excitation energy of the compound nucleus produced when U absorbsa
thermal neutron.
REVIEW QUESTIONS - P.8. Calculate the 0-value of the induced fission reacion

1. Fill in the missing particles or elements. n+ 235U "Zr+ 1*Te +3n

)3Ba (n, ?) Cs P. 9. The power requirement of an establishment is 300 W per day. Assuming that 200 MeV s
6) Be(a, n)?
released per fission, calculate the mass of U that should undergo fission to supply the
Gii) C(a, n)? iv) o d, ?N electricity for a year.
2. Define threshold energy for an endothermic nuclear reaction. P. 10. Calculate the energy released in the fusion reaction H+ iH He + bn
3. Define the Q-value of a nuclear reaction in terms of () the rest mass of the constituents P. 11. Calculate the energy released per gram of fuel for the reaction jH +iH +> }He on
P. 12. Estimate the energy released per gram of fuel for the reaction iH+ }H 3He on.
> +
and (i) the kinetic energy of the constituents.
When do you say a nuclear fission reaction is (i) critical, (i) P. 13. Show that for a nuclear reaction requiring energy, the minimum kinetic energy of the
supercritical, and
1s the
ii) subcritical? bombarding particle is equal to Qm,/(m,- mb), where Q is the energy required, mp
5. Explain the function of moderator in a fission reaclor. rest masS of the bombarding particle, and m, the total rest mass of the products. Assume
6. Explain before bombardment and that all particles are
the function
of control rods in a fission reactor. that thetarget nucleus is at rest
7. Why is enriched U ased as fuel in a nuclear reactor? nonrelativistic.
8. Why is Estimate the fusion temperature for the the fusion reaction "H+ 'H H +e"+ v. The
the water heated by the nuclear reactor fuel not
used directly to drive the turbines? P. 14.
9. Why is "Pu preferred as a fuel in nuclear radius of the hydrogen nucleus = 1.5 fm.
reactors?
10. What is a breeder reactor?
11. On the basis of liquid
drop model, account for the fission of a nucleus.
12. Effective moderators consist
of atoms whose mass is
very close to that of the neutrons.
Why?
13. Explain the
14. The
proton-proton cycle, which is the main source of energy from sun.
proion-proton cycle is a very slow process. Why?
15. What is thermonuclear
fusion?
16. Show that no carbon is
consumed in the carbon
as for the cycle and that the net effect is the same
proton-proton
17. Explain why a fusion cycle.
reactor requires
long confinement time. high particle density,
a
a high temperature, and a

18. Why does

carbon cycle
19. Write a short note on require higher temperatures than the
transuranium elements. proton-proton cycIe