ELECTRICITY - CHAPTER -12 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ITS PROPERTIES Electric charge. like mass. is a fundamental property of matter. positive and negati Two types of charge Like charges repel each other & unlike charges attract each other. > it can neither be ereated or destroyed, but Electric charges are conserved. i.e. can be transferred from one body to another. This means that the total char in an isolated system remains the same. > The SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C), Charge on one electron is -1.6x10° C Charge on one proton is 1.6x 10° C | One Coulomb of charge is the charge carried by 6.25x10'° electrons. 7 ELECTRIC CURRENT Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges through any section of a conductor. nage flowing Electric current = “eras Low Ifa charge of Q’ flows through a conductor in time ‘t’, then the current through it is given by 12 t Electric current is a sealar quantity. Its unit is Ampere(A) IA=ICIIt shin mats Loo x IMPORTANT: One amperéis the amount of current passing, when one coulomb of charge flows through any cross section of a conductor in one second. ‘The instrument used for measuring electric current in a circuit is called Ammeter. An ammeter is always connected in series in a circ Smaller units of current are 1. ImA(milliampere) = 103 A Il. IpA(microampere)= 10° 4The bigger units of current are 1 IKA (Kilo ampere) Tl. IMA (Mega ampere) oA 10° IMP Note ; Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge.( charge on I electron =1.6 x 10"? C) n= gle = I/ L.6x10" = 6.25x10" electrons This means that flow of 6.25x10"* electrons produce a net charge of one coulomb. Electric circuit! A continuous and closed path of electric current is called an electric circuit, An electrie circuit consists of various components like cell ( or battery) . switch, ammeter, voltmeter etc. A simple electric circuit (schematic diagram) refer pg 200. fig2.1 ( text book) In a cell or battery electrons flow from negative Conventional Direction of electric current terminal to positive terminal of the cell. However, the conventional direction of current is taken as opposite to the direction of actual flow of electrons, that is from positive to negative terminal of the cell. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: Electric potential at a point is defined as the amount of work done to move a unit charge (1 coulomb) from infinity to that point, difference between two ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: Electric potenti Points in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done to move unit charge ( ‘one coulomb) from one point to other. Potential difference (V) = workdone(W) charge (Q) V=wig The SI unit of potential difference is volt(V), named after Alessandro Volta. Definition of one volt: One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductoravhen 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of I coulomb from one point to other} 1 volt = | joule / 1 coulomb IV= 1I/IC Potential difference is a scalar quantity. The potential difference is measured by a voltmeter and itis always connected parallel across the points between which the Potential difference is to be measured.Table 12.1 Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit diagrams st. | components ry ia reside cbresillanes' Rt ER AGIs OHM’S LAW ( Relation between electric current and potential difference) rrent flowing through a ‘Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the electric conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends. ifference across its If ‘I is the current flowing through a conductor and *V” is the potential ends, then according to ohm’s law: Jhichot ord of, 1% V, at constant temperature Or Vol or V/l=Constant say R V=IR, where ’R’ is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called the resistance of the conductor./ f difference(V) and current (1) is found to slope of this graph gives the Vel graph : A graph plotted between the poten bea straight line passing through the origin of the graph. The value of electric resistance. ip of a circuit diagram, describe to verify Ohm's law. Include obsery ation Q. With the hel column and V-I graph in your answer, Refer pg 203 Activity 12.1 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE : Resistance electric charges through it. is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of Resistance = potential difference/ current ie, R= VT The current through a resistor is inversely p? gets doubled , resistance gets halved. [A device used for regulating current without changing ‘¢ called theostat is often used to change the resistance. resistance. Ina circuit, a devic stance : SI unit of resistance is Ohm (2). We have, roportional to its resistance, Ifthe current ig the voltage is called variable Unit of resis 19 = IVA tial difference across 1 Ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor when the potent and the current flowing through it is 1 ampere. its ends is 1 FACTORS ON WHICH THE. RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS / teebinal Resistance of a conductor is : } Directly proportional to the length ie, Re L® al to the area of cross section ie, Rai—@ > Inversely proportion: terial of the conductor. > On the nature of mat RaT } Directly proportional to temperature ie, From@&@ guy & * t pl Rat o R= a constant called resistivity (or specific resistance) of the Where tho (p ) is material of the conductor. RESISTIVITY (p ): Resistivit conductor having unit length an« ity of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a .d unit area of cross-section. SI UNIT of resistivity is (Ohm-metre’ (2m )4 NUMERICALS F Refer note book for numericals R PRACTIS! 1. A charge of 150 C flows through a wire in one minute, Find the electric current Mowing through it ‘aleulate the resistance of a metal wire of length 2m and area of cross section 1.55x 10m: ifthe resistivity of the metal be 2.8x10%2m" Two copper wires A and B of length 30m and 10m have radii 2em and lem respectively. Compare the resistance of the two wires. Which will have less resistance? 4. A resistance wire made from German silver has a resistance of 4.2512. Calculate the resistance of another wire, made of the same material, such that its length increases by 4 times and area of cross section decreases by 3 times. 5. Calculate the resistivity of the material of a wire 1m long,0.4mm in diameter and having a resistance of 2.0.2. IMPORTANT BOARD QUESTIONS 1. Why is tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps? Ans) Tungsten is used almost exclusively because- «High Melting Point + High Resistance © Highly Ductile Tungsten has a high value of electrical resistivity. Due to this, the amount of heat and light produced is large Tungsten has a high melting point (about 380°C) due to which it produces an ‘ncandescent light. Tungsten can be drawn into thin wires which in turn offers high resistance. 2. Why are the coils of electric toasters and electric irons made up of an alloy (nichrome) rather than a pure metal? Ans) Alloys have- Much higher electrical resistivity than that of their constituent metals. Due to this, the amount of heat and energy produced in the heating coil is more. Alloys do not oxidise (or burn) readily at high temperatures. The resistance of an alloy does not change considerably with rise in temperature.4. Why are copper and aluminium wires usually used for lectricity transmission? Ans) Metals like copper and aluminium have very low they ate good conductors of elect to another easily electrical resistance. Due to th and can transfer electrical energy from one place 4. Let the resistance of an electrical component remain Constant while the p.d across the {wo ends of the component decreases to half of its former value. What change will occur in the current passing through it? Why? Ans) Where the p.d is halved, then current is directly proportional to the law). also will get halved. This is because current Potential difference at constant temperature (by Ohm's >+ Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same material, when connected to the same force? Why? Ans) Current will flow more easily through a thick wire of a thick wire is more, it offers less resistance to the Passa current will flow more easily through it than a thin wire, ince the area of cross-se ge of current, Due to this, 6. Under what condi nn charges flow through a conductor? How is the condition achieved in a metallic conductor? Ans) Electric charges flow through a conductor only when there is a constant p.d between the ends of the conductor. A constant connecting a battery across the ends of the con. battery generates a p.d across its terminals whi conductor and produces an electric current. p.d is maintained across a conductor by \ductor. The chemical reaction within the ich sets the charges in motion in the 7. (AW) The values of current I flowin; i in a given resistor for the corresponding values of potential difference V across the r esistor are given below- I(Amperes) [0.5 [1.0 [20 130 ]40 Volts) [16 [34 [67 |t02 Tisa Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance of that resistor.COMBINATION ¢ ion for the equivalent resistance when 3 resistors are connected in Consider 3 resistors Ri, Roand Ry connected in series with a battery and plug key/switch. Let *F be the main current (total current) in the circuit and *V" be the voltage of the battery applied. Let the P.D across Ri, Rz and Ry be Vi, Va and V5 respectively, whereas the current flowing through each resistance remains the same. (Draw figure 12.8, textbook pg 211) By Ohm’s law, Vi IR, VaeIRa, Vs= IRs Total P.D (V) = Vis Var V3 =IRi+IRa+ IRs, HR Roe Bs) -@ ie, Let the 3 resistors in series, be replaced by an equivalent single resistor ‘Ry’ so that the current ‘I’ passes through the circuit and the potential difference “V" across it remains the same. ie, V= IRs -@ From (1) and @), LRs=! (Ris Rae Rs) 2 Re= Ris Ros Rs Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the effective/total resistance in equal to the sum of individual resistances. This is called the law of series combination of resistors. ii) Parallel combination of resistors- (Derive an expression for effective resistance when three resistors are connected in parallel.) Consider three resistors Ri, Rz and Rs connected in parallel to one another, between the common points ‘A’ and ‘B’, Let ‘I’ be the main current in the circuit and *V” be the voltage of the battery applied. In a parallel circuit, the potential difference remains the same across allthe 3 resistors while the current gets split up. Let ly, Iz and Isbe the currents flowing through Ry, Re and Rs respectively. (Draw figure 12.10, textbook pg 213) By Ohm's Law, Let the 3 resistors in parallel be replaced by an equivalent single resistor Ry such that the current ‘I’ through the circuit and the P.D *V" across it remain the same. When a number of resistors are connected in parallel, then the reciprocal of effective resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances. This is called the Jaw of parallel combination of resistors. CHARACTERISTICS OF ‘Series Combinati Parallel Combination 1. The current through each resistance | 1. Current flowing through different inaseries circuit, | resistors are different and the total current in the circuit is given by: II ist ly remains the sam2, Potential difference across each 2. There isa constant P.D across all resistance will be different in a series | the components in a parallel circuit, circuit. The total P.D in a series circuit is given by 3. The in a parallel circuit and is given by; Dotyt yd Rp Re RR [ 3. The effective resistance is max ina series cireuit and is given by: Re= Rit Rt Ro. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS 1. Why is parallel combination preferred in domestic circuits? Ans. Parallel combination is preferred because: a) In parallel circuit, all the appliances work at a constant potential difference, which is the same as that of the power supply line. b) In parallel circuits, the effective resistance is lowest due to which the cul power supply is high. Therefore, every appliance can draw the required amount of current ©) In parallel circuit, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be turned on/off independently. 4d) In parallel circuits, if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other appliances keep working normally. from the Due to the above advantages, electrical appliances are connected in parallel in household circuits OR Why series arrangements are not used in 2. List the disadvantages of a series circ domestic circuits? Ans. The disadvantages are: a) In series circuit, the appliances do not get the same voltage as that of the power supply line because voltage is shared by all appliances. b) Since the overall resistance of a series circuit is very high, current draw from appliances from the power supply line is low. ©) In series circuits, all the electrical appliances have only one switch, due to which they cannot be turned on/off separately. 4). Ifone appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other appliances also stop working because the whole circuit is broken. ¢) Since the amount of current flowing throughout the series circuit is the same, appliances of different power ratings cannot draw sufficient current for their proper working.Q3. Why is an ammeter connected in series in a circuit? Ans. An ammeter is a low resistance instrument. If itis connected in parallel in a circuit, majority of the circuit current will flow through the ammeter due to its low resistance. Since the ammeter coil cannot withstand such extremely high currents, the coil gets burmed off easily. Therefore, an ammeter should be connected in series in a circuit. Q4. Why is a volt meter connected in parallel in a circuit? ‘Ans. A voltmeter is a high resistance instrument. It should be connected in parallel in a circuit so that it may not draw appreciable current from the main circuit, On the other hand. if it is connected in series in a circuit, the current flowing through the circuit is reduced too much due to its high resistance. (Numericals based on combination of resistors (Refer notebook) HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT When an electric current is passed through a high resistance wire, the temperature of the wire increases and heat is developed in it. In this case, the source energy (electrical energy) continuously gets dissipated entirely in the form of heat. This is known as the heating effect of electric current. This effect is utilised in devices such as electric toaster, electric iron, electric kettle etc. To derive expressions for the heat energy developed in a resistor (OR derive the equation H=PRt) Consider a current (1) flowing through a resistor of resistance (R) under a potential difference (V) across it. Let, a charge (Q) flow through the resistor in time (t) seconds. (Draw fig 12.13, textbook pg 217) R x y inThe ammount of work done in moving the charge “Q through a potential difference *V’. is given by : W=VvQ Since Q= It wWevit Since the entire electrical work done is dissipated in the form of heat, the expression for heat energy can be written as: H- vit —@ v Since ! == , equation @ becomes: VxVxt R ie, H=v4 —@ R , equation (1) becomes: g < i ie, H=PRT 3 ‘Thus the various expressions for the heat energy developed in a resistor Rs H=VIt He vit R H=PRt JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING The law states that the heat energy produced in a resistor is: 1. Directly proportional to the square of current in a given resistance. I. Directly proportional to resistance for given current. IIL. Directly proportional to the time for which current flows through the circuit. ‘The mathematical expression for Joule’s Law of heating is: HEPRt ELECTRIC POWER It is defined as the rate at which electric energy is consumed or dissipated in an electic circuit. ‘The electric power is given by:The y, ‘atious equati electri Fe ions of electri lectric power a P= yy Ne eee Rt OR SI unit of electric power : Watt (W) We have 1W= Ivolt x1A IW is defined as the power consumed by a device when 1A of current flows through it under a potential difference of 1V The bigger units of power are: 1kW= 10°W. IMW= 10°W 1HP= 746W Commercial unit of electric energy: The SI unit of energy is Joule. Since the unit “Joule” is very small, in actual practice, we use a much larger unit called ‘kilowatt hour’ (kWh). Kilowatt hour is called the commercial unit of energy or the practical unit of energy. 1kWh is known as 1 unit of energy. Relation between kWh and Joule: IkWh= 1000W x 3600S = 1000J/S x 3600S = 36x 10°F IkWh= 3.6 x 10° J Thus, 1 unit of energy= 3.6 x 106 J 1kWh is defined as the electric energy consumed by a device when IkW of power (1000W) is used for I hour. Practical application of heating effect of electric current:iii. n these ay ies pee are connected to a power supply, then a large amount of heat n the heating coils due to their high resistance. T ing ve beating effect of electric current is utilised in electric bulbs for producing light. ‘en electric current passes through a very thin, high resistance tungsten filament of an electric bulb, the filament becomes white-hot and emits light. ‘The working principle of an electric fuse is heating effect of electric current. Electric fuse is the most important safety device used in domestic circuits for protecting electrical appliances and household wiring. AA fuse isa thin wire made of a metal or an alloy having high resistance and a Jow ‘melting point. The fuse is placed in series with the live wire of the circuit, Ifa current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit and hence, prevents damage to various electrical appliances. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS Q 11. What determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current? Ans) Resistance of the circuit Q2. Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating element does? ‘Ans) This is due to the difference in the resistance of the heating element and the cord. The heating element of an electric heater is made up of nichrome alloy. Due to the high resistance of the heating coil, the amount of heat produced in it is large. On the other hand, the cord of an electric heater is made of copper. Due to the low resistance of the cord, the heat produced in it is negligible and that is why it does not grow. Q3. Anelectric bulb is filled with argon or nitrogen. Why? Ans) Gases like argon and nitrogen are chemically unreactive. Hence, they do not react with the hot tungsten filament and thus, prolong the life of the filament of an electric bulb. (Numericals based on Heating effect and Power refer notebook) NUMERICALS FOR PRACTICE 1 circuit diagram for a circuit in which three resistors Ri, Rz and Rs, a Draw a schemati n, an ammeter joined in series with a SV battery. A plug key under closed condi voltmeter is also connected to measure the potential difference across the resistor Ri.Three Fesistors of SQ, 10! connected to the battery Draw a circuit diagram 1 12 ay se 152 are connected in series and the combinatio of 30V, ‘1 it OV. Ammeter and voltmeter are connected in the circuit. ‘9 Connect all the devices in proper correct order, What is the oan 8 in proper correct order. What is the "nt flowing and potential dtferenee acioss 102 resistance? pea ae diagram for a circuit consisting of a battery of five cells of 2V each, a SQ. oe resistor and a 15Q resistor, an ammeter and a plug key’ all connected in Series. Also connect a voltmeter to record the potential difference across the 150 resistor and calculate: i. The electric current passing through the above circuit and Potential difference across $Q resistor when the key is closed. 4. Ahot place connected to a 220V line has two resistance coils A and B, each of 220 resistance, Calculate the amount of electric current flowing when these coils are: i. Used individually fi, Connected in series Connected in parallel 5. i) Draw a diagram to show how two resistors Ry and Re are connected in parallel ii) In a circuit if two resistors of 40 and 82 are connected in parallel, find out the ratio of current passing through the two resistors. 6. Define electric power. An electric motor is rated at 2kW. Calculate the cost of using it for 2 hours daily for the month of September if each unit costs Rs6.00. 7. Calculate the amount of heat generated while transferring 90000 coulombs of charge between the two terminals of a battery of 40V in one hour. Also determine the power expanded in the process. 8. A lamp rated 60W and an electric iron rated 800W are used for 6 hours every day. Calculate the total energy consumed in 30 days. 9. An electric iron consumes energy at a rate of 840W when heating is at the maximum and 360W, when the heating is at the minimum, The voltage at which is running is 220V. What are the current and resistance values in each case? 10. A 400W refrigerator operates for 16 hours per day. Calculate the cost to operate it for 30 days at Rs3.40 per kWh.