PRINCESAND PAINTERS

in Mughal Delhi, 1707-1857

PRINCESAND PAINTERS
in Mughal Delhi, 1707-1857
PRINCES AND PAINTERS
in MughalDelhi,1707-1857

Editedby

William Dalrymple and Yuthika Sharma

ASIA SOCIETY MUSEUM

IN ASSOCIATION WITH
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW HAVEN AND LONDON
Published on the occasion of the exh1b1t1on Princes and Painters in Mughal Delhi, 1707 1857,
organized by Asia Society Museum

ASla Society Museum, New York

February 7 -May 6, 2012

Published by
Asia Society
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OAsia
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Designed by Rita Jules, Miko McGinty Inc,
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Library of Congress Ca taloging-m-Pub/,cat,on Data

Princes and painters rn Mughal Delhi, 1707-1857 / edited by William Dal rymple and Yuthika Sharma
[Link]
Published on the occasion of an exhib1t1on held at the Asia Society Museum. New York,
Feb. 7-May 6, 2012.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978 0•300 17666-7 (hardcover alk. paper)
1 Painting. Mogul- Exhib1t1ons.I Dalrymple, William II Sharma, Yuthika.111. Asia Society Museum.
ND1002.P75 2012
759 954'560747471 dc22
2011013903

A catalogue record for this book ,s available from the Bnt1sh Library

The paper in this book meets the requirements of ANsr/NISO z39 48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).

10 9 8 7 6 S4 l 2 l

Cover- Detail of cat. no. 75

Front1sp1ece: Cat no. 3
Page 14 Cat no 20
Page 68: Cat no. 25

ASIA SOCIETY is a registered trademark of Asia Society, New York.

© 2012 Asia Society, 725 ParkAve, New York, NY
CONTENTS

President's Foreword I VishakhaN. Desai vii

Director's Preface I MelissaChiu viii

Curators' Acknowledgments X

Exhibition Funders xi

Introduction I William Dalrympleand Yuthika Sharma

ESSAYS
The Revival of the Mughal Painting Tradition during the Reign of 17

Muhammad Shah I Malini Roy

Delhi under Shah Alam II and the French I Jean-Marie Lafont 25

James Skinner and the Poetic Climate of Late Mughal Delhi I SunilSharma 33

In the Company of the Mughal Court: Delhi Painter Ghulam Ali Khan I Yuthika Sharma 41

Depicting Delhi: Mazhar Ali Khan, Thomas Metcalfe, and the 53

Topographical School of Delhi Artists IJ.P. Losty

Bahadur Shah Zafar and the Uprising of 1857 I William Dalrymple 61

CAT ALO GU E I Yuthika Sharmawith William Dalrymple

APPENDICES
Map of India
Map of Delhi
British Residents at Delhi
Simplified Genealogy of the Mughal Dynasty 200

Glossary 201

Bibliography 202

Contributors 207

Index 208

Photography Credits 212

Hlll'J i DIil "U'l<lh I ktlHh
 PRESIDENT'S FOREWORD

For more than a millennium and in myriad guises, Delhi has been a cultural center of North
India. Princesand Paintersin Mughal Delhi, 1707-1857is the first exhibition in the West to explore
this important city and its art, artists, and patrons during one of the most signi"icant periods of
change in India's history.
This project grew out of an informal discussion that William Dalrymple and I had in the
early fall of 2007. Out of these conversations emerged the idea of Princesand Painters,focusing
on the vibrant cultural life of Delhi and North India. William had just published 1is books on the
last Mughal emperors and on the early presence of the British in India. We recognized that while
there have been exhibitions of early Mughal art and some exhibitions of art from the British colo
nial period known as the Company school, many of them at Asia Society itself, scant attention
has been paid to the relationship between late Mughal works and early Company paintings. I am
glad that Yuthika Sharma has joined Will in curating and providing the intellectual framework for
the exhibition.
We are very grateful to the many individuals and organizations that have provided critical
support for this project, and they are acknowledged in the following pages. I would like to offer
our gratitude to officials of the government of India for their support of this exhibition and
catalogue. We would like to offer special thanks to Jawhar Sircar, secretary, Ministry of Culture,
Government of India, and Gautam Sengupta, director general, Archaeological Survey of India.
Today, Delhi continues to be a vibrant city, easily combining its Muslim heritage through
great monuments with its British legacy as seen in the Lutyens-designed city of New Delhi. It is
our hope that this exhibition, together with the catalogue and the vibrant programs that accom
pany it, will fill a gap in our knowledge of this great city and provide a deeper understanding of
Delhi's rich cultural and artistic he-itage.

Vishakha N. Desai
Pre~iuenl
Asia Society

Opposite: Detail of cat. no. 75

vii
DI RECTOR'S PREFACE

Over a 150-year period, the city of Delhi was the locus of a dramatic shift of power from the
Mughal Empire to the British Raj. It is our great pleasure to bring together for the first time art-
works produced during this crucial period. This art has received little scholarly attention from art
historians, and yet this transitional period significantly altered Indian culture, politics, and art,
and provided unprecedented impetus to artistic innovation and experimentation. The works
selected for this exhibition-jewel-like portraits, striking panoramas, and exquisite decorative
arts crafted for Mughal emperors and European residents alike-illustrate the artistic flowering
that resulted from the complex social and political interactions of the time.
For this project we were able to bring together two specialist curators, noted historian
William Dalrymple and art historian Yuthika Sharma, a scholar of late Mughal painting. The two
scholars first met in the summer of 2008 and found their areas of expertise to be complemen-
tary. I thank them for their enthusiasm and dedication, and for helping us bring to light this new
understanding of Delhi, its patrons, and its artists during an important transitional period We
are also grateful to Kathy and Malcolm Fraser,Charles Greig, Cynthia Polsky, Dr. and Mrs. K.
Robbins, Edith Welch, Jude Ahern, Brendan Lynch, and Francesca Galloway. Thanks to the
authors Jean-Marie Lafont, J. P. Losty, Malini Roy, and Sun ii Sharma for their insights into the
arts and history of Delhi. I would also like to thank our colleagues at Yale University Press,includ-
ing Patricia Fidler, Kate Zanzucchi, and Sarah Henry, and also Miranda Ottewell, June Cuffner,
and Carol Roberts. Thanks to Miko McGinty, Rita Jules, and Anja Ii Palafor the book design.
We offer our thanks to numerous individuals at public and private institutions and collec-
tions for lending to the exhibition. These include the staff at Archives Departementales du
Finistere, Quimper; James Cuno, president, and Eloise W. Martin, director, the Art Institute of
Chicago; Jay Xu, director, and Forrest McGill, curator of South and Southeast Asian art, Asian Art
Museum, San Francisco; Richard Ovenden, keeper of special collections and associate director,
Bodleian Library, Oxford University; Dame Lynne Brindley, chief executive, the British Library;
Neil McGregor, director, the British Museum; Aaron Betsky, director, Cincinnati Art Museum;
David Franklin, director, and Griffith Mann, chief curator, at the Cleveland Museum of Art; Kjeld
von Folsach, museum director, the David Collection; Julian Raby,director, Freer Gallery of Art/
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery; David Bomford, acting director, the J. Paul Getty Museum; James
Billington, Librarian of Congress, Library of Congress; Dennis A. Fiori, president, Massachusetts
Historical Society; Sheila [Link], Patti Cad by Birch, Curator in Charge of the Department of
Islamic Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art; John Guy, curator of South and Southeast Asian Art,
Metropolitan Museum of Art; Jacques Gies, president, Musee Guimet; Malcolm Rogers,Ann
and Graham Gund Director, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Mrs. J. Murray, director, National
Army Museum, London; Dan [Link], director, Peabody EssexMuseum; Charles Hind, asso-
ciate director, and H.J. Heinz, curator of drawings, Royal Institute of British Architects; William
Thorsell, director, Royal Ontario Museum; Roxana Velasquez Martinez del Campo, executive

viii
director, San Diego Museum of Art; Sir Mark Jones, director, the Victoria and Albert Museum;
and Gary Vikan, director, the Walters Art Museum.
We would like to recognize the generous support of the Partridge Foundation and our
friends John and Polly Guth, as well as that of E. Rhodes and Leona B. Carpenter Foundation.
In the museum, I would like to thank Marion Kocot, director of museum operations, for
managing the project, including this publication, and Dr. Adriana Proser,John H. Foster Curator
of Traditional Asian Art, who has coordinated this exhibition and provided curatorial insight.
Clare McGowan, collections manager and senior registrar,with the assistance of Marion Kahan
oversaw complex registrarial challenges inherent in exhibitions of this scale. Clayton Vogel,
exhibition designer, and Davis Thompson-Moss, museum installation manager, have created a
wonderful space for the presentation of the artworks. Thanks also to Nancy Blume, head of
museum education programs, for docent training and educational programs; Donna Saunders,
executive assistant, for her coordination and assistance; and our interns, Roshni Bhambhwani,
Saori Kashio, Rebecca Kasmin,and Aditi Tolia. Thanks to Martha McGill for her work on this book.
Others at Asia Society who should be thanked for their continued support include Dr. Vishakha
N Desai, who initiated thP Pxhibition following a conversation with William [Link]; Jamie
Metzl, executive vice president; Shayne Doty, vice president, external affairs, anc his team-Kim
Woodward, Karen Stone Talwar, Alice Hunsberger, and Andrea Petrini-for treir fund-raising
efforts; Michael Roberts, executive director, New York Public Programs, and Rachel Cooper,
director, Cultural Programs and Performing Arts, for their work on New York programs; Geoffrey
Spencer, executive director of corrmunications and marketing, Elaine Mergueri3.n,and Noopur
Agarwal for their work on publicity and marketing; and Bill Swersey, executive director, Asia
Society Online, and his team for the exhibition website.

Melissa Chiu
Museum Director
Vice President, Global Art Prograrrs

DIRECTOR'S PREFACE ix
CURATORS' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are thankful to Asia Society for inviting us to work on this project, and we wish to acknowl-
edge all of the staff there for their expertise and assistance in making it a reality, in particular
Vishakha Desai, Melissa Chiu, Adriana Proser,Marion Kocot, Martha McGill, Clare McGowan,
and the support staff.
Our thanks are due to many individuals and organizations: Shri Jawahir Sircar, Secretary,
Ministry of Culture,government of India; Maharaja Gaj Singh of Jodhpur; Shri B. L. Gupta, Direc-
tor of State Archives, Rajasthan; and Neeru Misra, Director of Indian Council for Cultural
[Link] also to PrincessCatherine Aga Khan; Molly Emma Aitken; Catherine [Link];
Catherine Glynn Benk; Crispin Branfoot; Vidya Dehejia; Mahmood Farooqui; Finbarr Barry
Flood; Marcus Fraser; Olivia Fraser; Sven Gahlin; Charles Greig; Roselyne Hurel; Karni Singh
Jaso!; Ebba Koch; Jean-Marie Lafont; Terence Mcinerney; Frances Pritchett; the late Ralph
Russell; Sunil Sharma; Robert Skelton; Giles Tillotson; and the family of the late Stuart Cary
Welch, especially Edith Welch, and Jude Ahern.
We are also grateful to Cynthia Polsky;Jane and Howard Ricketts; Dr. and Mrs. Ken Robbins;
Rahaab Allana, Anita Jacob, and Pramod Kumar at the Alkazi Collection of Photography; Shri
Babu Lal Maurya of Alwar Government Museum; the staff of the Bodleian Library; Jeremiah P.
Losty, Malini Roy,Jennifer Howes, Muhammad IsaWaley, and John Falconer at the British Library;
Richard Blurton of the British Museum; Amin Jaffer, Katherine Drake, and Andrew Butler-
Wheelhouse at Christie's; Francesca Galloway and Christine Ramphal of Francesca Galloway
Limited; Debra Diamond and Mekala Krishnan at the Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler
Gallery; Mary McWilliams of Harvard Art Museums; Brendan Lynch and Oliver Forge; Navina
Haider at the Metropolitan Museum of Art; Laura Weinstein of the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston; director A [Link] and curator Pip Dodd at the National Army Museum, London; Susan
Bean at the Peabody-Essex Museum; Christine Guth at the Royal College of Art; Charles Hind at
the Royal Institute of British Architects archives; Deepali Diwan of the Royal Ontario Museum;
Sonya Quintilla and Yuki lwahashi at the San Diego Museum of Art; Simon Ray and Leng Tan of
Simon Ray Limited; Edward Gibbs and the staff at Sotheby's; and Susan Stronge, Rosemary Crill,
Nick Barnard, and Divia Patel at the Victoria and Albert Museum.

William Dalrymple
Yuthika Sharma

X
EXHIBITION FUNDERS

Critical support for Princes and Paimers in Mughal Delhi, 1707-1857comes from The Partridge
Foundation, A John and Polly Guth Charitable Fund.

Additional support has been provide::Jby the E. Rhodes and Leona B. Carpenter Foundation.

Support for Asi.1Society Museum provided by the Asia Society Friends of Asian Art, Asia Society
Contemporary Art Council, Arthur Ross Foundation, Sheryl and Charles R. Kaye Endowment
for Contemporary Art Exhibitions, Blanchette Hooker Rockefeller Fund, Nationa Endowment
for the Humanities, Hazen Polsky Foundation, New York State Council on the P,rts, and New
York City Department of Cultural Affairs.

StateoftheArts

~
NYSCA

xi
I D I
• ••

t
 INTRODUCTION

William Dalrymple and Yuthika Sharma

THE SEAT OF THE KINGDOM

The city of Shahjahanabad, now Old Delhi, was established by the fihh of the Great Mughals,
Shahjahan, in 1648.
Aher more than nine years and two months of work, the new capital was finally inaugu-
rated with great fanfare on the day set by the emperor's astrologers. As with more recent Delhi
construction projects, there were anxieties about whether the buildings, "designed in accor-
dance with his own noble taste for architecture,' 1 would be ready on schedule: on December 31,
1647,Shahjahan had "strongly urged"' the governor of Delhi "to complete the whole of the works
by the period of his next visit there, which would be about four months hence."
The strong urging seems to have done the trick. At the precise moment on April 18deemed
most propitious by the astrologers. Shahjahan landed at the Khwajah Khizr ghat of the river
Yamuna, just below the water gate ::if the Red Fort, and made "his ceremonious entry into the
splendid palaces of the fort. Aher inspecting the various buildings and edifices, he took his seat
at the jewelled throne in the Hall of Public Audience, where he held a public levee, whilst the
loud beating of the royal drums made the glad sounds of rejoicing peal through the universe."
Within a few years Delhi grew to be the largest city in South Asia. Shahjahan had been
forty-seven when he decided to move his court from Agra to Delhi. As a major center of spiri-
tual, cultural, and political significance, with its Sufi heritage and ancestral tombs, Delhi held a
special significance for Shahjahan.3 3uilding Shahjahanabad was a vastly expensive project, and
the imperial family joined the emperor in lavishing their patronage on the new city: half the most
important monuments in the new capital were commissioned by the imperial women, espe-
cially the emperor's Favoritedaughter, Jahanara,who constructed several mansions, a bathhouse,
and the palatial caravanserai with its gardens and lakes, which adorned its center. She also laid
out the principal avenue, the Chandni Chowk.4
In Milton's ParadiseLost(1667) the great bustling Mughal cities are revealed to Adam after
the Fall as future wonders of God's creation. To a man of Milton's generation, this was no under-
Opposite: Detail of cat. no. , statement. At this point, the Mughals ruled over some hundred million subjects-five times the
 number ruled by their Ottoman rivals,
and many times that ruled by their
westerly neighbors, the Safavids of
lsfahan. From the ramparts of the Red
Fort, Shahjahan ruled over most of
India, all of what is now Pakistan and
Bangladesh,and much of Afghanistan.
For their contemporaries in the West,
the Mughals became symbols of luxury
and might-attributes still linked with
the word mogul. The resources of the
entire empire were poured into the
construction of the great city, and the
result was extraordinary: the words of
the Persian poet Amir Khusraw were
inscribed in the Red Fort'sDiwan-i Khas
(Hall of PrivateAudience), proudly pro-
claiming, "If there be a paradise on
earth, it is this, it is this, it is thisl"
The glamour of the new city did
not, however, survive the transition to
power of the emperor's least favorite
son, Aurangzeb. In 1657 Aurangzeb
imprisoned his father and arranged for
the deaths of his own brothers, and
then chose to be crowned as Emperor
Alamgir I in his father's Shalimar Gar-
dens at Delhi (fig. 1).As a figure at the
crux of a long-standing historical bias
that has attributed the moral decline
of the Mughal Empire to his puritani-
Fig. [Link] to Hunhar cal policies, Aurangzeb appears as a
(active mid-17th century).
Emperor Aurangzeb in a shaft
complex, ruthless, and rather Shakespearian figure-one who revived the power of the Muslim
of light, from TheSt. Petersburg ulema, reimposed the jizya tax on Hindus that had been abolished by Akbar (reigned 1556-1605),
Album. Ca.1660. Opaque
watercolor and gold on paper. and ordered the execution of Teg Bahadur, the ninth guru of the Sikhs. Recent scholarship has
H. 189/io > W, 1211/ioin. (47.2 >
partially redressed the image of the sixth great Mughal as a narrow-minded bigot who banned
32.2 cm). Smithsonian
Institution, Freer Gallery of wine drinking, hashish smoking, dancing girls, and the playing of music.' Instead, scholars have
Art, F1996.1a
shown that the emperor was a pragmatic ruler who frequently patronized Hindu institutions; his
reign is now understood to be lessorthodox, tyrannical, and centralized than previously thought.
In this context, the repression of history painting, the nature of late Mughal imperial darbar
scenes (fig. 2), and the disbanding of the imperial atelier under Aurangzeb are some of the
broader themes under consideration by art historians.

2 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE AND YUTHIKA SHARMA

 DECLINE OF POWER
The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 was a watershed moment. in the history of the later Mughals-it
greatly altered the political fortunes of the Mughal Empire, propelling it into a c-isis.' During the
years between Aurangzeb's death and the coronation of the seventeen-year-old emperor
Muhammad Shah in 1719, Delhi was a hotbed of political intrigue and power struggles. The role
of emperor during this period was a highly dangerous one. Aurangzeb's son Shah Alam emerged
victorious in a battle for successbn and assumed the mantle as Bahadur Shah in 1707, only
to die five years later, plunging Delhi into another political vacuum (cat. no. 3). The Mughal
throne passed into the hands of Bahadur Shah's son Jahandar Shah for a mere eleven months,
from March 1712 to February [Link] period saw the office of the wazir and the mir baksh1
acquire supreme powers, to the extent that "the emperor's prestige was undermined and awe
for him vanished from the hearts of the people." 7 This was also the age of the powerful Sayyid
Barha brothers, Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali, two noblemen whose families had been associ-
ated with the Mughal court for over three generations. The gradual dilution of Mughal authority
between 1707 and 1719 was paralleled by the rise to power of these brothers, who wielded enor-
mous political clout (cat. no. s). As Farrukhsiyar, who ousted Jahandar Shah in 1713, realized
only too late, a strategic alliance with the Sayyid brothers had grave conseque1ces. Perceiving
Farrukhsiyar as a threat, after less than six years Husain Ali brought his reign to a gruesome

Fig. 2. An early example

of a darbar scene from
Aurangzeb's reign: Hashim
(active 1640-50). Darbar
of Aurangzeb. Ca. 1660.
Opaque watercolor with gold
on paper. M. 79/,6 x w. 8¾ in.
(19.2 x 21.2cm). Museum
of Islamic Art, Doha,
MS.54-2007
end-the emperor was imprisoned and starved, and later blinded and strangled (cat. no. 4). The
political and socioeconomic changes that decentralized Mughal authority also strengthened
the influence of the governors of the Mughal provinces. The gradual hemorrhaging of the impe-
8
rial treasury exacerbated this imbalance of power.
The swift political reversals of the period meant that painters had to capture the likenesses
of the later Mughal emperors almost instantly. The painting atelier at Delhi continued to pro-
duce works during and after Aurangzeb's reign, and the courts of Bahadur Shah, Jahandar Shah,
and Farrukhsiyar fostered painters who developed their own distinguished palette, utilizing a
decorative and highly refined approach to figural representation. Painters such as Bhawanidas,
appearing at the cusp of the transition between Aurangzeb and his son Bahadur Shah I, were
harbingers of the new imperial standard of painting. Bhawanidas'sdynastic portrait of a dynami-
cally poised Aurangzeb (fig. 3) contrasts sharply with his rendering of the aging Aurangzeb at a
royal hunt (cat. no. 2), the latter designed to uphold the emperor's imperial persona toward
the end of his life. After he had served both Bahadur Shah and his successor Farrukhsiyar,
Bhawanidas's migration to Kishangarh and his son Dalchand's tenure at the Marwar court of
Jodhpur offer a parallel scenario in which to consider the movement of artists from Delhi to the
other Rajput and Pahari hill states and to provincial outposts, where they, in turn, brought about
9
significant stylistic changes in the local painting ateliers.

PURSUIT OF PLEASURE: MUHAMMAD SHAH, 1719-1748

The longest surviving sovereign of the age, Emperor Muhammad Shah can be credited with one
most important cultural accomplishment-that of reunifying the Mughal atelier and patroniz-
0
ing a new surge of imperial painting.' Whereas his predecessors had been largely under the
control of the Sayyid brothers, the young emperor soon outlasted the brothers' domineering
influence. He relied much on his closest political advisers, but also exercised his rights as the
bureaucratic head of the imperial administration. Muhammad Shah rarely went to war, and
the Delhi fort seems to have acted as his administrative and recreational microcosm. He main-
tained the routine functions of the court as before-for example, offering morning prayers
followed by a visit to the jharoka-i darshan, from where he surveyed his troops and watched
1
elephant fights (cat. no. 11).
It is partly Muhammad Shah'ssobriquet, Rangila-"Merrymaker"-that has caused him to
be seen as an ineffectual ruler, playing upon the idea of his escapist revelry and his enjoyment of
the pleasures of courtly culture (cat. no. 13).Certainly, this perception was greatly enhanced by
the hedonistic personal inclinations of the emperor, which elicited a profuse painterly response.
1
The emperor was often seen wearing a lady's peshwaz and shoes embroidered with pearls, •
holding a huqqa pipe, indulging in festivities, or repairing to his private garden (cat. nos. 7, 9, and
14).A fuller exposition of his life is provided in the works of Delhi-based court painters such as
Nidha Mai, Chitarman, Faqirullah, Hunhar, and Bhupal Singh, whose oeuvres include some of
the most vivid portraits and tableaux of the eighteenth century, bringing to life a world of elegant
gardens, courtesans, and cultural vivacity at the Mughal court.
The pursuit of pleasure, therefore, also signals the cultural and intellectual renaissance that
eighteenth-century Delhi underwent even as its political fortunes were on the wane. With a

4 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE ANO YUTHIKA SHARMA

Fig. 3. Bhawanidas (active
1700-1750). Gathering of
princes. Ca. 1710. Opaque
watercolor and gold 01

paper. H. 113/sx w. 7'½•in.

(30.2 x 19.6 cm). The San
Diego Museum of An,
Edwin Binney 3rd Collection,
1990,365

confluence of at least twenty-two scholars and mystics and a host of Urdu pcets, musicians,
dancers, and painters, eighteenth-century Delhi society was an enlivened site where coffee-
houses and literary salons were spaces of active intellectual debate. This was the age of the
great theologians and mystics suer as Shah Waliullah (1702-1762) and Khvaja Mir Dard (1721-
1785),as well as the master poet Mir Taqi Mir (1723-1810).
Meanwhile, region after region continued to break away In the south there was a remark-
able Hindu revival as the armies of the Maratha confederacy defeated successive Mughal
armies. In Hyderabad, Gujarat, Bengal,and Awadh, regional Mughal governors :ook power for

INTRODUCTION 5
themselves and founded dynasties; although the Mughals saw them as nominal overlords, they
were in reality independent. Shorn of its provinces and most of its army, Delhi remained rela-
tively rich but powerless, an unprotected jewel ready to be seized by the first adventurer bold
enough to take it.
That man proved to be Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia (cat. no. 17).In 1739,at Karnal in the
Punjab, Nadir Shah defeated the Mughal army and advanced rapidly on Delhi. He encamped in
the Shalimar Gardens, five miles north of the city, where Aurangzeb had had himself crowned
eighty-two years earlier. Invited into Delhi by Muhammad Shah's ministers, Nadir Shah ordered
a massacre after a group of Mughals killed nine hundred of his soldiers in a bazaar brawl. At the
end of a single day's slaughter, thousands of Delhi's citizens lay dead. The circumstances sur-
rounding Nadir Shah's entry into Delhi have been debated, but the most compelling visual
image of this invasion is undoubtedly that of the famous Peacock Throne of Shahjahan being
carted off on mules and camels, along with other treasures, as part of the extensive tribute
Muhammad Shah paid him. With the loss of the Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-noor diamond,
and probably a substantial number of Mughal illustrations and manuscripts, came a sharp drop
in prestige as the accumulated cultural wealth of over three hundred years changed hands in a
fleeting moment."
The aftershock of Nadir Shah's visit must have been epic in scale. With no one willing to
squarely shoulder the blame for this invasion, narratives and counternarratives of the event
offer a view into the tumultuous climate of post-1739 Delhi. • Dargah Quli Khan, in his travel-
ogue Muraqqa-i Delhi (Portrait of a city), written between 1738and 1741,chose to skip over the
bloody aftermath of Nadir Shah'svisit, focusing on the pleasures of the ruined city-its bazaars,
streets, and shrines, and the wiles of its kalawants and dancing girls.'

FROM DELHI TO PALAM

After the death of Muhammad Shah in 1748,Delhi suffered a string of invasions as control of the
city swung from one party to another, leading Mir Taqi Mir to comment:

Every day there is a new master of the world-

is Power a beggar, going from door to door?''

Delhi was reduced to ruins. Painters and poets migrated from the Mughal court to the
provinces to find patronage there (cat. no. 19).The province of Awadh gained prominence as
the new outpost of Mughal culture, as Delhi struggled to cope with successive onslaughts by
invading armies of Afghan rulers. For miles in every direction, half collapsed and overgrown,
robbed and reoccupied, neglected by all, lay the collapsing remains-tomb towers and garden
palaces and hammams-of six hundred years of Indian imperium. The costumes of the court
were threadbare, and the precious stones had been picked out of the pietra dura work of the
imperial apartments. "How can I describe the desolation of Delhi2" asked the poet Sauda (1713
1781)."There is no house from which the jackal's cry cannot be heard. The mosques at evening
are unlit and deserted .... In the once beautiful gardens, where the nightingale sang his love
17
songs to the rose, the grassgrows waist-high around fallen pillars and ruined arches."

6 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE AND YUTHIKA SHARMA

Fig. 4. Shah Alam ll's Return Waiting in the wings was another force, and one that at first seemed the most unlikely of
to Delhi: The royal procession
of Shah Alam 11proceeding
the competing powers positioned to take control of India.
to Delhi along the banks of The British East India Company had been in South Asia since the reign of Jahangir. Over
the channels of the River
Jamuna and crossing a bridge the course of the eighteenth century, however, as the power of the Mughals gradually declined,
of boats. Lucknow, ea. 1776.
that of the British steadily increased and the Company filled the vacuum, slowly transforming
Watercolor on paper.
H. 1$S/,6 X W. 26 9/,6 in. (46.5 X itself from a mercantile organization into a nascent colonial government. The Company wished,
67,5 cm). The Victoria and
Albert Museum, IM.59-1922 moreover, to control the Great Mughal himselt.
By 1764 the British East India Company had won a major victory against the Mughal
emperor Shah Alam 11(cat. no. 22) and his allied forces, the regional governcrs of Bengal and
Awadh, securing the right to administer and collect revenue from the bulk of their territories. In
a bid to outdo its immediate rivals, the Marathas, and their French allies, the Company facili-
tated Shah Alam ll's reoccupation of the throne of Delhi in 1772, creating a diplomatic foothold
for the Company in Delhi (fig. 4). While he had no substantive authority, the Mughal emperor
remained a figure of immense prestige, and controlling him brought enormous benefits to who-
ever was able to hold Delhi. Throughout most of the late eighteenth century the Great Mughal
had been dominated by the warlords of the Maratha confederacy, something the British gover-
nor general, Lord Wellesley, was determined to change: "Notwithstanding His Majesty's total
deprivation of real power, domirion, and authority," he wrote, "almost every state and every

INTRODUCTION 7
class of people in India continue to acknowledge his nominal sovereignty. The current coin of
every established power is struck in the name of Shah Alam."'~
But the Great Mughal was to call upon the Marathas [Link] help when, in the summer
of 1788,the Afghan marauder Ghulam Qadir looted Delhi for the second time, personally blind-
ing Emperor Shah Alam II and then figuratively throwing vinegar in his wounds by carting off
his fabulous library and selling it to the Nawab of Awadh. The Marathas once again enjoyed
precedence over the British East India Company as effective guardians of Delhi (cat. no. 23).
Poignant portrayals of the Mughal court show the emperor blinded but dignified in the pres-
ence of a few choice courtiers or his son-a stark reminder of the precious few men that made
up the structure of the later Mughal court at Delhi (cat. no. 25).
In 1802war broke out between the East India Company and the Marathas, and five British
armies converged from different directions on the confederacy. In a bloody five-month cam-
paign, the Marathas were comprehensively defeated, notably in a succession of victories by
Wellesley's younger brother Arthur, the future Duke of Wellington. But it was left to Wellesley's
great rival, General Gerard Lake (1744-1808),the commander in chief of the British army who
had earlier been defeated by Washington at Yorktown, to take Delhi itself.
On September 16,1803,Lake was escorted into the Red Fort of Shahjahanabad. There he
was warmly received by the blinded and powerless Mughal emperor, the unfortunate ruler
described by the poet Azad as "only a chessboard king." 9 Shah Alam II congratulated Lake on
his victory, bestowed on him the title Samsam ud-Daula (Sword of the State), and presented
him with a commemorative Mughal processional standard. During the discussions that fol-
lowed, it was agreed that the British should open a permanent Residency in Delhi." Eight days
later, the new Resident, Sir David Ochterlony, moved into the ruins of an old Mughal building
that had once been the library of the Sufi prince Dara Shikoh, eldest son of Shahjahan.

THE COURT AND THE COMPANY: ART FOR THE EMPEROR,

HIS NOBLES, AND THE WHITE MUGHALS

The first Company officials who settled in these melancholy ruins were a series of sympathetic
and notably eccentric figures. Politically,they saw the value of the Mughal dynasty. Personally,they
were deeply attracted to the high courtly culture, which Delhi still represented. Ochterlony-a
man already well used to living on the fault lines between different worlds-set the tone (cat.
no. 26). Ochterlony's father was a Highland Scot who had settled in Massachusetts. When the
American Revolution broke out, the family fled from Boston to Canada, and David entered the
Company's army in [Link] never returned to the New World; having made India his home,
he vowed never to leave it, adopting Indian dress, marrying many Indian women, and building
himself and his chief wife the last of the great Mughal garden tombs.
Ochterlony was not, however, alone-in either his lndianized tastes or the dilemmas and
problems these precipitated in his relations with his more orthodox compatriots. When the for-
midable Lady Maria Nugent, wife of the new British commander in chief in India, visited Delhi,
she was horrified by what she saw there. It was not just Ochterlony who had "gone native," she
reported; his assistants William Fraserand Edward Gardner were even worse:

8 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE AND YUTHIKA SHARMA

 They both wear immense whiskers, and neither will eat beef or pork, being as much Hindoos as
Christians, if not more; they are both of them clever and intelligent, but eccentric; and, having come to
this country early, they have formed opinions and prejudices, that make them almost na:ives. In our
conversations together, I endeavour to insinuate every thing that I think will have any weight with
them. I talk of the religion they were brought up in, and of their friends, who would be astonished and
shocked at their whiskers, beards, &c. &c.2'

Fraser,a Persianscholar from Inverness who had just won the Gold Medal at the new Fort
William College, had arrived in Delhi on January 5, 1806, "six months and a day after leaving
Calcutta," in time to "breakfast with Ochterlony" (cat. no. 38). Fraser was astounded by what
he saw: the ruins of dynasty after dynasty scattered for thirty miles across the plain, offering "a
melancholy picture of the former opulence and population of the city," he wrote. "I wish to
ascertain historically the account of every remarkable monument of antiquity."'·
In pursuit of this quest, Frasersoon began searching out the scholars and poets of the city,
and before long gained a reputation for "consorting with the grey beards of Delhi ... almost all
of them Mussulmauns of Mogul extraction, the wreck of the nobility of that court." As he
wrote home to his parents on February 8, 1806,"My time is now spent very pleasantly and ...
my situation is as desirable as any one I could hold, nor should I care if I lived here during the
whole period of my sojournment in India.... The business of my situation generally takes up
five hours a day. [Afterward] I read and study with pleasure the [Link] are the chief
source of my amusement, [although] Delhi affords much [other] food besides. Learned natives
there are a few, and in poverty, but those I have met with are real treasures. I am also making a
good collection of oriental manuscripts."·" Among these "learned natives" with whom Fraser
became intimate were Shah abd al-Aziz of the Madrasa i-Rahimiyya, with whom he read
Persian,and the poet Ghalib, who later wrote that when Fraser died, he "felt afresh the grief of
a father's death_",
Slowly, Fraserchanged beyonc all recognition from the callow youth who had left Calcutta
(cat. no. 40). He pruned his mustache in the Rajput manner and, according to one traveler,
fathered "as many children as the King of Persia... [who are] Hindus and Muslims according to
the religion and caste of their mamas, and are shepherds, peasants, mountaineers according
to the occupation of their mother's family," the mothers being from his harem of ''six or seven
0
legitimate [Indian] wives who all live together some fifty leagues from lJelhi." ~raser clearly
enjoyed his visits to the Haryana village of Rania to see his wives and children, as the many
images he commissioned of them all bear witness.
A few years later, in 1815,Fraser'sbrother, the artist James Baillie Fraser,joined him in Delhi,
which soon worked its spell on him too. James had been in Calcutta and had learned from Lord
and Lady lmpey the well-established practice of commissioning Indian artists to paint detailed
records for their European patrons. During his stay in Delhi, James commissioned a number of
Delhi artists to paint Delhi figures and monuments, probably as aide memoire for a proiected
aquatint [Link] figure paintings have survived and now form the celebrated Fraser Album,
generally recognized as the most remarkable series of genre portraits commissioned for Com-
pany officers in existence (cat. nos. 41,43-45, 48-53, 57); the architectural studies are only avail-
able to us in part. '

INTRODUCTION 9
 Delhi court patronage of artists and literati resumed during the last quarter of the eigh-
teenth century under Shah Alam 11(reigned 1759-1806)and continued into the reigns of the last
two Mughal emperors, Akbar Shah 11(reigned 1806-37), and Bahadur Shah 11(reigned 1837-57).
This period offered an unprecedented opportunity for artists to broaden and reinvent the pal-
ette of Mughal court paintings that were produced for East India Company officials in Delhi. In
the court paintings of Akbar 11we see a palpable effort to strategically maintain the precedence
of imperial prestige over the British (cat. no. 32). Mughal Delhi, despite being a microcosm of
court and Company patronage, did extend its symbolic ties with neighboring regions. Akbar II's
court assemblies, for instance, were attended by a host of officials from the adjoining regions to
the courts of Jaipur and Alwar As a result, the broad networks of artistic patronage reached as
far as the satellite courts and towns of Delhi such as Sardhana, Hansi, Firozpur,Jhajjar,and Al war,
illustrating the preeminence enjoyed by Delhi artists such as Ghulam Ali Khan within and out-
side Delhi (cat. no. 77).
Princes and Painters in Mughal Delhi, 1707-1857demonstrates the dynamic interplay of
Mughal and non~Mughal, courtly and noncourtly, artistic production, highlighting the enmeshed
nature of the patronage networks of the Mughal, European, and Delhi satellite courts within
which Delhi artists operated. Traditionally, art historians have conceived of Company school
painting as something quite separate from the art of the late Mughal court. It is argued in this
exhibition that such distinctions are actually meaningless, certainly in Delhi at this period, as the
same artists were working in similar styles for very different patrons. The leading artists of the day,
notably Ghulam Murtaza Khan, Ghulam Ali Khan, and Mazhar Ali Khan, were supported by the
Mughal court in Delhi, but also by the city's European residents, and by the courts around Delhi,
providing many extraordinary points of interaction. Though the interaction between Mughal
and European painting traditions has a centuries-old precedent from the reign of Akbar, Jahangir,
and Shahjahan, the visual culture of Delhi under the later Mughals offers its own complex nar-
rative. The simple categorization of painters such as Ghulam Ali Khan as Company school artists
is thus misleading, as it presents a one-sided view of the artist-patron relationship; and greater
agency must be accorded to Indian artists, who were much more than passive receptors of the
stipulations imposed by their patrons. The parallel patronage, while by no means uncommon in
India at this period, was particularly important in Delhi, as the Mughal city retained symbolic
importance as Dar al-Khilafat, the seat of the Mughal Empire.

THE END AND THE BEGINNING: THE LAST MUGHAL AND THE UPRISING OF 1857
This growing and increasingly confident city was the setting for the final Mughal renaissance,
which took place under the last emperor, Bahadur Shah 11(reigned 1837-57,see cat. no. 95). The
last emperor, who was known by his pen name, Zafar, was one of the most talented, tolerant,
and likeable of his dynasty. He was a skilled calligrapher, a profound writer on Sufism, a discrimi-
nating patron of painters, an inspired creator of gardens, and an amateur architect, as well as an
expert rider and an outstanding swordsman.
Zafar's enlightened rule came to an end in May 1857when three hundred mutinous sepoys,
Indian soldiers in the service of the British, rode into Delhi, massacred every British-or indeed
Christian-man, woman, and child they could find in the city, and declared Zafar to be their leader.

10 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE AND YUTHIKA SHARMA

Fig.5. Throne of Mughal
emperor Bahadur Shah
"Zafar." Ca. 1850. Marble.
Approx. H. 47 in. (120 cm).
Red Fort Museum, Delhi, 313

Within a month Delhi was besieged by the British, and aher its reconquest, the inhabitants were
put to the sword. The magnificent city was left an empty ruin. Zafar died in exile in Rangoon in 1862.
The highlights of Zafar's patronage are decorative arts and paintings that reflect his love of
the arts and his public persona as the reigning Mughal king of Delhi. The most important of these
pieces are a spectacular throne and a marble tablet bearing a poem by Zafar, both from the Red
Fort in Delhi (figs. 5 and 6). They also demonstrate how he created a role for himself as the cul-
tural lynch pin of Inda-Islamic India. although deprived of any military power.
Zafar's Delhi saw a final resurgence of Mughal court painting, but within radically new con-
ditions that spawned a novel visual culture in the city. Mughal themes were no longer limited to
the confines of the palace walls-their propagation into the marketplace occurred almost

INTRODUCTION 11
simultaneously. Mughal themes, court scenes, and popular Delhi subjects were replicated on
ivory sheets and mounted on furniture, frames, jewelry, and even lapel pins (cat. nos. 94 and
96). Printing technologies enabled the propagation of historical, fictional, and literary works, as
well as translations into many languages, including Urdu, Persian, and English. Photography
brought about a fundamental change in the visual arts practiced in Delhi in the nineteenth
century, and was used as a material witness and an ethnographic record, as well as a historical
document. Photographic records of sites associated with the Indian rebellion and British siege
became part of Delhi's mutiny mythology (fig. 7 and cat. no. 90). Mutiny tourism became an
important feature of postmutiny Delhi, where official and unofficial narratives of the event were
circulated in the press and in published memoirs of British travelers in India:,
Mughal Delhi had become a memory, and the world of the great court painters had
ended forever.

Fig.6. Hammam well

dedication tablet with inset
with calligraphed poem
composed by Zafar. Ca. 1840.
Marble. Approx. H. 12 x w. 8 in.
(30 x 20 cm). Red Fort
Museum, Delhi

12 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE AND YUTHIKA SHARMA

 Fig. 7. Mutiny Monument
commemorating the events
of 1857-This photograph by
Jadu Kissen appeared on a
postcard issued in the early
twentieth century as part of a
"View of India" postcard series.

NOTES 14- See for instance the narrative offered by Anand Ram Mukhlis,
1. Begley and Desai, ShahjahanNama, 403-4. Qamaruddin Khan's diwan, and Muhammad Kazim Marvi's
2. Ibid., 408. Tarikh-i 'alam-ara-yi Nadiri in Tucker, "1739."
3. Koch, "Shahjahan's Visits." 15. For more context and an analysis of the hcmoerotic anxieties
4. See the fascinating comparison in scale of patronage between within the text, see Katherine Butler Brown, "If Music Be the
Mughal and Safavid women in Stephen Blake, "Contributors Food of Love: Masculinity and Eroticism in the Mughal
to the Urban Landscape: Women Builders in Safavid lsfahan Mehfil," in Orsini, Love in SouehAsia.
and Mughal ShahJahanabad," in Hambly, Womenin the 16. Nairn, Zikr-i Mir, 70.
MedievalIslamic World. 17. Mirza Muhammad Rafi Sauda, "Mukhammas-i Shahr Ashob,"
5. Brown, "Did Aurangzeb Ban Music?" in Zafar, Kulliyac-iSauda, 265-66.
6. Alam, Crisisof Empire. 18. Quoted in Majumdar, Raja Rammolwn Ro1·,319-20.
7. Tazkirat-usSalatin-i Chagtai,f. 365b, and Nur ud-Din, Jahandar 19. Quoted in Pritchett, Nets of Awareness,3.
Namah, f. 39a, as cited in Malik, Reignof Muhammad Shah,8. 20. Panikkar, British Diplomacy,7.
8. Alam and Subrahmanyam, Mughal State; Barnett, North India 21. Nugent, Journal of a Residence,
2:9.
betweenEmpires;Chandra, Medieval India. 22. William Fraser to his father, March 20, 1806, Fraser Papers,
9. Catherine Glynn, "Rathore and Mughr1I [Link],;;:Artic;,tir vol 79, priv.:1t@collection
Development at the Nagaur Court, 1600-1751," in Diamond, 23. Victor Jacquemont to his father, Delhi, January 10, 1831,in
Glynn, and Jasol, Gardenand Cosmos,[Link] the relation- Jacquemont, Lenersfrom India, 344-45.
ship between Mughal painting and court painting in Mewar, 24 William Fraser to his father, February 8, 1806, Fraser Papers,
see Aitken, RaipurCourt Painting; for the Pahari master vol. 29.
Nainsukh's use of Mughal imagery in his paintings, see 25. Russell and Islam, Gha/ib, 53.
Goswamy, Nainsukh of Guler;see also Skelton, "IV'urshidabad 26. Jacquemont, Lettersfrom India, 354.
Painting"; Malini Roy, "The Origins of Late Mughal Painting in 27. The pictures were rediscovered by James's descendant
Awadh," in Markel and Gude, India's FabledCicy,165-86. Malcolm Fraser and auctioned at Sotheby's in London and
10. Terence Mcinerney, "Mughal Painting during the Reign of New York in July and December 1980. The pictures from the
Muhammad Shah," in Schmitz, After cheGreat Mughals,13-33. Fraser Album have been published with a superb text by
11. Malik, Reignof Muhammad Shah. Mildred Archer and Toby Falk as India RevEaled:
TheArt and
12. Ibid., 332. Adventuresof Jamesand William Fraser,1801-35See also
13. Bada 'i Waqa 'i, f. 18b,as cited in Malik, Reignof Muhammad chapters of Dalrymple, City of Djinns.
Shah, 169. 28. See for instance Jaffer, Furniturefrom British India, 277, pl. 100.
29. Narayani Gupta, "Pictorializing the 'Mutiny' of 1857,"in
Pelizzari, Tracesof India.

I NTRODUCTlON 13
I
I
I
I
ESSAYS
 THE REVIVAL OF THE MUGHAL
PAINTING TRADITION DURING
THE REIGN OF MUHAMMAD SHAH

Malini Roy

It comes as no surprise that with the sobriquet of Rangila, "Merrymaker," Emperor Raushan
Akthar Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719-48)would breathe life back into the ML..ghalpainting
tradition, which had rapidly fallen into decline during the reign of his puritanical ancestor
Aurangzeb (1658-1707).Through the synergy of Emperor Muhammad Shah and the artists of
the imperial studio, the Mughal painting tradition persevered, and a distinctively new style
emerged that was reflective of the emperor's joie de vivre. The painting atelier flourished
through the leadership of khanazad or palace-born artists Kalyan Das,Chitarman, and Hunhar.
Other notable artists in this period included Nidha Mai, Faqirullah Khan, Govarchan, and Mir
Kalan Khan. Without doubt, these artists excelled at fashioning unique portraits of Muhammad
Shah; they also inspired the rising gereration to consider other genres including literary themes,
ragamala-"garland of ragas,"or musical modes-paintings, and views of life insice the zenana
(women's quarters). Although no illustrated biographical account of Muhammad Shah's reign
exists, the emperor's perceptions anc illusions of his reign were reflected in the individual paint-
ings he commissioned. Poignant portrait studies commemorated his achievements, and formal
darbar (court) scenes distinguished the ministers who remained within his inner circle.
The decades leading up to Muhammad Shah's reign saw a distinct paucity of masterpieces
due to the lack of imperial patronage, a direct consequence of Aurangzeb's absence from the
capital as well as his religious orthodoxy. Mughal artists appeared to disregard stylistic achieve-
ments and nuances that had been in vogue during the apex of the painting tradition. However,
with renewed patronage from Muhammad Shah, artists shifted away from the austere and
formal compositions preferred by AJrangzeb, and became increasingly aware of spatial con-
ventions and perspective. By doubling the picture plane and folio size, they could now accom-
modate elaborate background settings filled with Mughal pavilions, stylized interior views, and
luxurious gardens. Additionally, artists used vibrant hues to simulate atmospheric conditions
and create a strikin,f,;contrast a,(,;ainstbrilliant white architecture.
In portrait studies, artists relied on conventional Mughal formats such as terrace scenes,
Opposite: Detail of cat. no. 11 equestrian portraits, and jharoka window frames, or emperors and princes enthroned.

17
 ,.

, ~v',J _ t,,.,1.,r-1;
~!(),j;,(;Y'
----------~-------'

Fig. 1. Kalyan Das (active Undoubtedly, they made stylistic concessions to create informal studies for the emperor's
1720-40). Muhammad Shah
personal enjoyment. A nim-qalam drawing with partial coloration by Kalyan Das depicts the
at the age of twenty. Ca. 1720.
Ink,gold, and watercolor on emperor standing on a terrace, holding a bow and an arrow in his hands and accompanied by an
paper. The British Museum,
1936-1-11-011 attendant; it is inscribed "work of the palace born Kalyan Das" and "Muhammad Shah at the age
of twenty" (fig. 1).This beautifully executed drawing, which has received little attention, although
it is one of the earliest datable portraits of Muhammad Shah, accentuates the emperor's fine
features, including his athletic physiognomy, highly arched eyebrows, neat facial hair, and distin-
guished nose with its distinctive bump. By illustrating Muhammad Shah wearing an informal
white floor-lengthjama and the bare minimum of jewelry, Kalyan Das created a rather intimate
study of the emperor's private life.

18 MALINI ROY
 Of course Muhammad Shah's artists were expected to "ashion accession portraits or even Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b.
Muhammad Shah enthroned
dynastic group portraits, which are generally understood as imperialist propaganda. Although (inscription: Work of the

there is no evidence of the latter, Hunhar's double composition of Muhammad Shah and his house-born Hunhar) and
Bahadur Shah I enthroned,
grandfather Bahadur Shah, on facing pages of an album, clearly indicates his royal lineage and is here attributed to Hu nhar II
(active 1730-80). Ca. 1730.
without doubt an official accession portrait (fig. 2). For this official portrait, the artist strictly Opaque watercolor and gold
adhered to Mughal conventions and pictured each ruler on a throne, facing the other. The artist on paper. The Royal
Collection, RCIN 1005068
also incorporated traditional symbols of royalty, including a golden chattri (dome-shaped pavil-
ion) and attendants holding fly whisks. As the line of succession passes from grandfather to
grandson, it clearly echoes the sentiment of Bichitr's seventeenth-century masterpiece in the
Minto Album that shows Akbar handing the crown to Shahjahan in the presence of Jahangir,
which is reflective of the views of the person who commissicned it.0
In additior to individual portraits of the emperor, artists of the studio also fashioned darbar
scenes in which the emperor receives the most privileged ministers of the court. In contrast to
seventeenth-century darbar scenes illustrating Shahjahan receiving countless courtiers and
surrounded by accoutrements associated with official occasions, Muhammad Shah's artists
focused their studies on a small number of identifiable ministers. Furthermore, aside from the
standard darbar scene where the emperor is pictured seated on a terrace or in an audience hall,
Muhammad Srah is depicted being carried on a palanquin and surrounded by his entourage

THE REVIVAL OF THE MUGHAL PAINTING TRADITION 19

Opposite:Fig. 3. Attributed (cat. no. 6). Artists repeatedly used a schematic approach to position three particular ministers
to Kalyan Das (active 17,0-
40). Samsam ud-Daula Khan
around Muhammad Shah. The names inscribed on these paintings make them a vital source for
Dauran. Ca. 1730. Opaque understanding the existing court hierarchy and they merit additional research. Saadat Khan
watercolor and gold on
paper. H. 14'/,• x w. 9"/,• in. Burhan ul-Mulk, who was instrumental in causing the downfall of the Sayyid Barha brothers,
(36.4 x 25 cm). Bibliotheque
is most commonly shown standing directly behind Muhammad Shah and holding a fly whisk.
Nationale de France,
Estampes, Reserve Khan Dau ran, appointed as the mir bakshi in 1719,typically stands to the emperor's left. Lastly,
Od 43 pet. F.19
the wazir ltimad ud-Daula Qamaruddin Khan usually appears on the emperor's right-hand side
Below:Fig. 4. Govardhan 11
(cat. no. 10).
(active 1730-45). Portrait
of the Mughal emperor Artists of the Mughal studio also produced numerous portraits of key ministers and notable
Muhammad Shah with ris
wazir ltimad ud-Daula figures at the Mughal court Since the names of Saadat Khan, Khan Dauran, and Qamaruddin
Qamaruddin Khan (d. 1748),a Khan are inscribed within darbar scenes and other notable works, it is possible to identify these
folio from the Kamama-i-ishq.
1738-39. Opaque watercolor men in other compositions. They appeared either individually, in conversation with Muhammad
and gold on paper. H. 7% x
w. 6½ in. (20.3 x 15.9 cm).
Shah, or conferring with their contemporaries. 9 While artists readily used the nim-qalam conven-
The British Library, J.38, f.7b tion to draw detailed bust-length or shoulder-length portraits of many individuals at the Mughal
court, Khan Dau ran is distinguished in that several fully executed paintings were made of him,
complete with his recognizable sleek jawline and sharply defined facial hair. Without doubt, his
finest portrait has been attributed to Kalyan Das, who pictured the minister in his private quar-
ters watching a musical performance (fig. 3).
While portraiture was most coveted at the Mughal
court, artists also composed illustrations for poetical
manuscripts as well as sets of barahmosa (romantic
r".)4f-;&?'~
poetry on the months of the year) and ragamala paint-
i,1J~,;,.·,
ings that would appeal to both Muslim and Hindu cli-
entele. Of the few illustrated manuscripts that have
been dated to this period, only one is of imperial stan-
dard. The Karnama-Hshq composed by the Hindu poet
RaiAnand Ram Mukhlis narratesthe romance of Prince
Gauhar and PrincessMalikah-i-Zamani. Accompany-
ing the Persian text are thirty-six illustrations by the
artist Govardhan. The dedicatory inscription inside this
volume includes the name of the artist and a comple-
tion date of 1739,as well as details stating that the wazir
ltimad ud-Daula Qamaruddin Khan presented this
volume to Muhammad Shah. As confirmation of the
minister's respect,Govardhan included asthe first scene
of the manuscript the emperor receiving a subservi-
ent Qamaruddin Khan (fig. 4).
Ragamala and barahmasa paintings, although
most often associated with Rajput art, are not uncom-
mon within the Mughal tradition. In light cf Nadir Shah's
invasion of the capital in 1739,artists may have con
sciously shifted their focus from portraiture to light-

THE REVIVAL OF THE MUGHAL PAINTING TRADITION 21

hearted scenes that would appeal to a wider
audience, particularly as the invasion would
have had repercussions on the availability
of imperial patronage. It would have been
conventional for Muslim and Hindu artists
to collaborate; Muhammad Faqirullah Khan
(cat. no. 20), known for his portrait of an
adolescent Muhammad Shah, and Fateh
Chand are responsible for a now dispersed
ragamala set.'' As Muhammad Shah'sability
to oversee the imperial studio diminished,
artistic quality was often compromised; the
concise and refined painterly style Govar-
dhan presented in the Karnama-i-ishq was
pared down in his barahmasapaintings
(fig. 5). • In his paintings for the months of
Aghan and Asin, Govardhan skillfully ren-
dered the faces of the women pictured in
these scenes but only hastily painted the
setting, which consisted of a terrace with a
Mughal-style pavilion and gardens in both
the foreground and distant background.13
The paucity of dated paintings pro-
duced throughout Muhammad Shah'sreign
makes it particularly difficult to establish
the state of the painting atelier in the post-
Nadir Shah period. Nonetheless, artists were
aware of the events unfolding at the Mughal
court and would include portraits of Nadir
Shah in their portfolios. In addition, an unidentified artist produced one of the most curious Fig. 5. Govardhan II (active
1730-45). A folio from the
darbar scenes in this period, picturing a meeting between Muhammad Shah and Nadir Shah, Karnama+ishq, a manuscript
who are seated facing one another composedly on a terrace (fig. 6). Accompanied by his wazir, in Persian by Rai Anand Ram
Mukhlis. Completed 1739.
ltimad ud-Daula Qamaruddin Khan, and two unidentified ministers, the emperor is shown in a Opaque watercolor and gold
on paper. H. 9½ x w. 6 in.
moment of political equilibrium with his adversary,implied by their equal size. (23,2 x 15.2 cm). The British

As a consequence of Nadir Shah's invasion and the rampant sacking of the Mughal capital Library, J.38, f,42v

in subsequent decades, little evidence remains that Muhammad Shah and his successors,
Ahmad Shah (reigned 1748-54)and Alamgir II (reigned 1754-59),were able to uphold the paint-
ing tradition that had been revived in the 1720sand [Link] the 1750sand 1760s,a few of the
principal artists of the Muhammad Shah period would put in appearances at the provincial
Mughal courts in Bengal and Awadh. Hunhar would accompany the Mughal heir apparent Ali
Gauhar, later Shah Alam 11 (reigned 1759-1806), to Murshidabad during the years 1758-59,1~

22 MALINI ROY
Fig. 6. Muhammad Shah and
Nadir Shah. [Link]
on paper. H. 83/,•x w. 123/sin.
(21.5x 31.5cm). Musee des
Arts Asiatiques-Guimet,
Paris, France, MA3544

though more artists, including Faqirullah Khan, Nidha Mai, and Mir Kalan Khan, would settle in
Faizabad and Lucknow. 16 This migration rendered the artistic style of Delhi virtually indistin-
guishable from that of the provincial courts, making the intermediate phase of Mughal painting
a particular challenge for art historians.

NOTES 6. Wright, Muraqqa', 363.

1. It is unclear if Kalyan Das and Chitarman are the same artist. 7. Beach and Koch, Kingof the World, 52-53.
An inscription below a portrait of Najm al-Din Barha, "the 8. See Muhammad Shah riding in a palanquin,attributed to
work of Chitarman, known as Kalyan Das," suggests that they Chitarman, ea. 1735,reproduced in Mclne•ney, "Mughal
are, or that more than one artist went by the name of Kalyan Painting," pl. 8.
Das. See Falk and Archer, Indian Miniatures, no. 198;Crill and 9. See Muhammad Shaha11dSaadarKhan, Mughal, ea. 1725,
Jariwala, Indian Portrait, 108-9. British Library, J.4,4, reproduced in Falk and Archer, Indian
2. For further information on the artists of Muhammad Shah's Miniatures,108-9; and Khan Dauranand SaadatKhan,Mughal,
atelier, see Terence Mcinerney, "Mughal Painting during the ea. 1750. The figure on the left has ,ncorrectly been 1dent1f1ed
Reign of Muhammad Shah," in Schmitz, After the Great as Safdar Jang. See Markel and Gude, India'sFabledCity, 70.
Mughals,12-33. 10. Losty, Art of the Book,no. 106.
3, From the paintings that have survived and have been identi- 11. Losty, Indian Painting,cat. no. 8.
fied, it is evident that there were exceptional instances of 12. Falk and Archer, Indian Miniatures,110.
artistic production, reflective of the high caliber associated 13. Ibid.
with the imperial atelier. Key paintings from this intermediate 14. Hurel, Miniatureset peintures, 106.
period include Bhawanidas's dynastic portraits of the Mughals 15. Skelton, "Murshidabad Painting."
from Timur to Aurangzeb, and one of Aurangzeb with his 16. Malini Roy, "Origins of the Late Mughal Painting Tradition in
siblings. See Leach, Paintingsfrom India, pl. 40, and Goswamy Awadh," in Markel and Gude, India'sFabledCity
and Smith, Domai11s
of Wonder,pl. 61.
4. Mcinerney, "Mughal Painting," figs. 8 and 14.
5. See Bichitr's Akbar,Jahangirand Shahjahanwith 71inisters,
Chester Beatty Library, In 07A.19, reproduced in Wright,
Muraqqa',362-63.

THE REVIVAL OF THE MUGHAL PAINTING TRADITION 23

 DELHI UNDER SHAH ALAM II
AND THE FRENCH

Jean-Marie Lafont

Shah Alam II's reign extended from 1759to 1806,among the longest in the Mughal dynasty. It
was during this period that Mughal sovereignty was reduced from an "Empire of the World"' to
a state extending at most from Delhi to Palam,as the popular saying went, thus preparing the
way for the disparaging title the British used for the last emperors until Bahadur Shah 11:the
Kings of Delhi.
Opposite: Detail of cat. no. 22
Though thP rolitiral ,;it1Jationof the empire was not bright in 1761,there was some hope
Fig. 1. The presentation of
for improvement because of the personality of the young Shah Alam, whom the comte de
Gentil by Nawab Shuja
ud-Daula to the Emperor Modave described as "a prince with a sweet and good character who is wanting neither in spirit
Shah Alam in the Angur Bagh.
Ca. [Link]. H. 149/io x nor in intelligence. During the first years of his accession to the throne, he applied himself to
w. 211/i•in. (37 x 53 5 cm). The
the affairs (of state) and seemed to promise that he would prove much better than his
Victoria and Albert Museum,
IS.25-1980 (16) last predecessors."3
Shah Alam first met with French
officers and troops commanded by
Jean Law de Lauriston in 1758,after his
escape from the Red Fort in Delhi,
when he was still known as Prince Ali
Gauhar. He engaged them to fight his
petty wars around Delh in his first bid
for empire, though he failed to retain
them in his service.· After the prince
became Emperor Shah Alam 11in 1759
and during his exile in Awadh, he met
other French officers ir the service of
Shuja ud-Daula, wazir (prime minister)
of the Mughal Empire, and became
particularly friendly with one of them,
Colonel Jean-Baptiste Gentil (fig. 1).•

25
 After Shah Alam 11returned to Delhi in 1771, he engaged French officers commanding vari
ous partis in his service: Rene Madec (fig. 2), Pierre Loustauneau, the comte de Modave, Walter
Reinhardt "Sombre," and the Franco-Swiss Antoine-Louis Polier are among the most important.
They raised and trained corps organized on the French system of warfare (except Polier), with
infantry and artillery. Madec in his Memoire tells us about his triumphal entrance in Delhi with
his troops in 1772, colors flying and drum beating, amid an extraordinary display of warmth and
curiosity from the people crowding the streets and thoroughfares.' He also describes the battle
that took place between the Purana Qila and the Yamuna when, during one full day, the small
firanghi ("foreigner," or European) regiments in Shah Alam II's service resisted the onslaught of
the Marathas, who attempted to storm and sack Delhi.' For a while Shah Alam 11,exasperated at
having to concede Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to Robert Clive and the East India Company (1765),
played with the idea of giving Tatta and Sindh to the French as a counterpoint to the East India
Company (1775-76).8 The crowning of Louis XVI was the topic of discussions in the Red Fort,
with many questions addressed to Modave concerning the new king and his foreign policy.9
Modave loved to walk and ride in Delhi, and he left us a most interesting description of the city,
its people, its life, and its monuments.
Among the cultural manifestations of the French in Delhi at that time are the collections
Belowleft: Fig. 2. Portrait of
of Mughal manuscripts and miniature paintings for Gentil and Polier (fig. 3), which included the
Rene Madec. Watercolor.
full copy of the four Vedas done in Jaipur for Polier,now in London; the paintings of the Montigny Courtesy of Max Vignes.
Private collection
collection showing the Red Fort and the Jami Masjid of Delhi as well as the Taj Mahal (fig. 4);
Belowright: Fig.3. Colonel
and the large collection of paintings of the monuments of Delhi commissioned by Gentil and
Polier watching a nautch.
done by a Faizabadarchitect of the Nawab of Awadh (see fig. 1 on p. 53). Such activities, which we Lucknow (Awadh), ea. 1780.
Opaque watercolor and gold
can only glimpse, have to be understood in the larger context of the French interest in Indian man- on paper. H. 10% x w. 121/ain.

uscripts since the seventeenth century. Mildred Archer, in her last great book on Company (27 x 32.7cm). From the
Collection of Prince and
11
school paintings, graciously acknowledged "the French Company Paintings" that pre-dated the Princess Sadruddin Aga Khan

26 JEAN-MARIE LAFONT
 t

Fig. 4. The Taj Mahal, from paintings produced by Indian artists for the servants of the East India Company, and which I
the Album of Maps, Montigny
papers. 1797,Waterco or on
have proposed to call by their original Indian name of firanghi paintings. Furthermore, some of
paper. H. 201/,• x w, 33·;,• in. these French were deeply interested in other fundamental aspects of Indian culture, such as
(51 x 84 cm). Archives
departementales du Finistere, music and dancing. More than twenty years ago I suggested that in the famous painting Colonel
Quimper, France, 24 J 17
Polierwatching a nautch (fig. 3), Polier actually was not watching a nautch, but having a pas de
danceexplained and demonstrated by a young dancing girl in his residence at [Link] we
have William Jones's acknowledgrrent of Polier's decisive contribution to his magisterial study
on the music of the Hindus. Gentil wrote one of the first significant treatises on Indian numis-
matics, including Sikh coins, and Polier took impressions of Ashoka's edicts on the columns
brought to Delhi by Emperor Firoz Shah Tughlaq. 3 Polier actually is the only officer of French
descent whose Persian correspondence partly survived, though he mentions letters written in
Persianto other French triends such as Gentil or Louis Perceret.'
Nothing remains of the large Persian correspondence of Walter Reinhardt (known as
Sombre), another French officer in the Mughal service. His youngest wife, Begam Samru (a vari
ant of Sombre), inherited from her husband a large jagir (fief) with headquarters at Sardhana,
near Meerut, Uttar Pradesh (figs. 5 and 6a). The jagir extended up to Agra and included Panipat,
Gurgaon, and Badshapur near Delhi. The begam intervened twice with her troops to protect
Shah Alam 11from the clutches of ::meof his most inveterate foes (fig. 6b), Ghulam Qadir, the
Afghan chieftain of Saharanpur, who ultimately captured and blinded the emperor in the Red
Fort of Delhi in 1788.•
By that time the Marathas were moving back forcefully into Hindustan. In 1784Mad ha Rao
Sindhia had appointed Benoit de Boigne, a French officer from Chambery, as his commander in
northern India (fig. 7). From his headquarters in Aligarh, Boigne ultimately had Delhi under his

DELHI UNDER SHAH ALAM II AND THE FRENCH 27

Above left:Fig. 5, Muhammad command after Shah Alam II was blinded by Ghulam Qadir in 1788(cat. no. 25), and a Maratha
Azam (active second
quarter of the 19th century).
garrison was posted in the Red Fort. Boigne, who married an Indian woman from a prominent
Begam Samru holding a Muslim family of Delhi, is especially remembered for having incited Sindhia to make repairs to
darbarin Sardhana. Ca. 1820.
Watercolor. H. 17"A• x the Taj Mahal, for having taken care of the imperial family, and for having Sindhia increase the
w. 24% in. (45.5 • 62.5 cm).
Chester Beatty Library,
stipends granted to the emperor. On August 22, 1792,Shah Alam 11 splendidly received Boigne
CB 74-7 (IN 74.7) just after his victory against the Rajputs at Patan. In 1796 General Pierre Cuillier, alias Perron,
Above right: Fig. 6a. Raja Jivan succeeded Boigne as commander in chief in Hindustan. 18 Under Perron, French officers were
Ram (active 1820-40). Begam
sometimes in charge of the Red Fort and the security of the emperor (Bourquien briefly,
Samru. Sardhana, ea. 1832-34.
Oil on canvas. Private Drugeon for almost three years), while Captain Marchand was appointed prefet of Delhi. 19
collection. Courtesy of Enrico
lsacco. French inscription Emperor Shah Alam II was a poet;acopyofhis Diwan-iAftab (Aftab being his nom de plume)
attached to the back reports
is still in the Polier collection in the Bibliotheque Nationale, [Link] French married largely
that this portrait was given at
Sardhana in 1834 by Begam into Indian families, some of them bringing their wives and/or children to France (as did Madec,
Samru to General Allard for
King Louis-Philippe. Polier, Boigne, and Perron), but most of them settling down in Hindustan, Rohilkhand, Rajast-
han, and even Punjab after the British invasion of the Doab in 1803 (La Fontaine, Fanthome,
Puech, Deridon, and Le Fevre). Some of them ended up near Aligarh, as did a Persianate French
colonel who resided in the area with his large family, as mentioned by Bishop Heber in the 1820s.
Interestingly, there were a cluster of centers of Franco-Persian and Franco-Hindustani culture
in and around Delhi (in Sardhana, probably Aligarh, and Bharatpur, and even the Bourbons in
Bhopal), as is evidenced by poetry written by descendants of these lndo-French families. In the
Chandni Chowk area of Delhi (cat. no. 65), a famous circle of poets evolved around Zafaryab
Khan, the son of Sombre and his first wife, while in Sardhana another group of poets gravitated
around Begam Samru. Ghalib (see fig. 2 on p. 35), one of the greatest poets of Urdu, was edu
cated by his paternal uncle, a kumedan (commandant) in Boigne's and Perron's brigades. These
lndo-French poets of Persian and Urdu, as they were called later, continued to write poetry and
sometimes novels until the very end of the nineteenth century.1
India was the main source of riches for the East India Company, and since 1765 it had
become the main provider of funds for England's foreign (and imperial) policy. The fear that it

28 JEAN-MARIE LAFONT
Fig. 6b. 3egam Samru and her
army. Ca. 1820. Watercolor
on paper. H. 165/,o x w. 245/e in.
(41 s x 6, S rm). C:hPstPr
Beatty library, CB 74-6

Detailat right

DELHI UNDER SHAH ALAM II AND THE FRENCH 29

Fig. 7. Attributed to P. E. could follow the path of the thirteen colo-
Moreau (1766-1833). Portrait
of General de Boigne. Oil on nies of North America and recover its inde-
[Link]. 411/,•x w. 331/1•
in.
pendence haunted British civil and military
(105 x 85 cm). Collection des
Comtes de Boigne officers until after 1857-Between 1786 and
1805 Lord Cornwallis, who had surrendered
to the Americans and the French at York-
town (1781),was appointed governor general
of India three times, twice also serving as
commander in chief. In 1792Cornwallis per-
sonally led the first invasion of Mysore and
conducted the dismemberment of Hyder
Ali's powerful state. In February 1798 Lord
Wellesley, the new governor general of India,
wrote from Cape Town that Sindhia in Hin-
dustan had twenty thousand regulars disci-
plined by Europeans or Americans (emphasis
added) and commanded by Perron, a French officer. Wellesley and his younger brother Arthur
Wellesley, future Duke of Wellington, decided to eradicate this threat: in 1798 Hyderabad fell
into the orbit of the East India Company, and in 1799 Tipu Sultan was killed defending the
ramparts of his capital, Srirangapatnam:' In 1802the Peshwawas compelled to sign the Treaty
of Basseinwith the British, and in 1803Wellesley launched the invasion of the Doab. The com-
mander in chief of the British forces was General Lake, who was a colonel at Yorktown and had
been captured along with Cornwallis by the Americans and their French allies in 1781•4 In a
bloody battle near Delhi on September 11,1803, Lake defeated the Maratha brigades com-
manded by Colonel Bourquien and "liberated" Delhi and Shah Alam 11from the "clutches" of
the Marathas and their French "mercenaries."'' He then appointed Colonel David Ochterlony,
a loyalist officer from a Boston family, as the first English Resident of Delhi (cat. no. 26).
Ochterlony prevented Holkar, one of the last Maratha generals, from recapturing (or liberating)
Delhi in a lightning raid, until Holkar, defeated by Lord Lake, surrendered in 1805.0
Shah Alam's reign as emperor, spanning over forty-five years,saw the waning of the Mughal
Empire in northern India, the rise and fall of the Maratha confederacy, and the foundation of
1
Sikh power in the Punjab.' An officer of Boigne's,writing from Shekawati in the early 1790s,prog-
nosticated that if the Marathas and the Sikhs could join hands and unite, they would eradicate
any Muslim power in Hindustan. In another vein Anderson, British agent at the headquarters of
Sindhia, warned that if General Perron managed to subdue the Sikhs and bring them under
Sindhia's authority as Boigne had done to the Rajputs, then British power in northern India could
be in jeopardy. Hence the frantic decision of the Wellesleys to complete their conquests in
India, invading the Doab and capturing Delhi in 1803,while the French were embroiled in their
revolutionary wars in Europe. This move suspended the conflict between Hindus and Muslims
for the domination of northern India until 1947-

30 JEAN-MARIE LAFONT
 Shah Alam 11died in 1806. By that time Colonel Ochterlony had become the first British
Resident at the court of Delhi, inaugurating a residency system that lasted until May 1857.'"I he
next dramatic event in Hindustan was to take place in August 1947 when the British officially
exited the subcontinent. For the per od beginning in 1803 and ending in 1947,I may refer the
inquisitive reader interested in the always evanescing and always renascent cultural encounter
between India and France,with its American flavor, to my recent book with Rehana Lafont, The
Frenchand Delhi.

NOTES 17. Lafont, "Bendi't de Boigne en Hindoustan: Lhomme et son

1. The name Shah Alam means "Emperor of the World." impact sur le Doab Gange-Jamouna, 1784-1795," in Boigne
2. "Emperor Shah Alam/ reigns from Delhi to Palam.' Palam is and Amis de l'Universite de Savoie, Benoitde Boigneaux lndes;
the village where New Delhi's Indira Gandhi International Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,79-90, 1J3-9, and passim.
Airport stands. 18. On Perron in India, see Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,
3. Modave, Voyageen lnde. Corroborated two centuries later 93-110, 130-31,and passim.
by Percival Spear, Twilightof the Mughuls,13-31. 19. Hence the rumor in Calcutta of a French State in Hindustan
4. Law de Lauriston, Memoires;Lafont and Lafont, Frrnchand in the late eighteenth century. The rumor is still alive in the
Delhi,46-48. observation of Spear's Twilight of the Mughuls:·'The Mughul
5. When in 1775Calcutta exerted tremendous pressure on kingdom of Delhi had become the French principality of
Asaf ud-Daula to expel all the French, and especia ly Gentil, Aligarh" (31). Spear in 1951was once again trying to justify
from Awadh, Shah Alam II offered Gentil and his family the English invasion of the Doab and capture of Delhi by the
asylum in Delhi. Gentil declined, since he had decided to threat the French posed to British interests in India.
return to France. He was also offered asylum by the rulers 20, Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,120.
of Afghanistan and Nepal. 21. Ibid., with reference to Saksena, Poetsof Urdu and Persian.
6. Madec, Memoire;Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,56-57. 22. Ibid., 117-20.
7. Madec, Memoire;Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,57. 23. Weller, Wellingtonin India.
8. Modave, Voyage;Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,59-60. 24. Greene, Gunsof Independence.
9. Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,59. 25. Interesting synthesis in Cooper, Anglo-Mararha Campaigns.
10. Jean-Marie Lafont, "The Quest of Indian Manuscripts by the Clarification with reference to French sources in Lafont and
French in 18th Century," in Embassy of France, Inda-French Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,101-9.
Relations,1-35. 26. On American connections of Lake and Ochterlony, see
11. Archer, CompanyPaintings. Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi,109-10.
12. Lafont, "Company Paintings." 27. Capture of Lahore by Ranjit Singh in 1799,and coronation of
13. Polier was one of the early members of the Asiatic Society Ranjit Singh as maharaja of Punjab in 1801.
of Bengal, to which he sent a paper entitled "Trans ation of 28. French presence or influence in Hindustan lasted through the
the Inscriptions on Pillars in Feroz Shah Kotla." The paper was descendants of the Inda-French families that settled there;
read at a meeting of the society on March 27, 1788. through the French in the service of Begum Sombre until her
14. Polier, EuropeanExperience. death in 1836;and through James Skinner and his Skinner's
15. Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi, 91-93, 112-18,and passim. Horse, originally part of the French brigades of Hindustan
16. See Francklin, Reignof Shah-Au/um,appendix 4, pp. 254-58, (de Boigne's and Perron's) until Skinner's death in 1841(cat.
for the "elegy written by Shah-Aulum after the loss of his nos. 58 and 61). Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi, 111-46.
sight" in Persian with a translation into English.

DELHI UNDER SHAH ALAM II AND THE FRENCH 31

 JAMES SKINNER AND THE POETIC
CLIMATE OF LATE MUGHAL DELHI

Sunil Sharma

The multilingual literary culture of late Mughal Delhi (1739-1857),known as Shahjahanabad or

the urdu-ye muaila (exalted camp), was marked by the production of texts by Muslim and non-
Muslim elites in courtly circles in the capital, as well by members of upwardly mobile social
classes that imitated Mughal courtly protocol in smaller cities. A period of cultural stagnation
prevailed in the second half of the eighteenth century as a result of political upheavals, and "the
empty mantle of Delhi fell on the shoulders of Lucknow." 1 As other places such as the princely
states of Rampur, Hyderabad, Bhopa, and Lahore rose to prominence on the literary map in the
nineteenth century, Delhi also regained its position as a lively place of poetry and learning.
In North India the advent of newspapers and printing in the form of lithographed books
helped to increase readership and literacy. From 1825to 1857 Delhi College was an important
institution where Indian scholars and literati came in contact with Europeans. Along with
Muslim, Hindu, and Sikh writers of Persianand Urdu, this period also saw the participation of the
British in the patronage and production of literature in Indian languages.
The legacy of the giants of Urdu poetry of Delhi, Mirza Rafi Sauda (1713-1781)
and Mir Taqi
Mir (1723-1810),cast a formidable shadow over the ninetee~th-century poets of Delhi. The
ghazal continued to be the privileged poetic form that was performed in musha1rasin diverse
social settings, both courtly and mystical, while professional poets also composed formal pan-
egyrics (qasida) in praise of royalty and the nobility. The Urdu poetic genre of shahrashob,docu-
menting the decline of urban cities, was particularly popular in the eighteenth century In this
vein the mystical poet Khvaja Mir Dard (1721-1785)writes in Persian:

Dihlike kharabkardaaknun dahrashjarishuda ashk-ha ba-ja-ye nahrash

Budastin shahr misl-e ru-yekhuban chun khat-e butan bud savad-e shahrash'

Time has ruined Delhi now and tears flow instead of its canals.
This city was like the face of the beloved;
its inhabitation was like the down on the cheek of idols.

Opposite: Detail of cat no. 61

33
 Surprisingly,just two years after Nadir Shah's invasion of Iran in 1739,
such Persianworks as Dargah Quli Khan's so-called Muraqqa-i Delhi (Por-
trait of a city) provided a positive glimpse into the topography and people
of Delhi, including its singers, musicians, and courtesans. The composition
of poetry was a royal pastime among the later Mughal emperors: Shah
Alam 11(reigned 1761-1806),who wrote under the name Aftab, and Bahadur
Shah (reigned 1837-57),who wrote as Zafar, were particularly distinguished
poets who both wrote poems chiefly in Urdu, but also occasional verses in
Persian,the Braj Bhasha dialect of Hindi, and Punjabi.
During the second quarter of the nineteenth century under Bahadur
Shah "Zafar," older traditions such as the post of poet laureate were revived,
and Shaikh Muhammad Ibrahim, known as Zauq (1789-1854),was first the
tutor of the heir apparent and later poet laureate at the court. The poet
Mum in Khan (1800-1851)was patronized by both the British and Mughals
and produced Urdu poetry in the sabk-i Hindi style that continued to be in
vogue in India and Central Asia (fig. 1).The greatest poet of the age, Mirza
Fig. [Link] to Raja Asadullah Khan Ghalib (1797-1869,fig. 2), composed poetry in both Persianand Urdu in the tradi-
Jivan Ram (active 1820-40).
tional forms. His oft-quoted verse about his bilingual oeuvre revealsa preference for Persian:
Portrait of the poet Mum in
Khan. Ca. 1835. Black ink
and opaque watercolor on
Farsibin ta babini naqsh-ha-ye rang rang
off-white paper. H. 6'½• x
w. 4½ in. (17 x 11.5cm). Bugzaraz majmua-ye Urdu ke be-rang-e manast•
Harvard Art Museums,
Arthur M Sackler Museum,
Regard my Persian to see multicolored forms.
The Stuart Cary Welch
Collection, Gift of Edith I. Passover my Urdu collection for it is insipid.
Welch in memory of Stuart
Cary Welch, 2009.202.210
In addition to a sizable collection of verses in Persian,Ghalib wrote a history of the Mughals,
Mihr-i nimroz, and a diary of the revolt of 1857,Dastanbu,in the [Link] Urdu litera-
ture had come into its own by the nineteenth century, according to the scholar Shamsur
Rahman Faruqui, the Urdu literati had "an inferiority complex" that resulted in the valorization
of Persianeven as it was a dying language for lndians.5
An important phenomenon of late Mughal literary culture was Persian and Urdu literary
and non literary texts written by or under the patronage of the [Link] works such
as Mirza Sangin Beg'sSairal-manazil, written in 1828for Sir Charles Metcalfe, and the two editions
of Syed Ahmed Khan's Asar a/-Sanadid-which appeared in 1847and 1854,the former being
dedicated to Sir Thomas Metcalfe-were surveys of the monuments of Delhi, with the latter also
containing a biographical dictionary of its prominent inhabitants.° The Asar al-Sanadid included
biographies of Delhi's Sufis of the Mujaddidi, Chishti, and Tariq-i Muhammadi groups, highlight-
ing the centrality of mysticism in the lives of the city's populace. Indeed, in addition to its cul-
tural and political importance, Delhi retained its primary position as a spiritual center with its
multiple shrines and a long Sufi tradition. The Zebal-tavarikh,
another work that combines topog-
raphy and biography, is a work in Persian verse about the life of Begam Samru (circa 1750-1836),
widow of the German adventurer Walther Reinhardt "Sombre," written in 1822by the munshi
Lala Gokul Chand at Sardhana.8

34 SUNIL SHARMA
Fig. 2. Miniature portrait
of the poet Mirza Asadullah
Khan Ghalib. Ca. 1850.
Watercolor on paper. H. 8% x
w. 7 in. (21.3 x 17.8cm). Red
Fort Museum, Delhi, 286

Two examples of this new kind of writing that combined topography, biography, and eth-
nography, Tashrih a/-aqvam and Tazkirat a/-umara, were authored by Colonel James Skinner
(1778-1841),who was the son of a Rajput woman and Hercules Skinner, a Scottish captain in
military service with the East India Company." James Skinner, or "Sikandar sahib" as he was
called by Indians, had a brilliant career fighting in the forces of Indian chiefs and then in British
service, although his "half-caste" heritage limited the progress of his professional li'e. His yellow-
uniformed regiment, Skinner's Horse, was renowned in its time as an irregular cavalry force.
Skinner had a town house in Delhi as well as a country home in Dhana, outside Hansi (cat. no.
60). By all accounts he adopted the lifestyle of a so-called White Mughal and hobnobbed with
like-minded British men such as William Fraser,Sir John Malcolm, and Sir Thomas Metcalfe.

JAMES SKINNER ANO THE POETIC CLIMATE OF LATE MUGHAL DELHI 35

Skinner was more comfortable in Persian than in English, and he dictated his memoirs to a Opposite: Fig. 4. Navab Zabta
Khan (1808-18), from Tazkirat
munshi; only later were they translated into English and amended for publication by James a/-umara (cat. no. 61). British

Baillie Fraser.' Among his other works were Persian and Urdu manuals of rules for his regiment, Library, Add.27254, f.253-

both of which were illustrated by Delhi artists. But it is his two ethnographic works that offer
glimpses into late Mughal society in Delhi and its environs.
The Tashrih al-aqvam is a survey of Hindu and Muslim occupational groups and religious
mendicants in the region of Delhi (cat. no. 62). The book begins with an account of the house of
Timur down to Akbar II (reigned 1806-37). The largest section is devoted to the various Hindu
castes found in the region around Delhi, who were the major occupational groups,'' and also
discusses Hindu, Jain, and Sikh religious mendicants such as yogis and sanyasis;after listing the
kings of Awadh, the book describes the Muslim Afghans of Kasur,qawwals, and fakirs (fig. 3). In
his introduction, Skinner writes, "I translated in summary from the Sanskrit books of the Vedas
and Shastras into a clear and simple Persian style devoid of rhetoric the reality of the origins of
the peoples along with the situation of the worship, ways, peculiarities, food, clothing, and occu-
Fig. 3. Kanphata yogi, a Saiva
pations, etc., of every community, along with providing illustrations of each group with their situ- asceticwith largeearringsand
wearing the linga round his
ation, clothing, and occupation."' 3 This hybrid text incorporates features of older literary forms neck, accompanied by his
disciple (che/a), from Tashrih
that were used for the communication of knowledge, but used a new scientific and descriptive
a/-aqvam (cat. no. 62). British
language free of hyperbolic metaphors. Library, Add.27255, f.399b.

36 SUNIL SHARMA
 Skinner's other Persian work, Tazkirat a/-umara, was also made for Sir John Malcolm and
presented to him in 1830(cat. no. 61).This work in four parts comprises a history of Rajput, Sikh,
and Muslim princely families of North India, with the fourth part being about the region of Hary-
ana. The section on Muslim rulers includes the Mughal dynasty until the time of Akbar 11along
with other families and tribes in the provinces of Awadh and Punjab (fig. 4). In the manner of
Persian dynastic chronicles, this work has some features of the tazkira (biographical dictionary)
genre. This work also affirms Skinner's familiarity with older imperial albums in which portraits of
Mughal royalty and nobles were collected. 14 In the introduction, Skinner states that he has
"researched the true circumstances of the lofty kings, powerful chiefs, and noble families of
India, as well as flourishing buildings in some cities mentioned in the writings of historians."11
For his albums Skinner patronized Delhi artists who were also employed by William Fraser,
chier of them being Ghulam Ali Khan. The artist accompanied Skinner on his travels, and the
watercolor portraits in the British Library manuscript of the Tashrih al-aqvam work are likely
studies from life.1' The portraits in this work, especially those of ascetics, are done in a realistic
manner that reflects the ethnographic quality of the text. Some figures, such as the musician
Miyan Himmat Khan (fig. 5), are named. These paintings are similar to the thirty-eight portraits
7
by Ghulam Ali Khan found in Skinner's personal album, now in the India Office Library

..,

Fig. 5. Bandijan or kalawam,

a singer or bard from the Bhat
caste, from Tashrih a/-aqvam
(cat. no. 62). British Library,
Add.27255, [Link]
as Miyan Himmat Khan.

38 SUNIL SHARMA
 In terms of its literary climate, late Mughal Delhi was a different place than the city of the
earlier Mughals, where Iranians and Central Asians were the arbiters of the correct usage of
[Link] court in Delhi remained an important center for the production and performance
of literature until the mid-nineteenth century, but during these years new venues, patrons, and
literary forms also appeared. In contrast with traditional literature, the new forms of literature
drew on western ideas of scholarship and ethnography, and they depended on the participation
of people like Skinner and others who were familiar with both the Persianate and the European
traditions. The lives and works of authors, artists, and patrons intersected at various points,
making late Mughal society a vibrant and complex one. Thus when the last emperor, Zafar,
composed these lines, he was mourning the brilliance that Delhi had enjoyed in the early
nineteenth century:

Agon tha yeshahr-e Dihli ab hua ujda dayar KyonZafar ye kya hua joban kidharjata raha"

This city of Delhi was ahead of its time, now it is destroyed.

What happened, Zafar? Where has the vigor gone?

Nostalgia for pre-1857 Delhi inspired poets to write laments in the shahrashobgenre, and
several authors also wrote their memoirs of life at court." As Ghalib reminisced in a letter in 1859,
just a few things had kept Delhi alive: "the Fort, the daily crowds at the Jama Masjid, the weekly
walk to the Yamuna Bridge, and the yearly fair of the flower men." Since all this was now fin-
ished, there was nothing left in Delhi for people like him. With the destruction of Shahjahanabad
and the emperor's exile, the post-Mughal era saw the dawn of a new chapter in the literary
history of Inda-Persian and Urdu literatures.

NOTES 10. Saksena, Poetsof Urdu and Persian,95-98.

1. Sadiq, History of Urdu Literature,165. For the literary and 11. Fraser,Military Memoirs,105.
cultural scene in Lucknow at this time, see Markel and Gude, 12. A more technical work on occupations is an illustrated
India'sFabledCity. Persian manuscript, the Kitab-i tasavir-i shi,hagaranvaghaira,
2. See the essaysin Pernau, Delhi College. composed by Ghulam Yahya for Robert Gljn in the 1820s
3, From Na/a-ye Oard;quoted in Haque, GlimpsesofMughal at Bareilly. See Farooqi, Crafting Traditions.
Society,44. 13. British Librory, Add.27255.
4. Kiyani, Diviin-e Ghiilib-e Dihlavi, 387. 14. Leach, Mughal and Other Indian Paintings,729.
5. Faruqi, "Unprivileged Power," 3-30. 15. Introduction, British Library, Add.27254
6. Nairn, "Syed Ahmad." 16. Lo sty, Art of the Book,152.
7. Khan, "Sayyid Ahmad Khan's Representations," 81-108. 17. Archer, BetweenBattles.
8. Aditya Behl, "Articulating a Life, in Words and Pictures: 18. Diviin-e Zafar, 20.
Begum Samru and The Ornament of Histories," in Schmitz, 19. "The Lament for Delhi," translated and introduced by
After the Great Mughals,100-123. Pasha Mohamad Khan, in Nijhawan, Natioralism u, the
9. See Dover, "Cultural Significance," 17-23; also see Losty, Vernacular,88-92.
Art of the Book,148,152. 20. Russell, Oxford India Ghalib, 165

JAMES SKINNER AND THE POETIC CLIMATE OF LATE MUG~AL DELHI 39

 IN THE COMPANY OF THE
MUGHAL COURT
DELHI PAINTER GHULAM ALI KHAN

Yuthika Sharma

Ghulam Ali Khan was born in the Delhi of Shah Alam 11,the third to last Mughal emperor. In 1772
Shah Alam 11entered Delhi after a hiatus of twelve years to reclaim the city as Dar al-Khilafat,
the seat of the Mughal Empire. Though it was an empire only in name, this royal reinstatement
at Delhi was an important milestone for later Mughal painting, resulting in the reestablishment
of the Mughal atelier.' At nearly seventy-five years of age,having survived a humiliating onslaught
that left him blinded decades earlier, Shah Alam accepted the protection of che British East
India Company after the defeat of the Mughal-Maratha alliance in the Battle of Laswari in 1803.
Even as the British came to regard his successors solely as the "Kings of Delhi," pensioners rele-
gated to administering their depleted privy purses, the fledgling Mughal court at Delhi continued
to exert its symbolic preeminence primarily through the visual domain. Shah Alam's reign saw a
revival in the tradition of court painting under two prominent predecessors of G1ulam Ali Khan
at Shah Alam's court, Khairullah (cat. no. 31)and Ghulam Murtaza Khan (fig. 1),who generated a
network of stylistically affiliated pai1ted images that became the hallmark of later Mughal court
painting at Delhi under the emperor's successor and son, Akbar 11(reigned 1806-37).'
Following the establishment of the Pax Britannica after 1803,Delhi's artistic culture received
a renewed impetus during the reign of Akbar Shah. The British Resident at Delhi, the sole repre·
sentative of the East India Company there, was now responsible for overseeing the maintenance
of the Mughal royal family and for legislating political authority in the city. Under this dual man-
agement, of the Company and the Mughal court, Delhi's artistic culture can be viewed as a
reflection of the political and soc al imbrications within Anglo-Mughal society. Ghulam Ali
Khan's rise to prominence as a court and Company painter was very much within this context of
the overlapping modes of patronage and artistic production at Delhi. In a career spanning four
decades, Ghulam Ali Khan's repertoire was extensive-he devised key portraits for the Mughal
emperors Akbar 11 and Bahadur Shah 11 (reigned 1837-57),worked as a topographical painter,
was in great demand within Company circles, and executed key paintings at the regional court
of Jhajjar (cat. no. 78) and the Rajput court of Raja Banni Singh (reigned 1815-57)at Alwar. How-
Opposite: Detail of cat. no. 64 ever, the painter's career has only been partially exposed, and today he is mostly known as a

41
 Company painter through his attachment to
a group of artists working for an enterprising
Company officer, the Scotsman William
Fraser(cat. no. 40), and his friend the color-
ful Anglo-Indian cavalry officer Colonel
James Skinner (cat. no. 61). It is Ghulam Ali
Khan's less explored role as a painter for the
Mughal and regional courts that allows us to
appreciate the full breadth of his career and
the innovative nature of his work. As we will
see, his artistic trajectory reinforced conven-
tions and stylistic norms but, more impor-
tantly, conflated them too.
Ghulam Ali Khan'ssigned painting from
1817 provides an important introduction to

his early work and to his penchant for topo-

graphical painting. The Diwan-i Khas in the
palace in the Delhi Fort [Red Fort] (cat. no. 64)
is a primarily architectural view of the Hall of
Private Audience, though the scene revolves
around the preparation for a royal departure
on horseback. A bright red canopy pulled
taut with tightly knotted qanats embellishes
the main audience hall and distinguishes it
as a building of Mughal imperial significance
in the absence of the Mughal emperor from
Fig.1. GhulamMurtaza Khan the scene Other views of Delhi buildings, tombs, and shrines carry multilingual ascriptions
(active 1809-30). Akbar II
in [Link], 1809-10 to the artist in Urdu, English, and Nagari scripts, and offer a fuller overview of the painter's
(AH 1224).Watercolor and
repertoire of topographical drawings. Close in spirit to the picturesque views drawn by western
gold on thin board. H. 2713/,• x
w. 20"/,• in. (70.7 x 51.3cm). topographical painters in India (figs. 2 and 3), they were probably produced in sets between
Nasser D. Khalili Collection
of Islamic Art, MSS.981
1820 and 1824. It is possible that they utilized a standard architectural view, which different

draftsmen and painters worked on under Ghulam Ali Khan'ssupervision.• Urban views of Delhi
came into vogue in the late eighteenth century, with the adaptation of imperial imagery to
topographical mappings that aimed at visually reinforcing the significance of Delhi as a site of
Mughal power. The concurrent rise of European antiquarianism and archaeological fervor
defined a new demand for topographical painting, especially around 1815, when this practice
peaked in Delhi and Agra.6
While continuing to work on topographical commissions, Ghulam Ali Khan was concur-
rently experimenting with figural portraiture and genre scenes as a subsidiary artist employed by
the Delhi-based Company officer William [Link] his career in Delhi in 1806 as an
assistant to British Resident Archibald Seton, working primarily as a revenue settlement officer
responsible for assessingthe rural territories lying in the Delhi suburbs. His compilation of a

42 YUTHIKA SHARMA
Below top: Fig. 2. Ghulam Ali visual and ethnographic record of the inhabitants of Delhi and its environs into what is popularly
Kh,in (active 1817-55). The
shrine of Shah Sharaf Bu Ali
known as the FraserAlbum is an unparalleled vivid exploration of urban Delhi and its rural envi-
Qalandar at Panipat. Delhi, rons. The anthology forms a potent record of Company politics at Delhi, conveying the interde-
[Link] on paper.
H. 18½ x W, 235/a in. (47 x pendence of Company officials and their local informants, and the extent to which British and
60 cm). The British Library,
Indian lives were socially and culturally intertwined (cat. nos. 41,43-45, 48-52, and 57). Ghulam
[Link],4693
Ali trained with a master portraitist to capture likenesses of the rural and urban inhabitants of
Belowbottom: Fig. 3.
Attributed to Ghulam Ali the city and its suburbs, and his working style can be identified in the use of transparent water-
Khan (active 1817-55). View
color, elongated figures, and deliberate stippling to emphasize the trace of the brush, combined
of the Red Fort from the river
Yamuna. [Link] on with a miniaturist's attention to the -endering of hair and facial features
paper. H. 181/ax w. 23¼ in.
(46 x 59 cm). Collection of In 1827 Ghulam Ali Khan was commissioned to paint three monumental paintings for
William Dalrymple
William Fraser'sfriend, the Anglo-lrdian cavalry officer and local Delhi celebrity James Skinner.
These works, a culmination of Skinner's
long-held desire to prepare a comprehen-
sive record of his cavalry regiment, Skinner's
Horse, constituted a period cf great activity
for the painter. It is likely that Ghulam Ali
Khan was first introduced to Skinner at Wil-
liam Fraser'srecommendation, after Skinner
wrote to William's brother James asking for a
painter "to take drawings of my men."' James
Baillie Fraser (1783 1856) had joined William
in 1815and had begun to pursue his antiquar-
ian interest in recording Delhi's historical
architecture, commissioning local painters
to paint specific views of buildings.' It is pos-
sible that Ghulam Ali Khan was known to
both William and James Fraser because of
his expertise with topographical painting.
After joining Skinner's coter e, the painter
began to develop a repertoire of genre and
individual portraits of various cavalrymen,
retainers, and officials, which were included
in an album of forty-two drawings compiled
by Skinner.
These portrait studies, along with copies
of folios from the Fraser Album, provided
the basic figural content for the three large
scenes of Skinner's regiment, cantonment,
and estate painted between 1827 and 1828.
The group portrait Bardat,Kihar,Sanat in the
Skinner Album (fig. 4), for instance, is a direct
copy of the page created by an anonymous

IN THE COMPANY OF THE MUGHAL COURT 43

 Fig. 4. Bardat Jat, cultivator,
with axe and fork, Kihar
Gwala, milkman, and Sanat
Jemadar, with matchlock.
Hansi, ea. 1820-30.
Watercolor. Album: H. 17 x
w. 12 in. (43,2 x 30.5 cm).
British Library, [Link].1277

master artist for the Fraser Album (cat. no. 57), where Sawunt (Sanat), Kehur (Kihar), and
Hurdut (Bardat) appear as cavalryman, herdsman, and trooper, respectively. 1 In the view of
Skinner's farm at Dhana, Ghulam Ali Khan cleverly transposed both Kihar and Hurdut, likely to
have been Haridatt, amid a herd of cattle in keeping with the pastoral theme of the landscape
view, with little adjustment to their postures (cat. no. 60). The view of Skinner's military canton-
ment at Hansi also utilizes individual studies of cavalrymen and combat maneuvers, originally
intended for a cavalry manual that Skinner was preparing." The painter followed a similar approach
for another large-scale painting showing Skinner's regimental darbar gathering (cat. no. 58), in
which he was able to utilize the individual portrait studies of Skinner's rissaldars and retainers,
with only their faces and attires updated. 1' The darbar scene is a wonderful insight into Skinner's
military life. Skinner and his son James are seated in their winter uniforms under a vibrant canopy
flanked on either side by their cavalrymen, retainers, scribes, and attendants, while surveying the
ongoing inspection of a new cavalry recruit. One of the most remarkable accomplishments of
the painting, however, is the direct reference that the seated portraits of Skinner and his son
make to a pair of ivory miniature portraits of the Mughal emperor Akbar Shah and his son Salim,
painted earlier by Ghulam Ali Khan.
In February 1827 Ghulam Ali Khan was commissioned to paint Akbar II and Mirza Salim's
portraits on the occasion of an important state visit by Lord Amherst, governor general of Fort
William (figs. 5 and 6). As the highest representative of British authority in India, Lord Amherst's
Delhi visit generated a number of commissions of paintings, ivory portraits, jewelry, shawls, and
other decorative arts.'' Signing himself as "His Majesty's devoted faithful servant" and "His Maj-
esty's Painter," Ghulam Ali Khan devised the royal portraits to significantly depart from the

44 YUTHIKA SHARMA
Above:Figs. 5 and 6. Ghulam
Ali Khan (active 1817-55).
A pair of portraits of Mirza
Salim (left) and Akbar II
(right). Delhi, 1827,Opaque
watercolor on ivory. H. 8 x
w. 5 in. (20.3 x 12.7cm). ~ritish
Library, [Link].2538, 2539

Right: Fig. 7. Attributed to

Ghulam Ali Khan (active
1817-55). Portrait of Akbar 11.
Ca. [Link] watercolor
on ivory. H. 4¼ x w. 313/\• in.
(10.75 x 9.75 cm). Royal
Ontario Museum, Canada,
2004X5.25

Farright: Fig. 8. Detail of formal structure of Mughal court p::xtraiture.16 Akbar 11and his son Mirza Salim are seated on
catalogue number 58 showing
Skinner and his son.
chairs, their huqqas serving as mar<ers more of polite civility than of imperial clout. While a
nimbus around Akbar I I's head distinguishes him as a royal presence, the girth of the emperor's
silk and fur overcoat, which fits with difficulty into the slim frame of the chair, lends an unusually
humanizing air to the royal portrai~ (fig. 7, a copy of this portrait, shows Akbar I I's shoulders

IN THE COMPANY OF THE MUG ➔ Al COURT 45

overpainted). In Skinner's darbar portrait the positioning of father and son is reversed to suit a
European audience accustomed to viewing from left to right (fig. 8). In a general sense this simi-
larity highlights the strategic role of visuals in maintaining cultural links between Mughal and
British parties despite the ideological differences between them. However, such borrowings
were only possible through the agency of painters who, like Ghulam Ali Khan, created a trans-
verse flow of ideas between court and Company circles. Skinner straddled two worlds-he
strove to gain recognition as a Companion of the Order of the Bath from the British crown, but
was equally anxious to legitimize his local standing as a trusted ally of the Mughal court. 1 On
May 3, 1830,having received his Mughal title, Nasir ud-Daula Ghalib-e Jang-"Defender of the
State, Victorious in War"-from Akbar 11in a formal ceremony, Skinner wasted no time in com-
missioning a commemorative portrait displaying both his British Cross and his Mughal titles. 8
This portrait, based directly on Ghulam Ali Khan's regimental darbar painting, formed the fron-
tispiece of an important diplomatic gift, the Tazkirat al-umara (Biography of nobles; cat. no. 61),
that was presented to the statesman Sir John Malcolm on June 10, 1830.
Ghulam Ali Khan managed the public perception of the Mughal court through another
key commission in 1837-38:the accession portrait of Akbar Shah'ssuccessor and the last Mughal
emperor, Bahadur Shah "Zafar" (cat. no. 79)." This extensively choreographed dynastic portrait
showing Zafar surrounded by his sons was painted in a nontraditional makeshift location in the
palace,well away from the throne pedestal in the Hall of Private Audience and against the pierced
marble screen featuring the so-called scales of justice in the tasbih khana.'J The unusual place-
ment of the royal figures is hardly noticeable in this cleverly devised combination of imperial
symbolism and dynastic portraiture, since the open entrance under the marble screen as well
as the interior waterway of the Stream of Paradise are concealed with carpets and rugs to
accommodate the royal sitters. The portrayal of Zafar and his sons remains a solemn one, the
painting's sole aim being to reassert the emperor's authority and his prerogative for choosing
a successor.
The painter's involvement with Zafar's court continued into the last decade of the emper-
or's reign, when he was involved in illustrating dynastic histories.11 In 1851,with the assistance of
Zafar's confidant and trusted minister Hakim Ahsanullah Khan, he collaborated with Babar Ali
Khan, a possible relative, to prepare a dynastic genealogy complete with tables listing the births
and deaths of the rulers, their portraits, and the representation of their tombs, as well as versified
chronograms, which was titled Portraits of the Exalted Emperors. • While such illustrated dynastic
genealogies were similar in spirit to other dynastic histories such as the Mihr-i nimroz (1854)
written by famous court poet Ghalib, they significantly differed in their emphasis. With the
inclusion of Sher Shah, Nadir Shah,Ahmad Shah Durrani, and his son Timur Shah,such illustrated
accounts were a clear attempt at charting the history of the occupation of the throne of Delhi,
rather than a genealogy of the house of Timur. Zafar's commissioning of a number of such
dynastic genealogies conveys a sense of the anxiety felt by the Mughal house at Delhi in the
face of domineering British influence. Despite the sharp variations in painterly style and the
expediency with which they were created, sometimes with quick washes of color and quick
brushwork, they stand as alternative narratives to other sociocultural and urban histories of
Delhi that were being commissioned outside the Mughal court.

46 YUTHIKA SHARMA
Above left: Fig. 9. Ghulam Ali The closing decades of Ghulam Ali Khan's career were also perhaps those that kept him
Khan (active 1817-55) and
his circle. The presentation of
the most occupied. His tenure in the regional courts around Delhi from around 1840onward is a
the Gulistan by Agha Mirza useful marker of his growing fame and popularity toward the end of his illustrious career. As a
to [Link].i [Link] Singh of i\[Link],
a folio from the Gut:sran. veteran painter from Delhi, he was courted by both the Nawab of Jhajjar and the Raja of Alwar
1840-53. Opaque watercolor
and gold on paper. H. 139/io x
and spent over a decade painting for the two regional courts. At Alwar, Ghulam Ali Khan's asso-
w. 71/,0in. (34.5 x 18 cm). ciation with the production of a significant copy of the Gulistan(Rose garden) of Sadi for Raja
Government Museum, Alwa,
Banni Singh of Alwar (reigned 1815-57)embodies the transitions that occurred within Mughal
Above right: Fig. 10.
painting in nineteenth-century [Link] Alwar Gulistanwas undoubtedly one of the most expen-
A folio from the Alwar
Gulistan illustrating sive and labor-intensive illustrated manuscripts commissioned in the second quarter of the
story 28 from chapter 3,
"Of the Preciousness of nineteenth century in India." A dedicated team of Delhi and Alwar artists that included binders,
Contentment." Government
decorators, calligraphers, illustrators, and illuminators worked for twelve years on the manu-
Museum, Alwar
script, completing it in 1852-53,24 For the illustrations, Ghulam Ali Khan worked along with the
Alwar artist Baldev to create seventeen colored illustrations in the 287-page document (figs 9
and 10).As a reprise of a classical Persianliterary work, most often reproduced ir Mughal ateliers,
the Gulistan'scommission at Alwar raises important questions about Banni Singh's desire to

IN THE COMPANY OF THE MUGHAL COURT 47

Fig.11. Ghulam Ali Khan elevate himself as an influential patron and consolidate his alliance with the Anglo-Mughal
(active 1817-55).The Alwar
gaddi. Alwar, ea. 1840-45,
nexus at Delhi. Ghulam Ali Khan's role in the production of the Alwar Gulistan is more interest-
Watercolor on paper. H. 24 x ing because of his representative role as a Delhi artist or, more importantly, a Mughal artist from
w. 44½ in. (61 x 113cm).
Collection of Sven Gahlin, Delhi. While this assessment may seem incongruous given what we know of the artist's eclectic
London
trajectory, his work on the Gulistan encapsulates the myriad strands within his career and in turn
helps shape our understanding of Delhi's painterly climate.
A deeper investigation of the Alwar archives reveals that Ghulam Ali Khan's involvement
with the Alwar court was not limited solely to the production of the Gulistan; the painter was
instrumental in guiding the course of the Alwar school of painting in this period. Multiple prac-
tice copies of the Fraser Album pages, some by the artist and others by local Alwar painters,
attest to the court's newfound fascination with creating a visual record of its own notables and
personalities. These would have been painted when William and James Fraserboth headed for
Alwar in the 1820s,after visiting their friend Nawab Ahmed Baksh Khan, who had previously
been the Alwar Raja'sagent to Akbar I I's court at Delhi: Ghulam Ali Khan's initial introduction
to the Alwar court would have likely happened at that point. Moreover, Ghulam Ali Khan seems
to have reignited his penchant for topographical illustrations and likely trained Alwar artists to
produce copies of a number of historical and religious sites of Delhi. It also follows that Banni
Singh commissioned a monumental view of the Alwar gaddi (palace) from the painter, further
reiterating the centrality of the topographical view as a mode of projecting authority (fig. 11).
Perhaps the most remarkable achievement of the Alwar Gulistan is the incorporation of
architectural views of Delhi monuments within the illustrated narrative. Take for instance the
fourteenth illustration in the Alwar Gulistan appended to a story within the chapter "Of Love
and Youth" (fig 12). This scene is set within the recognizable setting of the baoli (step well) at

48 YUTHIKA SHARMA
Fig. 12. A folio from the Alwar
Guli:itan illustrating a story
from chapter s,"Of Love and
Youth." Government
Museum, Alwar

the shrine of the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, which is taken directly from a set of
architectural views painted by Ghulam Ali Khan in Alwar. 0 We can propose that by fully inte
grating the topographical mode into later manuscript illustration, Ghulam Ali Khan effectively
altered the parallel courses of Company and Mughal painting, creating a framework for them
to intersect and interact and, perhaps, be reconfigured ;iltoBPthPr Ry creating possibilities for
fluidity between diverse genres of painting, Ghulam Ali Khan appears most prominently as a
purveyor of style rather than a gatekeeper of artistic conventions. Within a climate where art

IN THE COMPANY OF THE MUG HAL COURT 49

was being created, circulated, and marketed outside the framework of royal patronage, the
boundaries between imperial and non imperial painting were at best nebulous.
Of the many perspectives that have been offered on nineteenth-century painting at Delhi,
some have dealt with the idea of a gradual dilution of Mughal painting under the patronage of
the last Mughal emperors into what is popularly termed bazaar or market art. We are only begin-
ning to formulate a vocabulary for works that do not entirely conform to traditional (Indian or
European) ideals or which previously have been characterized as failures.2'Ghulam Ali Khan's
career offers a unique insight into the role of artistic agency in negotiating painterly conventions.
His understanding of the notion of style-as a discrete set of artistic conventions within a given
cultural context-allowed him to experiment with his method and innovate freely within
given parameters of his commission. • As we unravel the composite and often symbiotic condi-
tions in the production of nineteenth-century painting at Delhi, the role of the Mughal court
too can no longer be understood one-dimensionally, that is, as the custodian of tradition in the
face of immense sociopolitical and cultural transformations. Ghulam Ali Khan's career offers a
distinctly modern understanding of the artistic forces that shaped nineteenth-century Mughal
Delhi. The painter's consistent reassertion of his Mughal roots on the margins of his paintings, as
a resident of the Dar al-Khilafat (seat of the empire) Shahjahanabad,captures his indelible involve-
ment with a brilliant artistic phase in the Mughal city, which was to meet its tragic fate in 1857.

50 YUTHIKA SHARMA
NOTES 20. A detailed discussion of the painting can be found in
,. Sharma, "From Miniatures to Monuments." Soudavar, Art 'of the Persian Courts, no. 142.
2. See Ghulam Murtaza Khan's signed darbar scene of Akbar 11 21. Album folio, portrait of Bahadur Shah II signed "Ghulam 'Ali
(AH 1224/1809-10) in Leach, Painringsfrom India, vol. 8, pl. 44. Khan Mussavir [painter] Delhi," dated December 1849-
3. The term Anglo-Mughal is used in a descriptive sense, to talk January 1850. Bon hams, Islamic and Indian Art, London,
about the interaction between Mughal and British circles April 15,2010.
in Delhi society, and does not refer to a mixed lineage. 22. Lithographed copy, authored by Muhammad Fakhruddin
4. For instance, see the two relatively similar views of t~e Husain Beg, chronograms by Lala Saman Lal "Farhat." Rieu,
Mausoleum of Safdar Jang, British Library, [Link].551, and Catalogueof PersianManuscripts,285. For a similar volume
catalogue number 67. by Ahsanullah Khan, see San Diego Museum of Art, 1990:405
5. For instance, see The royal processionof ShahAlam II, showing 23. Hendley, Ulwarand Its Art Treasures.
See also Losty, Art of the
the backdrop of the Red Fort, The Victoria and Albert Museum, Book,154.
IM.59-1922. See also Sharma, "From Miniatures to Monuments." 24. Agha Mirza, the principal calligrapher from Delhi, worked on
6. J. P. Losty, "The Delhi Panorama of Mazhar Ali Khan," in Crill, the Gulistan at a pace of fifteen days per page Natha Shah
Strange, and Topsfield, Arts of Mughal India. Punjabi and Karim Abdul Rahman were respoosible for the
7. For an overview of the artistic patronage of William Fraser and design and painting of decorative medallions, the intricacy
the artists working for him, see Archer and Falk, India Revealed. of the work requiring two to four days for the completion of
8. "William has sent to Painter as yet to take the drawings of ~dc..h IJU:~[Link]. Kdrim Abdul Rdt1111,.m Wd!> re:,µon~il,lt! rur
my men so you better write him again on this subject." Fraser the binding of the book. Hendley, Ulwar; Lo sty, Art of the Book,
Papers, 8292, cited in Archer and Falk, India Revealed,
43. no. 138; Misra, RajasthaniPaintings.
9. See the introduction to this volume. 25. Nawab Ahmad Baksh Khan was in the service of Raja
10. British Library, [Link].1243-1283. Bakhtawar Singh of Alwar (d. 1815)and then took up the cause
11. See also British Library, [Link].1271, the Skinner Album, in of Balwant Singh, the rival claimant to the [Link] throne, who
Archer, Company [Link] the earlier version in the was deposed to Tijara in 1826,a year before the nawab's death
Fraser Album, see Archer and Falk, India Revealed,pl. 65, 26. Ghulam Ali Khan's architectural view of the baoli is in the
pp. 94-95; catalogue number 57. collection of the Government Museum, Alwar. For another
12. See for instance catalogue number 59. view of the shrine, compare catalogue number 74. Many illus-
13. British Library, [Link].1244, 1245, 1246. trations within the Gu/istan are recontextualized to reflect
14. British Library, [Link].2538, 2539. See Archer, Company the political and urban realities of the period-for instance,
Drawings,205. a Union Jack (fig. 10) is seen hoisted on a rescue boat, and
15. For another painting made for Lord Amherst and attributable another folio shows the use of distant fading perspective to
to Ghulam Ali Khan, see Victoria and Albert Museum, communicate depth of field, thus giving the effect of a
IS 62-1964; reproduced in Archer, Company Paimings, 140. landscape painting.
16. For earlier attempts to open the formal structure of court 27. Aitken, "Parataxis."
portraiture by Delhi painters during Akbar Shah's reign, see 28. For a discussion of style in Indian art, see Aitken, "Intelligence
J. P. Losty, "Indian Portraiture in the British Period," in Crill and of Tradition."
Jariwala, Indian Portrait, 41-47.
17. Archer, "Two Worlds," 608-15.
18. Pernau and Jaffrey, Information and the Public Sphere,247.
19. Signed by Ghulam Ali Khan and dated to AH [Link],
Art of the Persian Courts, no. 142. For other versions, see Leach,
Paintingsfrom India, vol. 8; Welch, Roomfor Wonder,no. 52.
Seealso Crill and Jariwala, Indian Portrait, no. 58.

IN THE COMPANY OF THE MUGHAL COURT 51

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 DEPICTING DELHI
MAZHAR ALI KHAN, THOMAS METCALFE, AND
THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SCHOOL OF DELHI ARTISTS

J. [Link]

Eighteenth-century topographical delineations of Delhi by Indian artists had in treir various ways
been mostly schematic or conceptual. The earliest known rendition of the Red Fort by Nidha
Mai about 1750employs a combination of plan, elevation, and bird's-eye view fo, the outer walls
and surroundings but keeps the interior of the fort blank,2a convention that was continued in
later plans of Delhi streets (cat. ro. 65).3 Jean-Baptiste Gentil's Faizabad artists in 1774drew
large-scale flat, colored elevations of Delhi's palaces that imposed an erroneous symmetry on
the buildings, each side mirroring the other (fig.,):' Mihr Chand's three-dimensional overhead
view of the Red Fort is similarly compromised by the imposition of a symmetrical framework. 5
Indian artists, however, were already producing under European influence architectural
elevations that also included perspective, such as those done for Lieutenant W lliam Stewart in
1787-90.6 After the Company's takeover of the Mughal heartlands in 1803,these seem to have
been influential in the formation of the new school of Agra, which produced drawings of the
great Mughal monuments in a European architectural draftsman style. From about 1815,sets of
Opposite:Detail of cat. no. 75
views of the Agra monuments also sometimes include Delhi landmarks such as the Jami Masjid
Fig.,. View of the east face of
and the Qutub Minar, as well as a panorama of the palace buildings along the east face of the
the Red Fort, by a Faizabad
artist. Delhi, [Link] Red Fort (fig. 2)." In all these Delhi views, as in those of Agra, the monuments are set against
on squared paper. H. 18 x

w. 87¾ in. (46 x 223 cm).

blank paper with little or no human involvement.
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris,
With the emperor sitting mo-e securely on his throne in Delhi after 1803,even though in
Gentil Collection, Es:ampes
Od 63, f.3 straitened circumstances, Mughal artists began to re-create Delhi's imperial past as a means of

53
impressing the emperor's paymasters in Calcutta. New versions of old paintings and manu- Fig. 2. Panoramic view of the
east face of the Red Fort.
scripts were produced that evoke the emperor's Mughal heritage and were gifted to visiting dig- Delhi and its environs, ea. 1820.
0
nitaries. Ghulam Ali Khan's 1817painting of Shahjahan's Diwan-i Khas (cat. no. 64), in contrast Watercolor on paper. H. 11¾ x
w. 37¼ in. (30 x 95 cm).
to earlier architectural drawings, is the first that places a Mughal building in its physical and cul- British Library, [Link].540

tural environment. It is depicted as the residence of the Mughal emperor, with appropriately
active participants in the scene. New illustrated copies of the histories of Shahjahan include
for the first time images of that emperor's buildings.'' One particular manuscript was given by
Akbar 11in 1815to the British magistrate at Allahabad, who had control of his imprisoned Favorite Fig. 3. The palace buildings of
the Red Fort with Shahjahan
son, Mirza Jahangir, demonstrating the influential role such gifts were meant to play.A pictorial
riding past Delhi and its
sequence in this manuscript shows the major buildings of Delhi on the processional route from environs, ea. [Link]
watercolor on paper. Folio:
the Fatehpuri Masjid at the end of Chandni Chowk to the Diwan-i Am itself via the Lahore Gate H. 15½ x w. 9 1n.(39.5 x 23 cm).
Miniature: H. 5½ x w. 13¾ in.
and Naqqar Khana. Following this is a view of the palace buildings from across the river with
(14 x 35 cm). British Library,
Shahjahan riding past (fig. 3), a composition that was much imitated.' [Link] 20735, f,371

54 J.P. LOSTY
 Such a view, incorporating a panoramic vista (such as fig. 2) into a peopled landscape, Fig.4, Sita Ram (active ea
1810-22). The tomb of Safdar
heralds the beginning of the picturesque style of Delhi artists. Two further catalysts served to Jang, showing the garden

initiate this change. The first was the visit to Delhi in 1815of the Calcutta artist Sita Ram in the and water channel. 1815.
Watercolor on paper. H. 14½ x
retinue of the governor general, Lord Hastings.14 Sita Ram's paintings, in a picturesque style w. 20 in. (37 x 51cm). British
15 Library, [Link],4824
derived from William Hodges, include thirty of Delhi alone (fig. 4). The other catalyst was the
portraits in landscape settings commissioned from Delhi artists by the Fraser brothers in 1815-16
(cat. no. 45).16The freedom of these paintings from courtly conventions of portraiture must have
encouraged Delhi artists to follow their example in other genres, such as topography.
Around 1820Delhi artists began to depict Mughal build ngs in their landscape settings with
participants Sita Ram's views of the garden tombs of Humayun and Safdar Jang (fig. 4) clearly
originated a new fashion in Delhi artists' drawings of monuments (cat. no. 66).17 Two drawings
dated 1822 and ascribed to Ghulam Ali Khan suggesthis influential role in this movement (see figs.
2 and 3 on p. 43).18The drawings ascribed to Ghulam Ali Khan of 1817and 1822were copied in other
contemporary sets that contained mostly Delhi views,'9as witri two aquatints by the Daniel ls (cat.
nos. 68 and 69)."° Such sets remained the standard for future subjects and their compositions
were replicated in turn.2' Comparing the southeast view of the Red Fort from 1822(see fig. 3 on
p.43) with the only slightly earlier panoramic view (fig. 2), it is clear that the latter portrays the Delhi
palace as left by Shahjahan, whereas the former depicts it as It actually appeared about [Link] is
evident that new buildings in a European style have been erected within Shahjahan'scourtyards.

DEPICTING DELHI 55
Fig. 5. Mirza Shah Rukh Beg
(active ea. 1840-55). The
Akbarabadi Masjid in the Faiz
Bazaar,from SyedAhmed
Khan'sAsaral-Sanadid. Delhi,
1847-Woodcut print. H. 73/ax
w. 12% in. (20 x 32 cm). British
Library, 14109.c.1,section 3,
between pp. 36-37

-=----...:..~+::::::i:-----~-·-- ....-""::.

By the 1830s,Delhi's revival as a center of culture produced a lively interest in the in numerable
antiquities between Shahjahanabad and the Qutub Minar twenty miles to the south.23 The anti-
quarians were led by two very dissimilar [Link] Theophilus Metcalfe (1795-1853)was from
1835until his death the agent, that is, the intermediary between the Company's government in Cal-
cutta and the Mughal "King of Delhi." 'Metcalfe had lived in Delhi since 1813,and in 1830started
building Metcalfe House by the river north of the city, where he housed his family's possessions
brought from England. He was the president of the Archaeological Society of Delhi, of which the
leading Indian investigator was the young jurist SyedAhmed Khan (1817-1898).The latter's research
resulted in 1847in the first edition of his Asara/-Sanadid,
an account in Urdu of the history of Delhi
and of its monuments, which was dedicated to Metcalfe. It is illustrated with nearly 130wood-
cuts by the artists Faiz Ali Khan and Mirza Shah Rukh Beg (fig. 5). The latter is known to be
Ghulam Ali Khan's nephew, suggesting the interconnectedness of these Delhi studios.
Metcalfe was also writing about the history of Delhi's monuments in an album called Remi-
niscencesof Imperial Delhi, illustrated with over a hundred paintings that he obtained from the
topographical artist Mazhar Ali Khan.-' Mazhar Ali Khan had made his debut around 1840 in a
painting that shows the Jami Masjid in dramatic foreshortening from the rooftops to the north
(cat. no. 73). An artist for whom difficult viewpoints held no terrors, he was obviously prepared
to visit actual sites to make sketches rather than rely on earlier artists' work.'' His antecedents are
unknown, but he was probably related to, and initially trained by, Ghulam Ali Khan. The senior
artist concentrated more on portraiture after his 1827work for Colonel James Skinner, which
had included two landscapes portraying Skinner's farm and his troops in review (cat. nos. 59 and
60). It seems likely that Mazhar Ali Khan painted the exterior and interior views of Skinner's
church of St. James near the Kashmir Gate, which was finished and consecrated in 1836 (cat.
no. 72), although the landscape style is somewhat different.'

56 J.P. LOSTY
 Both Metcalfe's and Syed Ahmed Khan's books include not just the palace and the major
mosques and tombs but also the lesser-known monuments of Shahjahanabad and the older
cities of Delhi that had never been drawn before, as well as contemporary buildings such as
Metcalfe House, Begam Samru's house, and David Ochterlony's country house Mubarik Bagh
("Happy Garden"). Metcalfe's writing is apparently unmethodical, darting from one building to
another, but the logic that informs it is his relationship with Bahadur Shah. Some of the high-
lights in his album include views of the emperor's private quarters within the palace (fig. 6), for

Fig. 6. Mazhar Ali Khan

(active ea. 1840-55).
The Tasbih Khana viewed
from the Diwan-i Khas and
the Scales of Justice screen.
Ca. 1840. Watercolor on
paper, Folio: It. 9¼ )( w. 71/:.:
in.
(25 x 19 cm). Miniature:3¼ x
w. 5¼ in. (8 x 13 cm). British
Library, [Link].5475, f.30

DEPICT NG DELHI 57
which, no doubt, Metcalfe had gained access for Mazhar Ali Khan. Syed Ahmed Khan, on the
other hand, proceeds in a logical fashion: the sections of his book correspond to the different
phases of the history of Delhi."
A major product of this artistic and cultural context is the large-scale panorama of Delhi,
15
nearly sixteen feet (S m) long, signed by Mazhar Ali Khan in 1846 (cat. no. 75). Beneath the
lower frame, buildings are identified in Persian, transliterated Urdu, and English. The artist's
viewpoint is from the top of the Fort's Lahore Gate, the dramatic foreshortening of which recalls
his earlier view of the Jami Masjid (cat. no. 73). The eye is naturally led by the artist's orthogonals
first along the lines of the gateway north toward Metcalfe House in the distance, the opening
building of the whole panorama; and second along the axis of the Chattah (entrance arcade)
36
toward the heart of the imperial [Link] is a stance that connects the Briton and the Mughal.
Although no inscription links the panorama directly to him, it would seem that Metcalfe is thus
being honored as the patron.3i
The panorama is the culmination but not the end of the Delhi topographical school.
38
Mazhar Ali Khan's studio continued to produce images of Delhi's monuments. A new devel-
opment is small panoramic vistas, one of which appears in Metcalfe's Delhi Book,while versions
on ivory occur a little later (cat. no. 71).39 By the 1860s the major topographical artist was Ismail
40
Khan, whose view of the Qutub Minar on a large oval sheet of ivory is one of his best works. He
and his studio, and perhaps his rivals,continued to turn out topographical views, usually painted
41
on ivory, often mounted as brooches or other items of jewelry or inlaid into carved ebony
12
frames or into boxes: As for Mazhar Ali Khan himself, he is said to have gone off to Arabia to
produce paintings of all the sacred monuments of Islam at the request of the Grand Sharif of
Mecca. That Delhi artists did paint views of the shrines of the Middle Eastis quite certain. A prob-
able member of the family, Abdallah ibn Muhammad Dihlavi, is the artist of a large panoramic
view of Mecca in the style of Mazhar Ali Khan's Delhi panorama:~

NOTES 5. Also the Jami Masjid in the same style (Museum fur Asiatische
1. See Losty, "Delineating Delhi; for an analysis of the earlier Kunst, Berlin, I 5005, ff. 2 and 11).For Mihr (hand's authorship,
stylistic development of topographical drawings in Delhi. see Roy, "Artist Mihr Chand," 176-79, and Roy,"Origins of the
2. British Library, [Link].1790; Falkand Archer, Indian Miniatures, Late Mughal Painting Tradition," in Markel and Gude, India's
no. 190. See also Sharma, "Miniatures to Monuments," for the FabledCity, followed by figs. 130 and 131in the latter book.
stylistic and cultural significance of the imagery of the Red Fort. Several later versions are known.
3. Victoria and Albert Museum, AL 1754and AL 1761-1764. 6. For Stewart's drawings see Losty, "Delineating Delhi."
See Gole, "Three Maps of Shajahanabad"; Archer, Company The drawings are in the Braybrooke Collection and are
Painrings,no. 100; Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi, figs. 28 now (in part) at Audley End House, Essex;see Archer,
and 30. A late-eighteenth-century plan of the Red Fort in the CompanyPainrings,129. Some are on loan to the Victoria
Jaipur Kapadvara, which also employs plan and elevation and Albert Museum.
traditionally, seems the first to record both the internal court- 7. First documented in Archer, CompanyDrawings, 166-96.
yards and the true perimeter of the outer walls (Gole, Indian Seealso Pal and Dehejia, FromMerchantsto Emperors;
Maps, no. 95, p. 176). Pal et al., Romanceof the Taj Mahal; and Archer, Company
4. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Estampes Od 63: catalogued Painrings,129-53.
in Hurel, Miniatures et peinturesindiennes,no. 287, and all 8. For example, British Library, [Link].1787, with a watermark
reproduced in Lafont and Lafont, Frenchand Delhi. date of 1808, and [Link].540, with one of 1816;see Archer,
CompanyDrawings,175-78.

58 J.P. LOSTY
9. The nineteenth-century paintings in the Wantage Album 26. Gupta, "The Indomitable City," in Ehlers and Krafh,
(reproduced in Stronge, Paintingfor the Mughal Emperor, Shahjahanabad/Old Delhi, 38. For an English version of this
145-49) and Kevorkian Album (reproduced in Welch, important book, see Nath, Monumenrs of Delhi.
Emperors'Album), among others, are products of this phase. 27. As inscribed on a painting dated to 1855now in San Diego,
10. British library, [Link]-4694. reproduced in Goswamy and Smith, Domainsof Wonder,
11. Titley, Miniatures from PersianManuscripts, nos. 281-82; Losty, no.120.
Arr of the Book,nos. 107,[Link] original Padshahnama(Royal 28. British Library, [Link].5475.
library, Windsor; see Beach and Koch, King of the World) 29. Metcalfe's Delhi Bookdescended in the family, being pub-
contains no illustrations of Shah Jahan's architectu·e. lished in part in Kaye, Golden Calm, until sold in 1985.
12. British Library, [Link] 20735, ff. 367-70, the 'Amal-i Salih 30. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS 482-1950, fr~m a small set
by Muhammad Salih Kanbu (Titley, Miniatures from Persian with a watermark of 1834(IS 481 to 484-1950; reproduced in
Manuscripts,no. 281). Archer, Company Paintings,149).
13. For example, Victoria and Albert Museum, IM 21-1923,repro- 31. He and his studio produced sets of views frcm the late 1830s
duced in Archer, Company Paintings,[Link] in Metcalfe's on, e.g. an unascribed set with watermarked dates of 1830-36
Reminiscences
of Imperial Delhi (seep. 56). (Victoria and Albert Museum, IM 19 to 60-1923; Archer,
14. Hastings never actually went to Delhi, being unable to agree Company Paintings,145-49).
to terms for meeting Akbar II, but lady Hastings did, taking 32. National Army Museum, London, 1956-02-27-4 and 5
Sita Ram with her. 33. Metcalfe's main task was to make sure that Bahadur Shah was
15 Hodges's SelectViewsin India was publishPo 1786-88 Sita thP l;::1,;;t
Pmperor to occupy thP Red Fort; his heir, approved by
Ram drew 230 views of the monuments and landscapes of the Company, would live in retirement at the summer palace
India during this journey. See Losty, "Delineating Delhi," for in Mehrauli after his accession.
Sita Ram's views of Delhi. 34. For more information on the first and second editions of the
16. British library, [Link]-4057, for example. See Archer and Falk, book, see Nairn, "Syed Ahmad."
India Revealed,nos. 71-75, etc. 35. British Library, [Link]-4126; reproduced in Losty, "The
17. British library, [Link].1809 and 1810(Archer, Company Delhi Palace."
Drawings,184-85, pls. 66 and 67), and Royal Institute of 36. Rather as in Metcalfe's Delhi Book,which contains an Urdu
British Architects Drawings Collection SB92/4. poem by Bahadur Shah dedicated to and translated by
18. See Losty, "Delineating Delhi." Also see Sharma, "Art and Metcalfe: "In heart we are united, tho' 'tis clear/ We to the
Praxis." world, as if estrang'd appear/ My anxious thoughts will ever
19. British Library, [Link]-547-557 and 3119-3125(Archer, turn to thee/ And this will teach you to remember me"
Company Drawings,185-87, pl. 61), with watermarks of 1817. (British Library, [Link].5475, ff. 4v, 5).
20. British Library, [Link].533 and [Link].548, the Qudsia Bagh 37. The inscriptions beneath the house give him due recognition:
and the Jami Masjid, based on the Daniells' aquatints pub- "Cothy Sir [Link] (kothi Tamas Siyafilas Matkaf Sahib
lished in 1795and 1797. Bahadur)." A large and important map of Shahjahanabad, dat-
21. The gates of the Red rort and the Diwan-i Khas wi1hin (cat. able to 1846-47 1 with Urdu inscriptions is similarly a product of
no. 64), the external view from the southeast (p. 43, fig. 3), this intellectual climate and is perhaps also due to Metcalfe's
the principal Mughal mosques and tombs (cat. no. 69), the patronage (British Library, 10 Maps X/1659; Ehlers and Krafft,
Qudsiya Bagh (cat. no. 68), along with the kotla of Firoz Shah, Shahjahanabad)
the Qutub Minar, and the shrine of Nizamuddin (cat. no. 74) 38. For example, British Library, [Link]-4668 (reproduced In
to represent earlier monuments. Losty, Delhi 360°, fig. 9), and [Link].4669 (Losty, "Delineating
22. For the palaces within the Red Fort built by Akbar ll's brothers Delhi").
and sons, see Losty, "The Delhi Palace in 1846: A Panoramic 39. British Library, [Link].5475, f. 11v,in the DelhiBook;Victoria and
View by Mazhar 'Ali Khan," in Crill, Stronge, and Topsfield, Albert Museum, 03563 (IS), and British Library, [Link].5476,
Arts of Mughal India, 286-302. both on ivory.
23. For the cultural and intellectual life of this period, see 40. British library, [Link]-4692. Ismail Khan was criticized for
Andrews and Nazir, Zaka Ullah; Spear, Twilightof the Mughuls; often working from photographs (see refere~ces ,n Archer
Russell, Ghalib; Gupta, Delhi betweenTwo Empires,eh. 1; and Archer, Indian Painting,70-71).
Frykenberg, Delhi through the Ages,sec. 2. 41. Archer, Company Paintings,nos. 266-76.
24. Downgraded from that of Resident after Charles Metcalfe's 42. Victoria and Albert Museum, IS 2-1957,reproduced in Archer,
departure in 1827. Company Paintings,no. 279.
25. His daughter Emily Clive Bayley has written memorably about 43. Now in the collection of Dr. David Khalili. The ascription
him and the house in her reminiscences, published partly in reads "Muhammad-i Abdallah naqsha-i navis Dihli" (Abdallah
Kaye, GoldenCalm. son of Mu ham mad the cartographer of Deir i).

DEPICTING DELHI 59
 BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR
AND THE UPRISING OF 1857

William Dalrymple

In the early 1850s,the young poet Altaf Husain Hali fled from an unhappy arranged marriage in
Panipat and walked the fifty-three miles down the Grand Trunk Road to Delhi, alone and penni-
less and sleeping rough.
What drew him was not the prospect of love or money, but the siren call of Delhi's artistic,
cultural, and intellectual brilliance "Everyone wanted me to look for a job," he wrote later, "but
my passion for learning prevailed." Delhi was then at the peak of its literary and academic vital-
ity, with six famous madrasas (colleges) and at least four smaller ones, nine newspapers in Urdu
and Persian,five intellectual journals published out of Delhi College, innumerable printing presses,
bookbinders, and publishers, a famous school of music, no less than 130 unani doctors, and
hosts of renowned calligraphers and painters.2 Here, too, many of the new wonde·s uncovered
by western science were being translated for the first time into Arabic, Urdu, and Persian,and in
the many madrasas the air of intellectual open-mindedness and excitement was palpable.3
But the biggest draw of all, as far as Hali was concerned, were the court poets and intellec-
tuals, men such as Ghalib, Zauq, Sahbai, and Azurda: "By some good fortune," wrote Hali, "there
gathered at this time in the capital, Delhi, a band of men so talented that their meetings and
assemblies recalled the days of Akbar and Shahjahan."'" Hal i's family tracked hirn [Link]-
ally, but before they found him and hauled him back to married life in the mofussii (provinces),
he was able to gain admittance to the "very spacious and beautiful" madrasa of Husain Baksh,
and to begin his studies there. "I saw with my own eyes this last brilliant glow of learning in Delhi,"
he wrote in old age, "the thought of which now makes my heart crack with regret"
Despite 150 years of political reverses and several massacres, Delhi was once again the
largest precolonial city in India-a position it had recently regained from Lucknow-and as the
Dar ul-Mulk, the seat of the Mughal, was the epitome of an elegant Mughal metropolis. "In this
beautiful city," wrote the poet Mir, "the streets are not mere streets, they are like the album of a
painter." 6 A similar idea was conveyed by another Delhi writer of the period, who compared the
waters of the canals of Delhi's gardens to the burnished border on an illuminated manuscript
Opposite:Cat. no. 86 page: "Its waters, like mercury, ajadval (margin) of pure silver running over a page of stone."

61
 At the same time as the ruling houses of Murshidabad and Lucknow were experimenting
with western fashions and western classicalarchitecture, Delhi remained generally a proud center
of Mughal style. There were still relatively few Europeans in Delhi-probably under a hundred
within the walls. As the poet and literary critic Azad later put it, "those were the days when if a
European was seen in Delhi, people considered him an extraordinary sample of God's handi-
work, and pointed him out to each other: 'Look, there goes a European!'" Partly as a result of
this, Delhi in the early 1850sremained a profoundly self-confident place, quite at ease with the
superiority of its tahzib,its cultured urbanity, and remained a confident bubble of Mughal tradi-
tionalism in a fast-changing India. When someone in Shahjahanabad wished to praise another
citizen of the city, he would still reach for the ancient yardsticks of medieval Islamic rhetoric,
cloaked in time-worn poetic tropes: the women of Delhi were as tall and slender as cypresses;
the Delhi men as learned as Plato, as wise as Solomon; their physicians were as skilled as Galen.
Rather like modern New Yorkers, Delhiwallahs of the early nineteenth century took as little
interest as possible in the world beyond their own beloved streets, and struggled to imagine
anyone ever wishing to live anywhere else. As the poet Zauq put it, "Kaun jaye Zauq par Dilli ki
galian chhor kar" (How could anyone, 0 Zauq, forsake Delhi and its lanes?). He was speaking in
hyperbole; but behind such writing lay a palpable pride in a great city whose reputation as a
center of learning, culture, and spirituality had rarely been higher, even as its fortunes had dra-
matically waned. In this sense Delhi in the 1850srepresented something unusual: a city under-
going a major cultural renaissance at a time of catastrophic political reversal.
If there was one thing in which the town was most confident, it was in the beauty and ele-
gance of its language. According to the late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century scholar
Maulvi Abd ul-Haq, "Anyone who has not lived in Delhi could never be considered a real con-
noisseur of Urdu. It is as if the steps of the Jama Masjid [the principal mosque in Delhi] are a
school of fine language."This intoxication with the elegance of Delhi's languagewas common to
both men and women-there was a special dialect of Delhi Urdu only used in the women's
quarters-and perhaps more surprisingly, to all classes. The Gardenof Poetry,a collection of
Urdu verse published in 1850,contains no less than 540 poets from Delhi, ranging from the
emperor and fifty members of his family to a poor water-seller in Chandni Chowk, a merchant in
Punjabi Katra, "Farasu"-an elderly German Jewish mercenary, one of a surprising number of
Europeans in Delhi who had taken to Mughal culture-a young wrestler, a courtesan, and a
9
barber At least fifty-three of these Urdu poets have clearly Hindu names. There was no other
city like this. In Delhi, poetry "was discussed in every house," wrote Maulvi Abdul-Haq, for "the
Emperor himself was a poet and a connoisseur of poetry" and "the language of the exalted fort
was the essence of refinement.""
Most Delhiwallahs would have agreed with the maulvi: at the center of everything lay the
court, and at the center of the court lay the emperor. Bahadur Shah 11,known from his pen
name as Zafar ("Victory"), was the direct descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur, of Akbar and
Shahjahan. He was born in 17751 when the British were still a relatively modest and mainly coastal
power in India, looking inward from three enclaves on the Indian shore. In his lifetime he saw his
own dynasty reduced to humiliating insignificance, while the British transformed themselves
from vulnerable traders into an aggressivemilitary force.

62 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE
 Zafar came late to the throne, succeeding his father on_lyin his mid-sixties, when it was
already impossible to reverse the political decline of the Mughals. The celebrated coronation
portrait by Ghulam Ali Khan shows him at this time. Although Zafar is painted as emperor
against the imperial Mughal scales of justice, and although he is weighed down with enough
diamonds and pearls to form almost a jeweled armor over his torso, his face and demeanor are
nevertheless that of a Sufi ascetic. Indeed his bearing is as ethereal and otherworldly as that of a
desert father from the apse of some Coptic monastery. His huge brown eyes are looking away
from the viewer, as if he is lost in a trance, and he seems almost to be floating over his throne,
subject to the laws of gravity thanks only to the weight of the crown anchoring him to the ter-
restrial world. Ghulam Ali Khan very deliberately created an image of a man who was both king
and saint. Indeed Zafar was regarded as a Sufi pir (master), and used to accept pupils, or murids.
The loyal newspaper Dihli Urdu Akhbar even went as far as calling him "one of the leading saints
of the age, approved of by the divine court."
The artist describes himself in an inscription on another version of this picture as "the
hereditary slave of the dynasty, Ghulam Ali Khan the painter, resident at Shahjahanabad," and
elsewhere he signs himself "His Majesty's Painter"; but although his family was in the process of
becoming hereditary painters to the Mughal throne, the truth was slightly more cor1plex. Zafar
no longer had sufficient funds to employ Ghulam Ali Khan exclusively, and to survive the painter
had to moonlight as an architectural and portrait painter to several other members of court,
notably the Nawab of Jhajjar, whom Ghulam Ali Khan memorably painted astride his pet tiger
(cat. no. 76). Ghulam Ali Khan also had to take work from the British, including :he Rajput-
Scottish cavalry officer James "Sikander Sahib" Skinner and the East India Company assistant
Resident at the Mughal court, William Fraser.
It was Zafar's great achievement to create around him in Delhi a court of great brilliance
despite the severe economic limits of his patronage. Much was done by example Personally,
Zafar was one of the most talented, tolerant, and likable emperors of his dynasty: a skilled cal-
ligrapher, a profound writer on Sufism, a discriminating patron of miniature painters, an inspired
creator of gardens, and an amateur architect. Most importantly, he was a very serious mystical
poet, who wrote in not only Urdu and Persian but Punjabi and Braj Bhasha, and partly through
his patronage there took place one of the great literary renaissances in modern Indian history.
Himself aghazal writer ot great accomplishment, Zatar also provided, through his coJrt, a show-
case for the talents of India's greatest lyric poet, Ghalib, and his rival Zauq-the Mughal poet
laureate, and the Salieri to Ghalib's Mozart.
The closest focused record of the Red Fort at this final period is the court diary kept daily
by the British akhbar navis, or news wri:er, between 1851and 1854. The diary contains a detailed
day-by-day picture of court life. Zafar appears as a benign old man, daily having olive oil rubbed
on his feet to soothe his aches, occasionally rousing himself to visit a garden, go on a hunting
expedition, or host a mushaira (poetic gathering). Afternoons were spent watching his ele-
phants being bathed in the Yamuna, and evenings "enjoying the moonlight," listening to ghazal
singers, or eating fresh mangoes from the Hayat Baksh [Link] the while the aged emperor
tries to contain the infidelities of his young concubines, one of whom becomes pregnant by the
celebrated court musician Tanras Khan.

BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR AND THE UPRISING OF 1857 63

 Throughout Zafar comes across as both extremely religious and extremely superstitious:
his principal interest appears to lie in constructing and visiting shrines, and conversing with the
Sufi mystics of Delhi.· His team of court astrologers are in constant attendance." On one occa-
16
sion, in public darbar, he chastises Ghalib for his "want of religion." While the British progres-
sively took over more and more of the Mughal emperor's power, removing his name from the
coins, seizing complete control even of the city of Delhi itself, and finally laying plans to remove
the Mughals altogether from the Red Fort, the court was lost in a last idyll of pleasure gardens,
mushairas,Sufi devotions, and visits to pirs, as literary and religious ambition replaced the politi-
cal variety.''
The most complete pictorial record that exists of the cultural effervescence of the last
days of Mughal Delhi comes from the patronage not of Zafar, nor of the Mughal court itself, but
of Zafar's nemesis, the British Resident Sir Thomas Metcalfe. Between 1842and 1844Metcalfe
commissioned a series of images of the monuments, ruins, palaces, and shrines of the city from
the painter Mazhar Ali Khan, nephew of Ghulam Ali Khan (see fig. 6 on p. 57). He later had the
images bound into an album, Reminiscences
of ImperialDelhi,and wrote a long descriptive text
as an accompaniment; he sent the album to his daughter Emily as she headed from an English
schooling to join her father in Delhi.
Metcalfe was a very different man from the White Mughals who preceded him. He would
never have dreamed of dressing as Sir David Ochterlony had, in full Mughal pagri and jama.
Instead, he arranged that his London tailors, Pulford of St. James's Street, should regularly send
out to Delhi a chest of sober but fashionable English clothes. His one concession to Indian taste
was to smoke a silver huqqa. • Much of Metcalfe's professional life was dedicated to laying the
groundwork for abolishing the Mughal dynasty, and for negotiating a succession settlement that
would allow the Company to expel the royal family from the Red Fort on the death of Zafar."
Zafar may have dedicated a poem to him, but Metcalfe had little respect for this man he was
determined should be the last of the Timurid line.'·
The reaction to the increasingly aggressive British encroachment finally came on a May
morning in 1857,when three hundred mutinous sepoys from Meerut rode into Delhi, massacred
every Christian they could find in the city, and declared Zafar to be their leader. Powerless as he
was in so many ways,Zafar was still widely regarded as the khalifa, God's regent on earth, and the
focus of political legitimacy in northern lndia.n For this reason many ordinary people in North
India responded to Zafar's appeal to rise up against the arrogant bureaucrats of the East India
Company. All this came as something of a surprise to the British. Seeing only the powerlessness
of Zafar, the British had ceased to recognize the charisma that the name of the Mughal still pos-
sessed for both Hindus and Muslims. Mark Thornhill, the British collector in Mathura, recorded
his own surprise immediately after the rebel capture of Delhi:

Their talk was all about the ceremonial of the palace and how it would be revived.. . As I listened I
realised as I never had done before the deep impression that the splendour of the ancient court had
made on the popular imagination, how dear to them were the traditions and how faithfully, all unknown
to us, they had preserved them. There was something weird in the Mogul Empire thus starting into a
sort of phantom life after the slumber of a hundred years.22

64 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE
 For many the appeal of the Mughal emperor was as much religious as political. As far as the
participants were concerned, the rising was overwhelmingly expressed as a war of religion, and
looked upon as a defensive action against the rapid inroads missionaries were making in India,
as well as a more generalized fight for freedom from foreign domination. As the sepoys told
Zafar on May 11,1857,"We have joined hands to protect our religion and our faith." 13
The Siege of Delhi was the Raj'sStalingrad: a crucial fight to the death between two forces,
neither of whom could possibly afford to retreat. For the four hottest months of the Indian
summer, the beautiful Mughal capital was bombarded by British artillery. The city was left with-
out water, and the combatants on both sides driven to the limits of extreme physical and mental
endurance. Finally,on September 14,1857,the British assaulted and took the city, sacking, mas-
sacring, and looting as they went. Anyone who survived the genocide was driven out into the
countryside. Delhi was left an empty ruin.
In the weeks that followed, the vengeful British oversaw the wholesale destruction of great
areas of Mughal Delhi. The Red Fort was plundered, and much of it, including the exquisite
harem courts, was razed to the ground-though this was not enough for the Lahore Chronicle,
which wanted the entire city leveled as retribution for the sufferings of the British women and
children murdered in the outbreak_'..Though the royal family had surrendered peacefully, three
of the emperor's sons were shot in cold blood. Those who were spared were left in humiliating
and conspicuous poverty. As Ghalib la-nented, "The male descendants of the deposed King-
such as survived the sword-draw allowances of five rupees a month. The female descendants
if old are bawds, and if you rig, pro:,Lilule:,."
Ghalib was fated to be one of the few survivors from the old court. By his own estimate,
there were barely a thousand Muslims left in the city; many of his best friends and rivals were
dead, while the others were scattered "in ditches and mud huts" in the surrounding countryside.
He was, he wrote to a friend, "a swimmer in this ocean of blood." '6
In due course, the emperor himself was put on show trial in the ruins of his old palace,
and sentenced to banishment. He left his beloved Delhi on a peasant's bullock cart. With him
collapsed the court culture he had faithfully nourished and exemplified. In the years that fol-
lowed, the still-living Mughal miniature and architectural tradition would soon come to a grind-
ing halt in the face of tropical Gothic colonial architecture and other Victorian art forms. The
elaborate politeness of Mughal etiquette came to be regarded as merely anachronistic. The
poetic world represented by Zafar's m.1shairaswould find it increasingly hard to at:ract young
Indian intellectuals seduced by the Wordsworthian naturalism now taught in English-medium
schools: As the literary critic Azad put it: "The important thing is that the glory of the winners'
ascendant fortune gives everything of theirs-even their dress, their gait, their conversation-a
radiance that makes them desirable. And people do not merely adopt them, but they are proud
to adopt them." 2'
With the loss of the Mughal court went much of the city's reputation as a center of culture
and learning. Its libraries had been looted, its precious manuscripts lost. The madrasaswere almost
all closed, and their buildings were again mostly bought up-and in time demolished-by Hindu
moneylenders. ' By 1859 Ghalib was complaining that he could not find a single bookseller,
binder, or calligrapher in this once mos: bookish of cities.~

BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR AND THE UPRISING OF 1857 65

 Without the Delhi College and the great madrasas,without the printing presses and the
Urdu newspapers,and without the Mughal court-whose immense cultural prestige alwayscom-
pensated for the monetary constrictions on its actual powers of patronage-and most of all
without the emperor there to act as a focus and, to some extent, catalyst, the driving force
behind great Delhi's renaissance and artistic flourishing was gone. The beating heart of lndo-
lslamic civilization had been ripped out, and could not be replaced. As Ghalib wrote as he
neared death, "All these things lasted only so long as the King reigned."3
Separated from everyone and everything he loved, senile and half-crazed with sorrow and
regret, the last of the Great Mughals died in exile in Rangoon, aged eighty-seven. At 4 p.m on a
dark, wet winter's evening in November 1862,a cheap coffin was escorted by a small group of
British soldiers to an anonymous grave at the back of a walled prison enclosure, somewhere on
the outskirts of Rangoon. The British authorities had made sure not only that the grave was
already dug but that large quantities of lime were on hand to guarantee the rapid decay of both
plywood and body. When the briefest of funeral prayers had been recited, the earth was thrown
in, and the turf replaced so that within a month or two no mark would remain to indicate the
place of burial.
A week later the British commissioner in charge of the funeral, Captain H. N. Davis,wrote
to London to report what had passed,adding,

Have since visited the remaining State Prisoners-the very scum of the reduced Asiatic harem; found
all correct. None of the family appear much affected by the death of the bed-ridden old man. His
death was evidently due to pure decrepitude and paralysis in the region of the throat. He expired at s
O'clock on the morning of the funeral. The death of the ex-King may be said to have had no effect on
the Mahomedan part of the populace of Rangoon, except perhaps for a few fanatics who watch and
pray for the final triumph of Islam. A bamboo fence surrounds the grave for some considerable dis-
tance, and by the time the fence is worn out the grass will again [Link] covered the spot, and no
vestage will remain to distinguish where the last of the Great Moghuls rests."

It was a tragic end for a period that had begun with so much optimism and fruitful coexis-
tence. Perhaps the best epitaph was written by Zafar himself:

Delhi was once a paradise,

Where Love held sway and reigned;
But its charm lies ravished now
And only ruins remain.

No tears were shed when shroudless they

Were laid in common graves;
No prayers were read for the noble dead,
Unmarked remain their graves.

But things cannot remain, 0 Zafar,

Thus for who can tell?
Through God's great mercy and the Prophet
All may yet be well."

66 WILLIAM DALRYMPLE
NOTES 17. Pritchett, Nets of Awareness,10.
1. l lali, Kutliyat-e Nasir, vol. 1, p. 344 1 cited in Pritchett, Nets of 18. Bayley, Golden Calm, 124-28.

Awareness,14 19. As he wrote to his daughter Emily, "[Zafar] is mild and talented,
2. Margrit Pernau, "Middle Class and Secularisation: The but lamentably weak and vacillating and impressed with very
Muslims of Delhi in the 19th Century," in Ahmad and Reifeld, erroneous notions of his own importance, procuctive of great
Middle ClassValues,21-42. mortification to himself and occasionally of much trouble to
3. See Nizami, "Madrasahs, Scholars and Saints," 170,on the the local authorities." Ibid., 35.
surprising openness of the ulema during this period to taking 20. See British Library, [Link].5475 ff.3v-4.
on and absorbing the new innovations and discoveries of 21. As the inscription of the coronation portrait records, he was
western science. "His Divine Highness, Caliph of the Age, Padshah as Glorious
4. Cited in Russell, Oxford India Ghalib, 40. as Jamshed, He who is Surrounded by Hosts of Angels, Shadow
5. Cited in Pritchett, Nets of Awareness,6 and 14. of God, Refuge of Islam, Protector of the Muhammadan
6. Mir Taqi Mir, quoted in Sadiq, History of Urdu Literature,100. Religion, Offspring of the House of Timur, Greatest Emperor,
7- Muhammad Salih Kanbu, quoted in Narayani Gupta "From Mightiest King of Kings, Emperor son of Emperor, Sultan son
Architecture to Archaeology: The 'Monumentalising' of of Sultan,"
Delhi's History in the Nineteenth Century," in Malik, 22. Thornhill, PersonalAdventures,7,
Perspectivesof Mutual Encounters. 23. National Archives of India, Mutiny Papers,Collection 60,
8. Azad, ed., D,van-e-Zauq,145,cited in Pritchett, Nets Jf number8.;1u.
Awareness,6. 24. Cited in Jalal, Selfand Sovereignty,38.
9. Pritchett, Nets of Awareness,10. 25. Cited in Russell and Islam, Ghalib, 269.
10. Cited in ibid., 10. The introduction to the English translation 26. Cited in Verma, Ghalib, 153.
of My Life by Nawab Server ul Mulk remarks, "The original 27. Pritchett's wonderful Nets of Awarenessconta ns the best
autobiography is in Urdu and is written in the choice language account yet written of the loss of lndo-Muslim cultural
and in a style which would only be attained by a Delhi man, and confidence following 1857,
one who had intimate associations with the Red Fort, where 28. Cited in Pritchett, Nets of Awareness,xvi.
the best and most elegant Urdu was spoken." 29. Nizami, "Madrasahs, Scholars and Saints," 19.
11. National Archives of India, PalaceIntelligence. 30. Cited in Gupta, Delhi betweenTwo Empires,41.
12. Ibid. For fresh mangoes from Hayat Baksh Bagh, see entry for 31. Cited in Pritchett, Nets of Awareness,29. There is a school of
September 22, 1853;for music, see Saturday, August 13,1853. thought, championed by C. M. Nairn, which argues that Zafar
13. Ibid. For oil rubbing, see entry for March 29, 1852;for hunting, and the court had only a nominal influence on the Delhi
April 13,1852;for visiting gardens, April 16, 1852;for enjoying Renaissance, and that it flourished most successfully in cen-
moonlight, September 10,1852;for watching bathing elephants, ters of intellectual endeavor removed from the court such as
July 26, 1853;for infidelities of Zafar's [Link] 17, Delhi College and the madrasas. Yet the same elite-men like
1853;for other pregnancies among the imperial concubines, Sahbai, Fazl-i Haq, and Aazurda-moved between mushairas,
August 30, 1853. madrasas, lecture halls, and Zafar's darbar, and it seems-at
14. Ibid. For Zafar's ordering the construction of a shrine in the least in the eyes of this writer-difficult to separate one from
New Garden, see entry for November 11, 1853. the other. Certainly with the fall of the city, all disappeared
15. Ibid. For astrologer, see for example entry for August 23, 1853, at the same time in the same cataclysm.
when Zafar gives a cow to the poor on the advice of his astrolo- 32. Burke and Quraishi, BahadurShah, 204-5.
gers. For flower necklaces, see entry for October 14,1853. 33. Zafar, as translated by Ahmed Ali ,n The GoldenTradition, 211.
16. Ibid. For shrines, see for example April 6, 1852;for Sdis, see
for example April 3, 1852;for Ghalib, see October 7, 1853.

BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR AND THE UPRISING OF 1857 67

·i~~~~~t

Rit~~t
 CATALOGUE

Yuthika Sharma with William Dalrymple

All catalogue entries are by Yuthika Sharma, unless otrerwise noted.
Unless otherwise noted, all works are by Indian artists.
SHAHJAHAN WATCHING AN ELEPHANT FIGHT, 2 Bhawanidas (active 1700-1750)
AN ILLUSTRATED MANUSCRIPT FOLIO FROM THE EMPEROR AURANGZEB BEING CARRIED
THE PADSHAHNAMA ON A PALANQUIN
Probably 1639 1700
Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
H. 15 x w. 9¾ in. (38.2 x 24.7 cm) H. 221/sx w. 151/sin. (58.1x 38-4 cm)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harris Brisbane Dick, Louis V. Bell, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Louis V. Bell Fund, 2003 (2003-430)
Pfeiffer and Dodge Funds, 1989(1989.135)

70 CATALOGUE
3 BAHADUR SHAH I WITH HIS SONS HANDING
A SARPECH TO A GRANDSON
ca.1710
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
H. 123/ax w. 9¼ in. (31-4 x 23.5cm)
The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990-368

Prince Muhammad Muazzam came to the throne as Shah Alam Bahadur Shah
after the death in 1707 of his father Alamgir I (Aurangzeb), whose reign had
lasted for nearly four decades. Bahadur Shah became emperor at sixty-two
years of age, his own reign lasting only five years before the question of suc-
cession to the Mughal throne was once again thrown open to a host of poten-
tial claimants.
In this rare iconographic grouping of Bahadur Shah and his descendants,
the emperor is shown presenting an exquisite emerald and ruby sarpech(tur-
ban ornament) with a tear-drop pearl at its tip to his grandson. who stands
with delicately outstretched hands in a full-length orange jama. The passing
of a sarpechusually served as a public gesture of the transmission of authority
to a chosen one. In this case the identity of the young prince remains ambigu-
ous.' It is possible that the four sons seated in audience are Jahandar Shah,
Azim ush-Shan, Rafi ush-Shan, and Jahan Shah, each of whose sons were to
ascend the Mughal throne at various points in the coming decades.~
Eighteenth-century portraits such as this one carry significant documen-
tary value; given the swift nature of political changes in this period, they are
likely to have been created contemporaneously.

NOTES
1. The grandson could be any one of the successors except Farrukhsiyar, who by his thirtieth year
sported a thick beard (see cat. no. 4). Another possibility is that the figures seated on the right are
Azim ush-Shan and Farrukhsiyar, which would support a much later date for the painting, prob-
ably from the beginning of the reign of Muhammad Shah, making this a posthumous grouping.
However, there is little resemblance between the features of the prince and early portraits of
Muhammad Shah, whose facial features were well standardized in paintings from the beginning
of his reign. Terence Mcinerney, "Mughal Painting during the Reign of Muhammad Shah," in
Schmitz, After the Great Mughals, 13-33. Also, Robert Skelton, personal correspondence,
February 2011. See cat. no. 6 for an early depiction of the ruler.
2. Farrukhsiyar (reigned 1713-19); Rafi ul-Darjat (reigned 1719);Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719-48);
Alamgir II (reigned 1754-59).

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS
Edwin Binney, "The Mughal and Deccani Schools," in Binney, Indian Miniature Painting,
pp. 96, 97, 98, 101; fig. 71,
Bowie, Islamic Art from Across t/1eWorld, p. 39, no. 143.

72 CATALOGUE
4 FARRUKHSIYAR RECEIVING HUSAIN ALI KHAN 5 A SEATED PORTRAIT OF SAYYID ABDULLAH KHAN
ca.1715 HOLDING COURT
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper Early 18th century
H. 13'/,• x w. 81/ain. (33.8 x 20.7 cm) Gouache on paper
Pai1e:H.15'/,• x w. 9 13/,• in. (38.9 x 25 cm) H.83/,6x w. 139/,6 in. (21.4 x 34-5cm)
British Library, J.18,5 The British Museum, 1921,1011,0-4

CATALOGUE 75
6 Muhammad Faqirullah Khan (active 1720-70)
MUHAMMAD SHAH BEING CARRIED ON A PALANQUIN
Delhi
ea. 1720-25
Drawing with ink, gold, and watercolor on paper
H. 109/,• x w. 13¾ in. (26.9 x 35 cm)
The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990.377

This miniature was part of Nana's Album, an album of seventeenth- and

eighteenth-century paintings remounted by the Maratha minister Nana
Phadnavis (1742-1800) in the late eighteenth century. It passed down from his
descendants to the family of AC Ardeshir of Pune.
The bejeweled young emperor Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719-48) is
seen here being carried by eight attendants on a palanquin. Muhammad Shah
came to the throne at the age of seventeen, and here his slim frame and soft
facial hair indicate that he is no more than twenty years of age (compare a
later portrait in which he appears to sport a much more imposing physical
frame, page 21, fig. 4). Two of the most important officials from Muhammad
Shah'sreign accompany the palanquin: Saadat Khan Burhan ul-Mulk, governor
of Agra and later Awadh (holding a fly whisk); and Khan Dauran, the mir bakshi
(also pictured in cat. no. 10). A third officer, Muzzafar Ali Khan, the mir atash
(commander of the artillery), salutes the emperor. This miniature is one of the
earliest depictions of the young Muhammad Shah. Muhammad Faqirullah
Khan's signature appears on the gold box beside the emperor, which sheds
light on the artist's early work in the Mughal atelier. Along with Chitarman,
Nidha Mai, Hunhar, Govardhan, and Bhupal Singh, Faqirullah Khan was part
of the circle of painters who worked for Muhammad Shah.' Later, the painter
worked on an important ragamala set of paintings (cat. no. 20).

NOTES
1. Later, this painting was part of Sotheby's March 26, 1973,sale of thirty-eight miniatures.
2. Also see Terence Mcinerney, "Mughal Painting during the Reign of Muhammad Shah,"
in Schmitz, After rhe GrearMughals,13-33.
3. For painters in Muhammad Shah's atelier, see Mcinerney, "Mughal Painting."

76 CATALOGUE
 l

~
i
I! ...

'I
i

;I "'
,<

jI
l lI
t

I •

I. 1-
7 A STANDING PORTRAIT OF MUHAMMAD SHAH 8 Nidha Mai (active 1735-75)
HOLDING A BOW AND ARROW, AS WELL AS JHAROKHA PORTRAIT OF MUHAMMAD SHAH HOLDING
A HUQQA PIPE AN EMERALD AND THE MOUTHPIECE OF A HUQQA
ea. 1720 ea. 1730
Gouache on paper Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
H. 10½6X W, 65/ain. (25.6 X 16.8cm) H.43/sx w. 3% in. (12.4 x 8.5 cm)
The British Museum, 1920,0917,0.325 The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990.376

CATALOGUE 79
Attributed to Nidha Mai (active 1735-75)
MUHAMMAD SHAH IN A GARDEN
ea. 1735
Ink, light colors, and gold on paper
H. 18½ x w. 2815/io in. (47 x 73.5 cm)
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Francis Bartlett Donation of 1912and
Museum purchase with funds donated by contribution, 191414.686
Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

This majestic view of the privy gardens of the palace of the Red Fort stands
out as one of great landscape panoramas of Indian painting. To the left, Emperor
Muhammad Shah is seen on horseback accompanied by his personal atten-
dants and being greeted by his wazir Qamaruddin Khan and another courtier,
possibly Khan Dauran, the mir bakshi (chief paymaster). The relatively formal
postures and incomplete rendering of the emperor and his subordinates con-
trast sharply with the vibrant treatment of the surrounding landscape. The
sumptuous garden scene, largely imaginative in its scope, likely alludes to the
Hayat Baksh bagh, the main imperial garden at the north end of the palace
complex The view, even in its partially colored form, is palpably vibrant, with
water flowing through the channels along the four khiabans (avenues) that
intersect at the central hawz (water tank). The imperial pavilion with its balus-
ter columns at the head of the garden is embellished with red canopies, form-
ing the main focal point of the drawing. Other works by the artist Nidha Mai
(cat. no. 10) also employ a particularly sensitive treatment of the landscape;
here it is verdurous and replete with flowering plants, fruit-laden trees, par-
terres, and arbors.

NOTES
1. Terence Mcinerney, "Mughal Painting during the Reign of Muhammad Shah," in Schmitz,
After the GreatMughals,fig. 11.
2. For Hayat Baksh, see Ebba Koch, "Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan,
in Necipoglu,Muqarnas
1526-1648," XIV,143-65.

80 CATALOGUE
10 Nidha Mai (active 1735-75) 11 Attributed to Nainsukh (1710-1778)
MUHAMMAD SHAH ENTHRONED ON TWO ELEPHANTS FIGHTING IN A COURTYARD
A TERRACE AT NIGHT WITH HIS OFFICERS BEFORE MUHAMMAD SHAH
ta. 1735 Guler
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper ca.1730-40
H. 12"A6 x w.16% in. (32.8 x 42.3 cm) Ink and color on paper
The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990.378 H. 249/,6 x w. 16½ in. (62.5 x 42 cm)
The Cleveland Museum of Art, John [Link] Fund, 2005.1.a

82 CATALOGUt
12 Attributed to Nainsukh (1710-1778)
MUHAMMAD SHAH SEATED ON A TERRACE SMOKING A WATER PIPE
(HUQQA) AND ACCOMPANIED BY FEMALE ATTENDANTS
ca.1735-40
Gouache on paper
H. 8¾ x w. 131/ioin. (22.2 x 34.1 cm)
The British Museum, 1948,1009,0.148

84 CATALOGUE
, ,
• • • • • ♦ o ol, ♦ ♦ • • 0 ~ I, 0 • • 0 • I • .. • • I • • 4 • • l • I I 6 & I o I O o <I • I ♦ o I lo • , o f O O o O a a o I , 1 o o • , •

13 Bhupal Singh (active ea.1735)

MUHAMMAD SHAH CELEBRATING HOLi
ea. 1737
Opaque watercolor and gold
H. 133/s x w. 181/sin. (34 x 45.9 cm)
Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS Douce Or. b. 3, no. 22

CATALOGUE 85
14 A FIREWORK DISPLAY FOR MUHAMMAD SHAH,
PORTRAYED SEATED AND LEANING AGAINST A BOLSTER
ca.1730
Gouacheon paper
H.9¾ x w. 13¾ in. (24.8 x 35 cm)
The British Museum, 1920,0917,0.237

86 CATALOGUE
15 LADIES OF THE IMPERIAL HAREM
CELEBRATING THE NIGHT OF SHAB-1 BARAT
ca.1730-40
Opaque watercolor on paper
H. 61/sx w. 8¼ in. (15.6 x 21 cm)
The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990.374

CATALOGUE 87
16 Kalyan Das (active 1720-40) Muhammad Reza-i Hindi (Indian, active in Persia ea. 1740)
PORTRAIT OF A LADY HOLDING A ROSE PORTRAIT OF NADIR SHAH
Delhi Probably lsfahan
ca.1740 ca.1740
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper Oil on canvas
Image: H. 3¾ x w. 2½ in. (9.S x 6-4 cm) H. 70½ x w. 453/ain. (179 x 116.5cm)
Page: H. 6¾ x w. 4 13/,o in. (17.1x 12.3cm) The Victoria and Albert Museum, Given by G. J. Welford, IM.20-1919
British Library, J.60,22

88 CATALOGUE
18 A SEATED PORTRAIT OF THE SUFI SAINT NidhaMai (active 1735-75)
SHARAF BU ALI QALANDAR PRINCE AND LADIES IN A GARDEN
Mid-18th century Lucknow
Gouacheon paper Mid-18th century
H. 81 ½0 x w. 63/sin. (22 x 17-4cm) Watercolor and gold on paper
The British Museum, 1920,0917,0.79 H. 10% x w. 7% in. (27 x 18.7cm)
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cynthia Hazen Polsky
and Leon B. Polsky Fund, 2001 (2001.302)

90 CATALOGUE
20 Muhammad FaqirullahKhan (active 1720-70)
A LADY VISITING A SAIVITE SHRINE
ea. 1750
Opaque watercolor on paper
Image: H. 9¾ x w. 613/,o in. (24.8 x 17.3cm)
Page:H. 15'½• x w. 11½0in. (39.8 x 28.1cm)
Richard Johnson Collection, British Library, J.17,3

Signature in Nastaliq script: amat-i muhammadfaqirullah khan

(The work of Muhammad Faqirullah Khan)

This painting is a pictorial representation of the musical mode Bhairavi ragini

from a dispersed set of ragamala paintings. The idea of the Bhairavi ragmi is
usually depicted by a lady worshipping a lingam, the aniconic symbol of the
Hindu god Shiva. In this painting a lady approaches a lingam that is placed under
the domed roof of a temple. She is dressed in pale pink and red, her scarf with
its stylized edges draped over her arm. A yogini sits in a doorway looking on.
The Bha1raviragini is the female aspect of the Bhairav raga,one of the six
main modes in the Indian musical canon. Illustrated ragama/asets were com-
posed of either thirty six or forty-two raga and ragini paintings that showed
different aspects of the relationship between men and women, categorized
by "the emotional potential of different times of the day (dawn or sunset) or
seasons of the year (pre-monsoon heat or the rainy season).""
Faqirullah was a prominent painter in Muhammad Shah's court (cat
no. 6) whose later work indicates that he moved away from the Mughal court
to find patronage elsewhere. After 1750 he worked on an important ragamala
series with the painter Fateh Chand.

NOTES
1, Beach, Mughaland RajputPainting,157.
2. Fat(e)h Chand, Kakubharagini,ea. 1750-60, H. 19'/,• x w. 12"!1• in. (48.7 x 32.8cm),
British Library, [Link]-485.

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS
Losty and Leach, Mughal Paintings,pl. 18,

92 CATALOGIJE
21 Son of Ganga Ram, Mihr Chand (active 1759-86) 22 Style of Dip Chand
NAWAB AMIR AL-UMARA ZABITA KHAN SHAH ALAM II SEATED ON A THRONE
Faizabad OVERLOOKING A RIVER
ca.1770 Murshidabad
Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper ea. 1764
H. 10¼ x w. 75/,6 in. (27.6 x 18.6 cm) Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Image: H. 711/,0 x w. 513/,o in. (19.5 "14.7 cm)
Purchase-Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Mounted: H. 9½ x w. 7½ in. (24.2 x 19 cm)
Collections Acquisition Program, and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler, S.1986-416 British Library, [Link]-5694
CATALOGUE 95
23 A MARATHA NOBLEMAN AND HIS WIFE 24 INSCRIBED BASE FROM AN ADMINISTRATIVE SEAL
Delhi OF MAHARAJA DOWLAT RAO
ea. 1775 1795
Opaque watercolor and gold Silver
Approx. H. 9 13/\6 x w. 71/,6in. (25 x 18 cm) DIAM. 43/,o x D.¼ in. (10.6 x 0.7 cm)
The Victoria and Albert Museum, Presented by the Executors The Art and History Collection
of the Late Sir Robert Nathan, KCSI, CIE, IM.252-1921 Courtesy of Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., LTS1995.2.133

CATALOGUE 97
25 Here attributed to Khairullah (active 1800-1815)
SHAH ALAM II (REIGNED 1759-1806), THE BLIND MUGHAL EMPEROR,
SEATED ON A GOLDEN THRONE
Delhi
ea. 1800
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
H. 12131t6 x w. 9s1,6 in. (32.5 x 23.7 cm)
Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.114-1986

In 1788,the Afghan Rohilla chief Ghulam Qadir ransacked the palace treasury
and blinded the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II (reigned 1759-1806) in a fit of
uncontrolled [Link] sixty-year old emperor was left helpless and bemoaned
his fate in an elegy:

Redress my wrongs and kingly rights restore

Thee too O Sindhia, illustrious chief
Who once didst promise to afford relief
Thee I invoke, exert thy generous aid,
And ye, 0 faithful pillars of my state
By friendship bound, and by my power elate
Hasten, 0 Asaf and ye English chiefs
Nor blush to soothe an injured monarch's griefs
But stay my soul, unworthy rage disown
Learn to sustain the loss of sight and throne
Learn that imperial pride and star clad power
Are but the fleeting pageants of an hour

This evocative portrayal of the blind emperor Shah Alam, probably by the
court painter Khairullah, highlights the continued preeminence of the Mughal
emperor even as his political power was brokered through an alliance with
Maratha chief Mahadji Sindhia. Shah Alam's son and successor Muinuddin
Muhammad (later Emperor Akbar 11)is seated to the right on a throne plat-
form, while on the left are two other courtiers leaning on staffs. The gilded
and bejeweled structures of the re created PeacockThrone and Muinuddin's
seat, along with the five Chinese porcelain vases in the center, convey the
painter's attempt to re-create an air of luxury and opulence long associated
with the image of the Mughal court.

NOTES
1. Francklin, Reignof ShahAlam, 257-58.
2. For other versions signed by Khairullah, see Los Angeles County Museum of Art,
M-77-78,and Welch, Roomfor Wonder,pl. 43.
3. Archer, Company Paintings, no. 132, p. 154.

98 CATALOGUE
 •-','
. ~¾
.. ;-l~-...._
~.'?.
26 Bell(British)
MAJOR GENERAL SIR DAVID OCHTERLONY, BT. K.C.B.
ea. 1818
Miniature portrait, watercolor on ivory
Image: H.3¼ x w. 2% in. (8.2 x 6.7 cm)
Massachusetts Historical Society

100 CATALOGUE
27 ADMINISTRATIVE SEAL OF DAVID OCHTERLONY
1824
Jade
H. 1% x w. 1% x D. 3/\o in. (4.2 x 4.1 x 0-5 cm)
Courtesy of Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C., LTS1995.2.137

Translation of Nastaliq inscription: The support of the state and

the fortifier of the empire, the distinguished and loyal commander,
Khan-General Sir David Ochterlony, Baronet Ba~adur, the victorious, 1239 [1824]'

Ochterlony was appointed the first British Resident at Delhi in 1803,following

the victory of British forces led by Lord Lake against the Maratha army. He was
honored with the title Nasir-ud Daula by the Mughal emperor Shah Alam as
an acknowledgment of his role in eliminat ng the threat of the Marathas, even
as the emperor remained ambiguous about his own alliance with the East India
Company. Ochterlony readily affected the local habits and manners of Mughal
nobility and preferred to be addressed by his Mughal titles when in Delhi. His
Persian seal, seen here, would have been put to regular use in Delhi, since Per-
sian was maintained as the language of all epistolary etiquette between the
Mughal court and Company officials.

NOTES
1. Courtesy the Art and History Trust Collection, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

Soudavar, Art of the PersianCourts.

CATALOGUE 101
28 SIR DAVID OCHTERLONY IN INDIAN DRESS 29 MAHADJI SINDHIA ENTERTAINING A BRITISH
AND SMOKING A HUQQA AND WATCHING NAVAL OFFICER AND A YOUNG BRITISH MILITARY
A NAUTCH IN HIS HOUSE IN DELHI OFFICER WITH A NAUTCH
Delhi and its environs Delhi and its environs
ea. 1820 ea. 1820
Watereolor and body color Watercolor and body color
H. 8¾ x w. 12½ in. (22.2 x 31.8cm) H. 8¾ x w. 12½ in. (22.2 x 31.8cm)
British Library, [Link].2 British Library, [Link].,

With his fondness for huqqas,nautch girls, and Indian costumes, This painting is likely a commemorative commission showing
David Ochterlony cut a lively figure as the first British Resident the Maratha leader Mahadji Sindhia (died 1794) entertaining a
of Delhi. He is shown here in Indian dress, smoking a huqqa British naval officer and a military officer with a nautch.
while watching a troupe of Delhi dancers perform. Ochterlony In the eighteenth century, portrayalsof nautch performances
amazed Bishop ReginaldHeber, the Anglican primate of Calcutta, became popular with the rise of a nouveau riche class of Euro-
by receiving him sitting on a divan wearing Hindustani pajamas peans living in India, who began to affect Indian dress and man-
and a turban, all the while being fanned by servants holding a ners. This painting and the one opposite follow the precedent of
peacock-feather pankha (fan). To one side of Ochterlony's own an earlier work by the Awadh artist Mihr Chand (active 1760-70),
tent was the red silk harem shamianawhere Ochterlony's women who painted a memorable portrayal of Colonel Antoine Polier
slept; on the other side were his daughters, who were all, accord- watching a nautch.
ing to the bishop, "hung around with red cloth and thus fenced
in from the eyes of the profane." Ochterlony's cortege, which
the bishop later spotted on the move through the country of
Rajputana, was equally remarkable: "There was a considerable
number of horses, elephants, palanquins and covered carriages,"
wrote Heber.
Ochterlony was twice Resident of Delhi, from 1803 until
1806 and then from 1818until 1822(see cat. no. 26). He was born
in Boston on February 12,1758,to Captain David Ochterlony of
Scotland and his Boston born wife Katherine Tyler. He moved
to India in 1777as a cadet and later served in the army of Lord
Lake to fight in the Anglo-Maratha war of [Link] Alam 11
awarded him an honorary title in recognition of his valor and
new status as Resident of Delhi.

-Yuthika Sharmaand William Dalrymple

NOTES NOTES
1. Heber, Narrative of a [Link] Introduction. 1. Mihr Chand, Colonel Antoine watching a nautch, [Link] watercolor
2. A. [Link], "Sir David Ochterlony," in Oxford Dictionary of National and gold on paper. H. 7½ x w. 11 in. (19 • 28 cm). Collection of Princess
Biography(Oxford, England:Oxford University Press,2004). Sadruddin Aga Khan.

102 eATALOGU E
30 Ghulam Murtaza Khan (active 1809-30)
THE EMPEROR AKBAR SHAH II AND FOUR OF HIS SONS
Delhi
ea. 1815
Opaque watercolor
Image: H. 15½0x w. 11in. (38.2 x 27.9 cm)
Page:H. 17 x w. 13½0in. (43.2 x 33.1cm)
British Library, [Link].342

104 CATALOGUE
31 Khairullah (active 1800-1815)
MIRZA SALIM BAHADUR AND TARBIYAT KHAN
Delhi
ea. 1806-11
Opaque watercolor and gold
H. 10% x w. 71/ain. (27 x 18.1 cm)
The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990,393

Inscription in Nastaliq script: shabihmurshid-zadah afaq mirza sa/im bahadur

Signature in Nastaliq script: amal-i khairullah (The work of Khairullah)

This exquisite rendering of the young prince Mirza Salim is one of the few known
portrait studies of the young prince by the veteran court artist Khairullah.
Salim was Akbar II's younger son and the emperor's favorite to succeed him
on the throne after the death of his other son, Mirza Jahangir,in [Link],
the East India Company maintained a clear preference for Abu Zafar, the eldest
son, as heir apparent and was quick to dissuade all attempts by members of
the Mughal household to petition otherwise. Salim is often shown seated or
standing closest to the emperor in court portraits (cat. no. 32) or riding along-
side him (Victoria and Albert Museum, IS 59-1964). Here his important status
is affirmed in the lofty title "the son of the spiritual guide to the regions of the
world," further reinforced by the presence of Tarbiyat Khan, also known as
Imam Baksh Khan, the emperor's trusted aide, who is seen holding a morchha/
(fly whisk). Salim is shown as a boy of not more than twelve years of age,
his soft features and long tresses rendered with the sensitivity that was char-
acteristic of the painter's earlier work. Another known version of this portrait'
resembles the early work by Ghulam Murtaza Khan, which also suggests the
closeness between the working methods of these two important painters
from the court of Akbar 11.

NOTES
1. I am grateful to Robert Skelton for clarifying a part of this inscription.
2. Christie's, Indian and Islamic Worksof Art, 29 April 2005, Sale 5560, lot. no. 570.
3. Figure 1 in [Link], "In the Company of the Mughal Court," p. 42 in this book.

106 CATALOGUE
 . '...:
,,c.;•..;·
.
~-v·
32 Attributed to Ghulam Murtaza Khan (active 1809-30)
AKBAR II IN DARBAR WITH THE BRITISH RESIDENT CHARLES METCALFE
Delhi
ea. 1811-15
Opaque watercolor, gold, and silver on paper
Image: H. 245/io x w. 189/i• in. (61.7 x 47.1cm)
Page:H.25% x w. 19¾ in. (64.5 x 50.1cm)
Cincinnati Art Museum, The William T. and Louise Taft Semple Collection, 1962-458

Inscription in Nastaliq script: shabih-i mubarak-i badshah-ijamjah ... ("A blessed portrait
of the exalted emperor of angelic hosts, prince Shadow of God, refuge of Islam, propagator
of the Muhammadan religion, who makes splendid the [faith) of Ahmad [Muhammad],
progeny of the House of Gurkan [Timur), choicest of the family of the Lord of the
Conjunction [Timur), most magnificent sovereign emperor, sovereign son of sovereign,
sultan son of sultan, lord of glories and victories, true dispenser of good things, metaphorical
lord, Abul Nasr Muin ud-din Muhammad Akbar Shah Emperor, [may God extend] his
kingdom and rule and give grace to ... ")

This court scene 1sthe earliest depiction of the British Resident 1nattendance
at the Mughal court of Akbar 11(reigned 1806-37), Charles Metcalfe, available
to us today. It is stylistically close to the work of the important court artist
Ghulam Murtaza Khan, who was active in court as well as Company circles.
The emperor is seated on a later reproduction of the Peacock Throne of
Shahjahan, and is seen here flanked by his four sons: Mirza Abu Zafar Siraj al
Din Muhammad (later the emperor Bahadur Shah II) and the young Mirza
Salim (cat. no. 31) to his right, while Mirza Jahangir stands closest to him on his
left next to an unidentified fourth [Link] emperor's most important courtiers
and Metcalfe are seen leaning on staffs in keeping with court protocol. How-
ever, Metcalfe's starkly clad figure with slippers over his stockings stands out in
contrast to the other courtiers, who are barefoot. Ghulam Murtaza Khan's use
of the full frontal view for Akbar II and the three-quartered profile for his con-
fidant Haji Khwass (seen with a white beard and a fly whisk) relates closely to
the landmark painting of a much more intimate portrait of the emperor and
his sons, painted in 1815(cat. no. 30). This court scene was later convention-
alized into numerous court portraits of Akbar 11,showing successive British
Residents in attendance (cat. no. 35).

NOTES
,. Smart and Walker, Pride of the Princes,no. 19.
2. For an earlier portrayal of the court of Akbar II by Ghulam Murtaza Khan,
see Leach, Paintings from India, vol. 8, no. 44.
3. Losty and Leach, Mughal Paintings,pl. 32.

108 CATALOGUE
33 PROCESSION OF EMPEROR
AKBAR SHAH II AND HIS SONS
Delhi
II
ea. 1811-19
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
H. 5 5/10 x w. 33 15/,o in. (13.5 x 86.2 cm)
Collection of Cynthia Haien Polsky

110 CATALOGUE
34 A RE-CREATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPEROR 35 DARBAR OF AKBAR II
AKBAR II RECEIVING A EUROPEAN OFFICER ca.1820
ea. 1840 Watercolor and body color
Opaque watercolor and gold H.19x w. 16in. (48.3><40.6 cm)
H. 17'1/,• x w. 15% in. (45 x 39.7 cm) British Library, [Link].3079
The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection,
1990.394

112 CATALOGUE
36 Raja Jivan Ram (active 1820-40)
PORTRAIT OF THE MUGHAL EMPEROR AKBAR II
ea. 1834
Drawing
Approx. H. 73/ax 53/ain. (20 x 15 cm)
British Library, [Link].3167

This portrait of Akbar Shah was sketched by Jivan Ram and acquired by the
traveler Godfrey Thomas Vigne when he visited Delhi in May [Link]
inscribed it at a later date: "India, by Juan Ram," and ''Acber Shah, late King of
Delhi." Jivan Ram was a prolific painter who was widely sought after by Euro-
peans for his ability to paint realist portraits in oil He was active in Delhi around
the time of the state visit of the governor general Lord Amherst in February
1827,when many portraits of Akbar II were commissioned. This is likely a pre·
liminary sketch. Jivan Ram's portrait of the Mughal empetor seems to have
generated much discussion in Delhi circles, as William Sleeman narrates:

Raja Jivan Ram, an excellent portrait painter, and a very honest and agreeable person,
was lately employed to take the Emperor's portrait. After the first few sittings, the
portrait was taken into the seraglio to the ladies. The next time he came, the Emperor
requested him to remove the great blotchfrom under the nose."May it please your
majesty, 11 is impossible to draw any person without a shadow;and I hope many millions
will long continue to repose under that of your majesty." "True, Raja," said his majesty,
"men must have shadows; but there is surely no necessity for placing them immediately
under their noses. The ladies will not allow mine to be put there; they say it looks as if
I had been taking snuff all my life, and it certainly has a most filthy appearance; besides,
it is all awry, as I told you when you began upon it." The Raja was obliged to remove
from under the imperial, and certainly very noble, nose, the shadow which he had
thought worth all the rest of the picture.

NOTES
1. Vigne, Travelsin Kashmir,vol. 1.
2. See [Link], "In the Company of the Mughal Court," fig. 6, in this book.
3. Sleeman, Ramblesand Recollections.

114 CATALOGUE
 •

•
, •
•

•
37 PORTRAIT OF SIR CHARLES METCALFE
Delhi
ea. 1815
Watercolor on paper
H. 11½ x w. 9 in. (29.2 x 22.9 cm)
Paul [Link] Collection

116 CATALOGUE
38 Sir Henry Raeburn (Scottish, 1756-1823)
WILLIAM FRASER OF REELIG (1784-1835)
1801

Oil on canvas
H. 29½ x w. 24½ in. (74.9 x 62.2 cm)

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Robert Lehman Collection,

1975 (1975.1.234)

CATALOGUE 117
39 Attributed to Robert Home (British, 1752-1834)
PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM FRASER
ea. 1806
Watercolor on paper
H.171/ax w. 14¾ in. (43.5 x 37-5cm)
Private collection

118 CATALOGUE
 ' ,.
.;. ~

~~

(, ( ,
,,,_ r,
. ..
" ·~ •
!1\1ifi:~ ~~· • ~
r~~t~~
~r~~~r~

40 PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM FRASER WITH A HUQQA

Delhi
ea. 1820-25
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
H. 141/ox w. 9"/,• in. (36.5 x 25 cm)
British Library, [Link].4474

CATALOGUE 119
41 By a master artist working for William Fraser
TAX COLLECTORS AND VILLAGE ELDERS
From the Fraser Album
Delhi or Haryana
ea. 1810-20
Opaque watercolor on paper
H. 20½ x w. 15½ in. (52.1 x 39.4 cm)
Private collection

42 A PORTRAIT OF MOHAN LAL, DIWAN OF WILLIAM FRASER

Delhi or Haryana
ea. 1816
Opaque watercolor on paper
H. 6¼ x w. 4 in. (15.9 x 10.2 cm)
Asian Art Museum, San Francisco, from the Collection
of William K. Ehrenfeld,M.D.,2005.64.59
(page123)

Terrain mapping was necessary given the boundary disputes that ensued in

the decades after 1803,as the British East India Company sought to gain both
administrative and legal proprietorship of Indian territories. William Fraser's
initial role as surveyor and collector involved the compilation of minute data
about the productivity of land, the habits of cultivators, and the favorability of
villages for generating revenue.
This group portrait of tax collectors and village elders accompanied by
Fraser'smunsh1and diwan is a rare view into the Company operations behind
the creation of the Fraser Album's sensitively rendered portrait studies. An
inscription in Fraser'shand lists the painting as "An assemblage of Zumeendars
in Cutcherry with my Moonshee and Deewan. The Munshee Fuzl Uzeem of
Khairabad near Lucknow-a moosulman. The Deewan Mohan Lal a Kayuth
of Dehlee with spectacles on nose."Th1sis followed by a list of all the attendees,
who "are mostly headmen and elders of villages."
This grouping was undoubtedly an important official gathering to review
settlement procedures and taxes for villages falling under Fraser'sjurisdiction.
A number of districts are represented such as Sonepat, Sona, Rewaree, and
Panipat-spanning the border regions of Delhi, Haryana, and Punjab. The mode
(continued on page122)

120 CATALOGUE
41
of officiating, as Frasers'sannotation reveals,would have followed the format of
a civil court proceeding or cutcherry.
These portraits of village elders and Fraser's assistants stand apart as
remarkable character studies rendered with extraordinary sensitivity by the mas-
ter portraitist working for [Link] space of the picture expresses a clear
division between the group of elders who are set apart from the seated figures
of Fraser's diwan, Mohan Lal, dressed in a white tunic and turban, and his
munshi, Fuzl Uzeem (likely to be an Anglicized spelling of Fazluddin), seen
crouching next to Mohan Lal. Mohan Lalbears a distinct air of preoccupation,
his gaze averted, in contrast with the other sitters, who make full eye contact
with the viewer. He wears a pince-nez precariously balanced on his nose; his
furrowed brow and pursed lips capture him engrossed in writing in a book
resting on his lap. The bundles of papers, books, and pen boxes lying before
him all serve as identifiers of his profession.
The portrait study of diwan Mohan Lal (right) is a compelling sketch of
an individual whose services would have been indispensable for William Fra-
ser. In Tax collectorsand villageelders,Fraserdescribes him as a Kayuth or kay-
asth, a member of a caste made of writers and village accountants. By the
nineteenth century the office of the diwan became an indispensable part of
the entourage of a Company officer in India. A di wan served as an accountant
and scribe, and supplied local expertise with financial matters. Here, Mohan
Lal is seen consulting an astrological chart in a book laid out before him.

NOTES
1. See Yule, Hobson-Jobson,287-88.
2. R.V Russel and Rai Bahadur Hira Lal, The Tribesand Castesof the CemralProvincesof India,
Interactionof Cultures, 92.
vol. 3. Cited in Bautze,

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS
Bautze, InteractionofCulwres.

122 CATALOGUE
42
43 By a master artist working for William Fraser
SIX VILLAGERS STANDING ON A HILLSIDE
From the Fraser Album
Rania, Haryana
ea. 1816
Watercolor on paper
H. 1111/,6 X W, 165/,6 in. (29,7 X 41.5 cm)
Private collection, Paris
Courtesy of Francesca Galloway

This painting is set within a gold border. Numerals along the bot- ably the main tax collector as well as Fraser'sliaison for Rania, a
tom correspond to the names of the figures that are identified village that figures prominently in the Fraser Album (cat. nos. 45
on the cover paper in inscriptions in Nastaliq script and English. and 48).
The English transliteration reads: These individuals, pictured with a realist flourish by a master
portraitist working for William Fraser,were likely part of Fraser's
Salim, Rajpoot, Bechadeh Zemindar of Ranneah everyday circle of acquaintances and reappear in other paint-
Hazir Khan, brother of Soojah [Muja), Rajpoot
ings in the album. Of special note are the two boys who are seen
Soojah [Muja), Rajpoot Bhutee son of Nijabut Khan
in the group portrait. To the far right is Shamoo, who is seen
[Lambardar, resident of] Ranneah
Khajoo allee [Bhatee] Lumburdar, commonly called Soha standing next to his father, Jeewah Moocuddum (mukaddam),
Mojumee [resident) of Ranneeah headman, whose village is pictured elsewhere in the album (cat.
Mewah [Jeewah], Rajpoot, Mundewal [resident of Rania),
no. 44). The boy on the far left, labeled as Hazir Khan, brother
Related to Nijabat Khan [Lambardar]
of Soojah Mai and the son of the tax collector Nijabat Khan, is of
Shamoo, son of Jeewa [Jeewah] Mucuddum of Mundewal
much interest. It is possible that the boy is Charles Fraser,one
of Fraser'ssons from his Indian bibi, who grew up in the region.
The Bhatti clan dominated Rania and its neighboring vil-
His identification as Hazir Khan could very well be Fraser'sattempt
lages within the Hisar region of Haryana. Principally landowners
to hide his son's identity from his family in Scotland. After Fraser's
and cultivators, Bhatti village men seem to have been intimately
assassination in 1835,the care of his progeny in India seems to
involved in the process of collecting tax and fixing revenue for
have been entrusted to friends, as a letter from Major William
greater territories around Delhi that were being settled by offi-
Brown to James Baillie Fraser,William's brother, indicates:
cers who, like William Fraser,worked on behalf of the East India
Company In the English transliteration of the inscription, the
William and George Fraserwere my most esteemed and dearest
men in the painting are identified on the basis of their ethnic
friends and I shall ever deplore their loss as my own brothers-often
backgrounds and castes, as well as their occupations. With their we talked of the days we looked forward to enjoy in each others

emphasis on ethnographic information, the group portraits from society in Scotland and now I have lost all wish to return to my
native country.
the Fraser Album, therefore, are a uniquely vivid visual explora-
I know Charles Fraser,William's eldest son very intimately and
tion of ethnographic recording and census-taking activities in the
I am exceedingly lucky in being able to speak very highly of him, he is
early nineteenth century; in the coming decades, these would tolerably well off in the custom department and I hope it will not be
become part of official censuses of populations, castes, and very long ere he is promoted. I have never met the other boy William
but I know he is patronised by Mr Elliott, the Secretary to the Board
tribes conducted by the British administration.
at Allahabad and I heard that he is doing very well. I brought these boys
Here the captions identify the men as Rajput Muslims of the
to the notice of the heads of office at Agra through my friend Captain
Bhatti and Bechadeh (Pachhada) clans, reaffirming that these George Campbell, Private Secretary, but although it was civilly
groups originated in the Hisar region. They are mostly zamindars noticed yet nothing was done.

(landowners), mukaddam (village headmen), or lambardars. A

lambardar was a "cultivator who, either on his own account or
as the representative of other members of the village, pays the
NOTES
Government dues and is registered in the Collector's Roll accord- 1, Pachhadawas used to refer to Rajputs from the Hisar region, whose mainstay
ing to his number; as the representative of the rest he may hold was agriculture and cattle rearing. Rose,Glossaryof the Tribesand Castesof the
Punjab,vol. 2, p. 191.
the office by descent or by election.": Most of the men are iden- 2. Yule, Hobson-Jobson.
tified in relation to the lambardar Nijabat Khan, who was prob- 3, July 15,1843,Fraser Papers, folio 18.I thank William Dalrymple for this reference.

124 CATALOGUE
44 By a master artist working for William Fraser
THE VILLAGE OF JEEWAH MOOCUDDUM NEAR RANIA:
WILLIAM FRASER'S CIRCLE OF VILLAGE FOLK,
HIS WHITE STALLION, AND PROGENY
From the Fraser Album
Rania, Haryana
ea. 1810-20
Opaque watercolor on paper
H. 123/s x w. 165/a in. (31.4 x 42.2 cm)
Private collection

Described in E.$. Fraser's list: Numbers of human figures curiously In addition to being the home of Fraser's Indian progeny,
executed, variously employed. The interior of village & houses with Raniaand other villages were home to a clan known as Pachhada,
various animals (domestic). Being inscribed-View in the village of who were subject to the new revenue settlements introduced
Jeewah Moocuddum attached to Ranneeah-with the men, women,
by the East India Company in this region. The Pachhada men
children & cattle and &c of the same.
and women lived in a closed network of family groups and raised
cattle together or shared land holdings. The intertwined nature
This scene is one of a series of views in and around the village of
of land ownership and habitation presented a challenge to assess-
Rania, in the Hissar district of Haryana, that were painted for
ing revenue for such villages, leading to unconventional meth-
William [Link] accompanying caption mentions this as being
ods for their assessment. In Rania and other villages of Hisar
the village of one Jeewah (Mewah), a Rajput from Mundewal,
where the Pachhada were dominant, the Company followed the
who also appears in another group portrait in the Fraser Album
chaubacha ("four kinds of division'') system to divide the pro-
(cat. no. 43). Jeewah's son Shamoo, with his recognizable long
duce of the land based on the following criteria:
tresses, can be spotted in the far distance leaning against a wall.
The white stallion seen 1nthe background presumably belonged
i) Per House, every chula or fireplace was looked upon as a
to William Fraser,who had a special interest in trading horses. house ... because people used to burn village-jungle firewood.
As the assistant to the British Resident Archibald Seton, ii) Per every head of cattle, because they grazed in the village
pasturage land.
William Fraser began his tenure in Delhi as a settlement officer
iii) Per Pagri,or per every individual above twelve years of age....
who was responsible for territorial disputes and settling revenue
At times, boys under the age of twelve were also included
along the boundary regions of the Delhi territory. His largely if they cut grass.
itinerant lifestyle was matched by his personal interest in the iv) Per Land-under this was included only that portion which
during the harvest was cultivated.
culture and lifestyles of various local populations. His sojourn in
Rania seems to have been an important one, and he commis-
sioned a number of evocative portrayals of the village inhabitants Thus all of the careful depictions of fireplaces, chimneys,

engaged in their everyday act1vit1es;at times, these scenes also cattle, and young and old men 1nthese village scenes from the

betray his personal involvement with them. For instance, FraserAlbum may be viewed equally as an outcome of the prag-

another village scene by the same artist depicts Fraser's bibi matic need for revenue assessment and an evocative picture of

Amiban with [Link] playing beside her (see cat. no. 45). the lifestyle of the inhabitants of the Hisar region.

NOTES
1. Archer and Falk,India Revealed,
nos.95 and 73.
2, Chand,Reporton rheRevisedLandRevenue, 191-92.

126 CATALOGUE
4s By a master artist working for William Fraser
A STREET SCENE IN THE VILLAGE OF RANIA
From the FraserAlbum
Rania, Haryana
ea. 1816-20
Watercolor
H. 12% x w. 16¼0in. (31.5x 41.8cm)
British Library, [Link].4057

Described in E. S. Fraser'slist: View in Ranneah.

Another view, this time of a street scene in Rania, by the same artist as cata-
logue number 44, shows the humdrum of daily activity in the [Link] setting
of the mud houses, thatched roofs, camels, and cattle provides the backdrop
for individuals who are in the midst of their daily activities. In the lower right
corner is a village headman wearing a cap and standing with a huqqa in his
hand; he can be identified from another group portrait as Salim Rajput, an
important Pachhada headman of Rania.'The lady working on a spinning wheel
1nthe lower left corner resembles Amiban, Fraser'sbibi. Her name was prob-
ably Hiban in [Link]'s daughter Shaman, who can be seen playing
beside her, is also pictured in another group portrait in the Fraser Album.'

NOTES
1. Archer and Falk. India Revealed,
pl. 72, p. 99.
2. Amiban is described as "A favorite lady of Mr. Fraser."SeeSotheby. Park,Bernet, December 7,
1977,lot 30; Welch, Emperors'Album, no. 50; Mildred Archer, "Artists and Patronsin 'Residency'
Delhi," in Frykenberg,Delhiihrough theAges.
3. Falkand Archer, India Revealed,plate 75, p. 101.

128 CATALOGUE
46 KHAN BAHADUR KHAN WITH MEN OF HIS CLAN
Rania
ea. 1816
Opaque watercolor on paper
H. 81/sx w. 11¾6 in. (20.6 x 29.1cm)
The San Diego Museum of Art, Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990.396

130 CATALOGUE
47 A GROUP OF HORSE MERCHANTS FROM KABUL AND
PERSIA (BY AN ARTIST STYLISTICALLY INFLUENCED
BY THE FRASER ALBUM)
ea. 1850
Gouache on paper
H. 133/i•x w. 151/sin. (34.2 x 38-4 cm)
The British Museum, 1966,1010,0.8

CATALOGUE 131
48 By a master artist working for William Fraser
TWO WOMEN AND A MALE BUFFALO IN THE VILLAGE OF RANIA
From the Fraser Album
Rania, Haryana
ea. 1816
Watercolor on paper
H. 115/,6 x w. 163/\6 in. (28.8 x 41.1cm)
Victoria and Albert Museum, Purchased with assistance from the friends of
Robert Skelton, to commemorate his 60th birthday, IS.13-1989

Described on E. 5. Fraser'slist: A male Buffalo-two large human figures-

w. small do- cattle, probably of Ranneah.

This portrayal of two women with a buffalo, by an anonymous master artist, is

rendered with extraordinary attention to the physical modulation of human
and animal figures. The use of shading further lends a sense of volume to the
standing figures of the two women, their robes giving the impression of being
weighed down to the ground. The careful articulation of the physiognomy of
the buffalo coupled with the delineation of the features and habits of the two
women, whose gazes are fixed on the ground, creates an uneasy equation
between humans and animals, grouping them in a common space of ethno-
graphic exploration.
Like other rural scenes in the FraserAlbum, this portrait was a record of
rural life that formed a visual counterpart to the ongoing assessment of the
productivity of villages in the Hisar region. The significance of the portrayal of
villagers and cattle is even more striking when we consider the crucial role
played by cattle in determining the terms of the chaubacha system of assess-
ment discussed earlier. Every head of cattle served as an entitlement, making
cattle owners equally responsible for taxes as those who cultivated land.

NOTES
1. For another example of a portrait relating to the chaubachasystem, see Herdsman
and a buffalo outside a village (Rania), Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Adolph D. and
Wilkins [Link] Fund, 97.117a/b.

132 CATALOGUE
49 By a master artist working for William Fraser
EIGHT COURTIERS OF THE RAJA OF PATIALA
From the Fraser Album
Delhi or Patiala
ea. 1817
Watercolor on paper
H. 8¾ x w. 12 in. (22.2 x 30.5 cm)

Mr. and Mrs. Gavin Henderson

Courtesy of Francesca Galloway

134 CATALOGUE
so By a master artist working for William Fraser
EIGHT SIKH COURTIERS AND SERVANTS
OF THE RAJA OF PATIALA
From the FraserAlbum
1817
Pencil and watercolor on paper
H. 8¾ x w. 121/sin. (22.3 x 30.8 cm)
The British Museum, 1988,1020,0.1

CATALOGUE 135
51 By a master artist working for William Fraser
KALA AFTER KILLING A TIGER
From the FraserAlbum
Delhi
1815-16

Watercolor on paper
H.1415/\6 X w. 9B/\6 in. (37.9 X 24.9 cm)
The David Collection, Copenhagen, no. 58/2007

136 CATALOGUE
52 Bya master artist working for William Fraser
KALA IN UNIFORM OF SKINNER'S HORSE
From the FraserAlbum
Delhi
1815-16

Watercolor on paper
H. 155/s x w. 10 in. (39-7 x 25.4 cm)
The David Collection, Copenhagen, no. 59/2007

CATALOGUE 137
53 By a master artist working for William Fraser
THE MENDICANT LAKSHMAN DAS
From the FraserAl bum
Haryana
ea. 1816
Watercolor on paper
H. 10 x w. 5¾ in. (25-4 x 14.6cm)
Collection of Dr. and Mrs. K. Robbins

138 CATALOGUE
54 Attributed to FaizAli Khan (active 181520)
ONE OF FOUR DRAWINGS OF INHABITANTS OF DELHI
(PORTRAITS OF SEVEN ASCETICS AND AN ATTENDANT)
ea. 1815
Opil(]IJP w;,tercolor on paper
H. 1213/,o x w. 161/s in. (32.5 x 41 cm)
The Victoria and Albert Museum, Given by Miss M Letitia Harford,
OBE,IS.69-1977

CATALOGUE 139
55 Attributed to Faiz Ali Khan (active 1815 20)
A GROUP OF DANCING GIRLS AND MUSICIANS
Opaque watercolor on paper
ea. 1815
H. 12s;,. x w. 16½ in. (31.2 x 41.9 cm)
The Victoria and Albert Museum, Given by Miss M. Letitia Harford,
OBE,IS.70-1977

This captivating group portrait of Delhi dancers and musicians is girls and musicians. Emily Eden, the sister of Governor-General
probably one of the earliest versions of a scene that was readily Lord Auckland, who visited Skinner in 1838,mentions that he
reproduced in the coming decades in Delhi circles Group por- had some of Delhi's best singers and performers in attendance:
traits of "nautch girls" were very popular and seem to have been
readily replicated by Delhi painters. This painting is attributed to In the evening we went to a nautch at Colonel Skinner's.... There is
nothing like it that I ever heard before, but certainly the words, as he
the painter FaizAli Khan, who was the brother of the Delhi painter
translated them, were very pretty. One little fat nautch girl sang a sort
Ghulam Ali Khan, The performers stand on a veranda overlook-
of passionate song to G. with litile meaning smiles, which I think rather
ing a river against the backdrop of a hilly landscape, which is attracted his lordship, and I thought it might be too much for him if
dotted with fortified settlements on the outskirts of Delhi. The I forwarded to him Mr. B.'s translation.
"I am the body, you are the soul: we may be parted here, but
focus of attention is the dancer in the center who, 1n her long
let no one say we shall be separated hereafter. My father has deserted
tunic and flared skirt, strikes an elegant pose while her two com-
me; my mother is dead; I have no friends. My grave is open, and I look
panions stand on either side. Other women sit watching with into it; but do you care for me?" The dancing is very slow and very dull,
attendants looking on. The painter, working with a palette of deep but the dresses and ornaments are beautiful:

colors and golden tones, has reveled 1nthe portrayal of the danc-
ers' formal costumes and ornaments. Yet the dancers maintain
an air of distance, their gazes disengaged. Courtesans and per-
formers enjoyed a privileged status in Delhi society and were
actively sought after by Delhi patrons. It is possible that this group NOTES
1. See Archer and Falk, India Revealed,pls. 15,126,and [Link] see Losty, "A
was painted for William Fraser,who also commissioned individ-
Group of Courtesans," pl. 56, in Crill and Jariwala, Indian Portrait.
ual portraits of nautch girls such as Amir Baksh, Malagir, and 2. Major Archer, who visited Skinner in January 1828,commented on Skinner's
own "band of Kulamets (kalawants)" who entertained him during repasts.
others who were known to him.
Major Archer, Toursin Upper India, I, 101. As cited in Archer, Company Drawings,
William Fraser's friend James Skinner also retained his own 201.

troupe of performers. who provided entertainment during lavish 3. For instance, see Threedancing-girlswith five musiciansperforming on a terrace,
ea. 1838,Inscribed "A Nautch at Col. Skinner's given to me by himself 1838."
parties for his guE:sts. He was in the habit of presenting his guests
British Library, [Link].2598.
with souvenir paintings showing similar groupings of Delhi dancing 4. Entry for February 25, 1838,in Eden, Up the Country.

140 CATALOGUE
56 H. C. White (American)
PROFESSIONAL DANCING GIRLS IN THE STREETS OF OLD DELHI
Photographic print on stereo card
End of the 19th century
Stereograph by H. C. White Co.
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

142 CATALOGUE
57 By a master artist working for William Fraser
THREE HERDSMEN, SAWUNT, KEHUR, ANO HURDUT
From the Fraser Album
Haryana
ea. 1815 16
Gouache on paper
H. 9¾ X W. 1415/io in. (24.7 X 38 cm)
Private collection

CATALOGUE 143
58 Ghulam Ali Khan (active 1817-55;
COLONEL JAMES SKINNER HOLDING A REGIMENTAL DARBAR
1827
Watercolor with gouache on paper
H. 30½ x w. 52¾ in. (ns x 134cm)
National Army Museum, London, 1956 02· 27 3

Inscription in Nasta liq script: ama/-i ghulam ali khan musavvirsaki,1-idar al-khilafat
shahjahanabaddar sanah 1827 isavi t(ai)yar shud (The work of Ghulam Ali Khan the
painter, resident of the Seat of the Empire Shahjahanabad, it was completed in
the Christian year 1827)

This record of Skinner's regiment was one of three monumental commissions

executed by the Delhi painter Ghulam Ali Khan for the Anglo Indian officer
Colonel James Skinner (1778-1841). Skinner raised a division of Irregular
Cavalry Corps, later knowr as Skinner's Horse, made up of ocal cavalrymen
from Sikh, Maratha, and Rohilla camps, and was fondly addressed as "Burrah
S1kandar"(Great Alexander) 111recognition of his valorous reputcllion
Skinner is positioned above eye level seated on a chair along with his son,
James, who was an adjutant ("Ajtan James Sk1nne1Sahib") tn the regiment.
The nssaldars(cavalry officers) are dressed 111
their resplendent yellow winter
uniforms, their seated position evokmg the formality of a Mughal darbar scene.
The most senior rissaldar,Muhammad Shadull Khan, who had saved Skinner's
son's life 1na previous battle sits closest to him. All around are Skinner's scribes,
handymen, and retainers, some w aring their trademark yellow sashes. In the
center, a syce measures the height of a new recruit's horse with an instrument.
Ghulam Ah Khan prepared 1ndiv1dual swdy portraits of many retainers and
cavalrymen over a few years, before combining them into this single setting.

NOTES
1, SeeSkinner Album, Bntish Library,[Link].1243-1247;1259,1264,1266,[Link].
Seealso Y Sharma,"In the Company of the Mughal Court" in this book.

144 CATALOGUE
59 Ghulam Ali Khan (active 1817-55)
VIEW OF THE CANTONMENT AT HANS!
1828
Watercolor on paper
H. 281/s x w. 50 in. (71.5 x 127 cm)
Nauonal Army Museum, 1956-02-27-2

Inscription in English on top: The First Regiment of Local [Skinner's] Horse returning
from a General Review, 1828
Inscriptions in Nastaliq script: ama/-1ghulam ali khan mussavirmuharrar-hu mah-i august
san isavi 1828(The work of Ghulam Ali Khan, painter who created this work in the month
of August in the Christian year 1828); naqshahI shahrva qi/a yi hans,va chhaoni-yi sawaran-i
rajimam (Picture of the town and fortof Hansi and the cantonment of the cavalry 1·egiment)

James Skinner and his friend William Fraser are seen returning to their base at
Hans1 Fort and cantonment with a large egimental contingent of Skinner's
Horse ,n tow. Fraser held an honorary post n Skinner's regiment and also com-
m1ss1onedmany studies of the Yellow Boys, a popular name for the men in
Skinner's cavalry, who wore bright yellow uniforms.
Skinner's trusted rissaidarslead long files of cavalrymen. some of whom
are seen carrying yellow banners containing the motto "h1mmaH mardan.
madad-i khuda" (fhe strength of man, the help of God). To the left some
sowarsengage in various cavalry maneuvers to display their skills of horseman-
ship and warfare. These vignettes are derived from a set of ·11ustrat1ons
intended
to accompany a manual of cavalry maneuvers and weaponry that Skinner had
dictated to his scribe in [Link] that end, this painting also functions as a
visual encapsulauon of Skinner's cavalry manual.

NOTES
1. William's brother Jameslater wrote a biography of Skinner'smilitary life.
See Fraser,Memoirsof JamesSk,nner,vol. 2.

146 CATALOGUE
60 GhulamAli Khan(active1817-55)
COLONEL SKINNER'S FARM AT DHANA
1828
Watercolor on paper
H. 3211/16x w. 5415/,o in. (83 x 139-5cm)
National Army Museum, 1956-02-27-1

148 CATALOGUE
 DllffAN A
f .N1'1L SKI.X NE n's f'A R 1\1
61 COLONEL JAMES SKINNER (F-4A) IN TAZKIRAT AL-UMARA,
HISTORICAL NOTICES OF SOME PRINCELY FAMILIES OF
RAJASTHAN AND THE PANJAB, WRITTEN FOR COLONEL
JAMES SKINNER
1830

Watercolor and body color on paper

H. 1113/io x w. 8¼ in. (30 x 21 cm)
British Library, Add.27254

150 CATALOGUE
62 ARTIST (F.2588) IN TASHRIH AL-AQVAM, AN ACCOUNT
OF ORIGINS AND OCCUPATIONS OF SOME OF THE
SECTS, CASTES, AND TRIBES OF INDIA, WRITTEN FOR
COLONEL JAMES SKINNER
1825

Watercolor and body color on paper

H. 12 5/,6 X W. 9 in. (31.3 X 22.9 cm)
British Library, Add.27255

CATALOGUE 151
63 SUFI ALLAH YAR KHAN SAHIB SEATED ON A MORHA
HOLDING A CRUTCH STICK
From the Skinner Album
1820-30
Watercolor and body color on paper
H. 13¾ x w. 85/ain. (35 x 22 cm)
British Library, [Link].1258

152 CATALOGUE
64 Ghulam Ali Khan active 1817 55)
THE DIWAN-I KHAS IN THE PALACE IN THE DELHI FORT
[RED FORT]
1817
Watercolor, body color, and gold on card
H.19½ x w 29 in. (49.6 x 73.6cm)
British Library,[Link].4694

154 CATALOGUE
~,======
 \

.. . ..
I
.... ~
IIW
'i'i.
i 7,
.,... ~- t;rr-'
r.:
... ,

65 STREET MAP OF CHANDNl CHOWK AREA SHOWING

THE FATEHPURI MASJID AT THE WEST END
Delhi
ca.1n4
Ink and watercolor on paper
H. 123/\& x w. 551/ain. (31 x 140 cm)
The Victoria and Albert Museum, AL.1762

156 CATA~OGUE
'(/ L
I
• A
~
I I I

.t I
~-....IIIIIP" ..... lfl!.ll!II... ~~~~ .,...~ ... ,.."'W"' ......... ,
I I ~

~ '
•
• /Jill,?✓
66 TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING OF THE TOMB
OF HUMAYUN, DELHI, INDIA
ea. 1820
Watercolor on paper
H. 21¼ x w. 291/sin. (54 x 77 cm)
RIBA Library Drawings & Archives Collections, London, SB92/4

67 Attributed to Ghulam Ali Khan (active 1817-55)

THE MAUSOLEUM OF SAFDAR JANG
ca.1820
H. 18¾ x w. 265/sin. (47.6 x 67,7cm)
Watercolor and ink on paper
RIBA Library Drawings & Archives Collections, London, SB92/5

Between 1820and 1825,the Delhi painter Ghulam Ali Khan was involved in the
production of a set of architectural views of historical buildings of Delhi. Most
of these views were produced on European paper and utilized a standard
architectural image of the building, from which other copies were made (see
cat. no. 66) It is possible that he ran an atelier of draftsmen and painters, who
produced these views to cater to Europeans' rising antiquarian interest in
Delhi's monuments. This view of the Mausoleum of Safdar Jang,which is here
attributed to Ghulam Ali Khan, shows the building and its gardens with soldiers
and residents admiring their surroundings. The garden appears as a furrowed
grassypatch with irregular plantings and lined with overgrown bushes on either
side; the central tank is missing its fountains. The garden site seems to be in use
for commercial planting, as witnessed by the banana plantation to the extreme
left of the picture. A few gardeners can be spotted at work, and others carry
bales of cut grass, indicating the ongoing maintenance of the site. A similar
painting of the mausoleum utilizes the same architectural view but with dif-
ferences in the rendering of the building, shadows, landscape, and figures.'
Safdar Jang was the Nawab of Awadh during the reign of the Mughal
emperor Ahmad Shah (reigned 1748-54).The tomb was commissioned by his
son, the Nawab Shuja ud-Daula, around 1753-54and largely evoked the archi-
tecture of the Mausoleum of Humayun at Delhi, built in 1565.

NOTES
1. British Library,[Link].1810.

158 CATALOGUE
66
68 QUDSIYA BAGH (AN INDIAN COPY AFTER AN AQUATINT
BY THOMAS AND WILLIAM DANIELL)
Delhi
1820-25
Watercolor
H. 103/ax w. 141/ioin. (26.3 x 36.6 cm)
British Library, [Link].553

160 CATALOGUE
69 JAMI MASJID (AN INDIAN COPY AFTER AN AQUATINT
BY THOMAS AND WILLIAM DANIELL)
Delhi
1820-25
Watercolor on paper
H. 10¼ x w. 145/,6 in. (26.1 x 36-4 cm)
British Library, [Link].548

CATALOGUE 161
70 TUREEN WITH VIEW OF THE RED FORT, DELHI
England
ea. 1820
Porcelain with painted underglaze blue (Staffordshire ware)
H. 12 X w. 14 X D. 10¼ in. (30.5 X 35.6 X 26 cm)
Walter Collection

162 CATALOGUE
71 Mazhar Ali Khan (active 1840 55)
A MINIATURE PANORAMA OF DELHI
WITH THE FORT IN THE DISTANCE
ea. 1845
Watercolor on ivory
Approx. H. 23/s x w. 31/ain. (6 x 8 cm)
The Victoria and Albert Museum, 150.3563

CATALOGUE 163
72 GhulamAli Khan (active 1817-55)
SOUTHEAST VIEW OF SAINT JAMES CHURCH, DELHI
ea.1836
Watercoloron paper
H. 7½ x w. 23½• in. (44.S x 58.5 cm)
National Army Museum, 1956-02-27-5

164 CATALOGUE
73 Attributed to Mazhar Ali Khan (active 1840-55)
A MINIATURE VIEW OF THE JAMI MASJID OF DELHI
ea. 1840
Watercolor on paper
H. 55/,o x w. 7½ in. (13.5 x 19 cm)
The Victoria and Albert Museum, IS-482-1950

CATALOGUE 165
74 MuhammadYusuf(active 19th century)
THE DARGAH AT NIZAMUDDIN
19th century
Opaque watercolor on paper
H. 17½ x w. 231/ain. (44.5 x 58.8 cm)
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Gift of S. Dillon and Mary Livingston Ripley, 51986.531

166 CATALOGUE
'~ - -i
.- . '" ,j-·
u

• _,,~,,•V-
.• --~
- -~-

'I
~
!
1\-.
-- I

t'
'I I
75 Mazhar Ali Khan(active 1840-55)
A PANORAMA OF DELHI TAKEN FROM THE TOP OF
THE LAHORE GATE OF THE RED FORT, DELHI
1846
Watercolor and body color with gold
Image: H. 20% x w. 190½• in. (53 x 482.8 cm)
Page:H. 263/,6 x w. 193¼ in. (66.5 x 490.8 cm)
The British Library, [Link]-4126
(detail shown on pages 170-71)

This monumental painted panorama of Delhi, dated November 25, 1846, is

perhaps the first nearly 360-degree panorama ever to be painted by an Indian
artist. At nearly sixteen feet (s m) wide, in five panels, and over two feet tall, it
surpasses earlier landscape paintings from Delhi in both scale and content.
The protruding frame of the Lahore Gate is identifiable as the panorama's
vantage point, as its turrets are visible projecting vertically from the bottom of
the composition. As we move clockwise from left to right, Mazhar Ali Khan's
skillful use of orthogonal frames directs the viewer's gaze to the buildings,
while the labels 1nboth Urdu and English assert the view's main focus. -ho mas
Metcalfe has been suggested as the possible patron. His residence is labeled
"Cathy [residence J of Thomas Metcalfe," shown to the north of the city walls.
As the eye moves from the turrets of the Lahore Gate to the Red For: and its
interior, European additions in the Qila are prominently [Link] sequence
of labeled buildings proceeds with the Jami Masjid, Dariba Kalan, Chandni
Chowk, Fatehpuri MasJid, Begam Samru's residence, Hindu Rao's house, the
Delhi Bank, and others, constituting one of the most formidable topographi-
cal portraits of nineteenth-century Delhi.

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS
J.P. Losty, "The Delhi Palace ,n 1!46: A Panoramic View by Mazhar Ali Khan,"
in Crill, Stronge, and Topsfield, Arts of Mughal India.

168 CATALOGUE
 ,:::'•}. J~••,, • ✓.;.:- ; . .; :1,;1, ·:;1 ·d "~/ "~-.:.'
•• _:l
Unt'\\ u1:ulaJuf1••·. ('hh~ftuli 1>111
\h.t ,,uh Luho1·r IJur\\uJ:ul,'!\u~1u-hl1um,1t •
.11111111\1 ""''' Mi1'.l'uh '1u•1,uH.1hurH1·"·uu \u1
OJ'\\ uukhu, \lnu!'-un1nnuJUur
 I·
I

,,. ',.~jl_ ,,., ;( I,.~. ,)J/

1
.1.: .L:-1;/I''/,, ... ,..,,
- .... ,vi 4,,,,, -
th,t;hrl1ui1 f',•!'4h i t hi,"tXulu, 'lttk.u11u1Aot11 ...u!'-ulirn 11nr1·111i1ut1ul\hr1-J ~l11h~nut Hi.1,,h \-,1.I Hu,,
[Link].1h l\..[Link] --,,,-,----'-Jll_h_u_<l~o-r T JI' p .. r••\I _ ~· H_,.
1t__ __
u_k_1_,
________ ~~-~~----H-" ......
''•
...
"-'--
'-'-"'
...
'...
''_rl_,_J
';.;'---------
-=---=
76 Ghulam Ali Khan (active 1817 55)
THE NAWAB OF JHAJJAR ASTRIDE A PET TIGER
IN HIS GARDEN
Jhajjar
1849-50 (inscribed AH 1266)
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
Image: H. 16 x w. 21in. (40.6 x 53-3 cm)
Page:H. 183/sx 235/s in. (48 x 60 cm)
Collection of Cynthia Hazen Polsky

Inscriptions in Nastaliq script (among others): Dated 1266; work of Ghulam Ali Khan,
resident of Shajahanabad ... he who subdued the lion [shir]

Jhajjar became a British assigned Jagir following Lord Lake's victory over the
Marathas in 1803 and was ruled by the descendants of Nijabat Khan, a Pathan
of the Bariach clan. Ghulam Ali Khan's association with the satellite court at
Jhajjar seems to have extended through the first decade of the rule of Nawab
Abd-al Rahman (reigned 1845-57),who came to power at the age of eighteen.
Here, the young nawabrides his pet tiger on a summer day in this unabashed
display of royal puissance, as his attendants look on with reticence. The scene
takes place in the sunken garden of the nawab's residence, seen in the back-
drop. In a clever flourish, Ghdam Ali Khan conveys the underlying sense of
menace by mirroring the three-quarter profiles of man and beast as both stare
out with an air of defiance. Another painting by Ghulam Ali Khan, showing the
nawab engaging in a tiger hunt, achieved much popularity in Delhi circles and
was replicated by Ghulam Husain Khan for the Roorkee agricultural exhibition
in 1868.1 The tiger appears here as a royal mount and seems to have become
an emblematic image of the house of Jhajjar. Indeed, Abd-al Rahman's prede-
cessors were known to keep pet cheetahs and dogs to assist with hunts, and
they entertained their guests with lavish hunting escapades A good decade
earlier, Isabella Fane, the daughter of commander in chief Brigadier General
Henry Fane,was particularly taken by the hunt at Jhajjar while passing through
with her father on her way to Delhi on November 27,1837:

Mon 27th. This morning myself, Churchills & c went out Cheetah hunting with the Raja
of Jhuggier'scheetahs, we saw one very pretty chase.. This day was devoted to the
spon of the field for in the evening, we all went coursing, & caught a hare.

The Nawab of JhaJjarwas later executed in Delhi on December 23, 1857,

for his role in the Indian rebellion.

NOTES
1 A rigerhum at Jhajjar,Rohrakdisrricr,Punjab,ea. 1855,H 175/\o x w. 231/sin. (44 x 60.5 cm), Victoria
andAlben Museum,IS03531,Fortheexhibitedpainting,seeBaden-Powell,
Artsof thePunjab,350,
2. Diary of Isabella Fane,1836-1838,Lincolnshire Archives, 1 FANE6/7/1, f. 77-78.

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS
Topsfield, In rhe Realmof Gods,254-55.

172 CATALOGUE
77 Ghulam Ali Khan (active 1817-55)
NAWAB MUHAMMAD ABO AL-RAHMAN KHAN OF JHAJJAR
WITH HIS COURT IN THE HOT WEATHER
1849
Watercolor, body color, and gold
H. 111/iox w. 169/,o in. (29 x 42 cm)
British Library, [Link].4680

174 CATALOGUE
78 Ghulam Ali Khan (active 1817-55)
NAWAB MUHAMMAD ABD AL-RAHMAN KHAN OF JHAJJAR
WITH HIS COURT AND AN EAST INDIA COMPANY
POLITICAL OFFICER IN THE COOL WEATHER
1852
Watercolor, body color, and gold
H. 12¾ x w. 16'5/io in. (32-4 x 43 cm)
British Library, [Link]-4681

CATALOGUE 175
79 Ghulam Ali Khan (active 1817-55)
BAHADUR SHAH 11 ENTHRONED WITH MIRZA FAKHRUDDIN
1837-38
Opaquewatercolor,ink,andgoldon paper
H. 121/,6 x w. 143/s in. (31 x 36.5 cm)
The Art and History Collection
Courtesy of Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.,LTS1995.2.105

176 CATA LOGUE

So HUQQA BASE 81 MANGO-SHAPED SCENT BOTTLE
Late 18th century Mid-17th century
Glass with gold Rock crystal with rubies and emeralds set in gold
H. 65/,6 in. (16 cm) H. 1¾ x W, 2¼ • D. 1¾ in. (4.5 • 5,7 x 4,5 cm)
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of John Goelet, 1966, 66.844 Private collection
Photograph© Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

178 CATALOGUE
82 GLOBULAR BOX DECORATED WITH GEMS 83 GLASS BOWL WITH GOLD PAINTED IRIS DESIGN
18th century Rajasthan
Gold paste and rubies, emeralds, and diamonds ea. 1750-80
H. 2¾ x w. 2'A• in. (7 x 5-7cm) Hand-blown glass
The Cleveland MLseum of Art, Bequest of H. 2% x w. 4¾ in. (6 x 12 cm)
Mrs. Severance A. Millikin, 1989.348 Private collection

CATALOGUE 179
84 PATKA (SASH) WITH RED FLOWERS AGAINST SILVER
Agra or Delhi
Third quarter of the 17th century
Red fabric with silver thread
H. 19½ x w. 1013/i6 in. (49-5 x 257 cm)
Private collection

180 CATALOGUE
85 IVORY MODEL OF THE LAST EMPEROR, ZAFAR
ea. 1830-40
Ivory with pigment
H. 41/s x w. 2•!,• in. (10.5 x 6.5 cm)
Art Institute of Chicago, IS 4 95

CATALOGUE 181
86 PORTRAIT OF BAHADUR SHAH II AS A CALLIGRAPHER
Delhi
ea. 1850
Natural colors on handmade paper
H. 10¼ x w. 7¾ in. (26 x 19.7cm)
Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, 927,86.2 (OD 24)

182 CATALOGUE
87 EXAMPLE OF ZAFAR'S CALLIGRAPHY
ea. 1850
Calligraphy on paper
Approx. H. 8 x w. 6 in. (20 x 15 cm)
British Library, 10 Islamic 3581

184 CATALOGUE
 ' •

t' .

'. --,' r. ~
• ,· -'\ ..• '\,.,49,
,__ u
•
......
.,,,,
, 1/,)
..
I I ..~~~~~~~~~~!
•
~ ~
•
,__ _____
_ -~~ --~---·-= -

'-
,,t
( \

----
-------- ~--
88 Robert Tytler (British, active 1858-72) 89 Robert Tytler (British, active 1858-72)
and Charles Shepherd (British, active ea. 1858-78) and Charles Shepherd (British, active ea. 1858-78)
ZAFAR IN CAPTIVITY TWO PRINCES: MIRZA JAWAN BAKHT
May1858 AND MIRZA SHAH ABBAS
Albumen print ea. 1858
Approx. H. 8 x w. 12 in. (20 x 30 cm) Albumen print
British Library, Photo 797/37 H. 315/,o x w. 51½0 in. (10 x 14-5 cm)
Jane and Howard Ricketts Collection, London

186 CATALOGUE
90 Felice Beato (British, active in India 1858-60) 91 Felice Beato (British, active in India 1858-60)
RETRIBUTION, HANGING MUTINEERS and Henry Hering
1858 HODSON'$ HORSE
Albumen silver print 1858-59
H. 9¼ x w. 11¾ in. (23.5 x 29.8 cm) Albumen silver print
The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, [Link].141 H. 91/sx w. 119/,6 in. (23.2 x 29.3 cm)
The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Partial gift from the Wilson Centre for Photography, 2007.26.141

CATALOGUE 187
92 Felice Beato (British, active in India 1858-60)
KASHMIR GATE AND DITCH, DELHI
ea. 1858
Salt print
H. 10½6 X w.123J\6 in. (25.6 X 31cm)
Jane and Howard Ricketts Collection, London

188 CATALOGUE
93 FeliceBeato (British, active in India 1858-60)
HINDU RAO'S PICKET ON THE RIDGE, DELHI
ea. 1858
Salt print
H. 93/,6 x w. 1115/,• in. (24 x 30,4 cm)
Jane and Howard Ricketts Collection, London

CATALOGUE 189
94 PORTRAITS OF SHAHJAHAN AND MUMTAZ MAHAL
Mid-19th century
Watercolor on ivory; ebony
Each H. 227's x w. 15in. (58.1 x 38.1cm)
Peabody Essex Museum, Museum Purchase, 2005,
AE86499 and AE86498

190 CATALOGUE
95 BRACELET WITH PORTRAIT MINIATURES
ea. 1860-70
Watercolor on ivory and gold
L. 7½ in. (19.1cm)
The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, 38.665
Zafar'sportra1t is the chirdfrom the left.

192 CATALOGUE
96 Probably Lala Faqir Chand
BOX
ea. 1880
Carved and pierced ivory, mounted with miniatures
in gouache on ivory, with silvPr hinePs
Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Given by J.C. O'Dwyer, 15.2-1957

Front:Viewof the Jami Masjid(left), viewof the entranceto the Red Fort(right)
Top:Viewof the Qutub Minar(left), viewof the TajMahal,Agra(right)

CATALOGUE 193
APPENDICES
MAP OF INDIA

SATELLITE COURTS, TOWNS, AND HUNTING GROUNDS OF OLD DELHI

Alwar
Firozpur
Hansi
Jhajjar
Palam
Sardhana

MUGHAL TOWNS ANO CITIES*

Agra, North West Provinces

Aligarh, North West Provinces
Allahabad, North West Provinces
Aurangabad
Badshapur, North West Provinces
Bharatpur
Bhopal, Bhopal
Bombay
Calcutta, Bengal
Gurgaon, Punjab
Hyderabad, N iza m's territories
Jaipur, Jaipur
Kamal, North West Provinces
Lahore, North West Provinces
Laswari, Rajasthan
Lucknow, North West Provinces
Madras
Masulipatam
Meerut
Murshidabad, Bengal
Panipat, North West Provinces
Patan
Rampur, Rampur
Rania, Haryana
Shahjahanabad (Del hi)
Srirangapatnam, Mysore
Surat

• The provinces listed are the names of regions In the Mughal period

Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir
agreedupon by lnd,a and Pakistan, as promulgated in the 1972SIMLA Agreement.
The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the
parties.
 China

(
Palam
Pakistan

• Bhopal
Cak-11tt;, •

• Surat

Aurangabad INDIA
.,.... •
'--
•Bombay .._ "--1,,.
_.....__
IND AN
..J'
OCEAN
•
Hyderabad

Masulipatam •

ARABIAN
SEA Madras•
Srirangapatnam
•

Sri Lanka

MAP Of INDIA 197

MAP OF DELHI

1. Hindu Rao's house

2. Ludlow Castle, in Civil Lines
3. Charles Metcalfe's house
4. Church of St. James
5. James Skinner's townhouse
6. Fatehpuri Masjid
7- Red Fort:
8. Hayat Baksh Bagh
9. Naqqar Khan a
10. Hall of Public Audience (Diwan-i Am)
11. Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i Khas)
[Link] House
[Link]
14. Begam Samru's palace
15. David Ochterlony's Residency
16. Yamuna Bridge
[Link] Masjid
18. Dariba Kalan
Gatesof theold city walls,
19. Kashmir Gate
20. Kabul Gate
[Link] Gate
22. Ajmeri Gate
23. Turkman Gate
24. Delhi Gate

BRITISH RESIDENTS AT DELHI

1803-1806 David Ochterlony (first time)

1806-1810 Archibald Seton
1811-1818 Charles Metcalfe (first time)
1818-1822 David Ochterlony (second time)
1822-1823 Alexander Ross
1823 William Fraser (first time)
1823-1825 Charles Elliott
1825-1827 Charles Metcalfe (second time)
1827-1828 Edward Colebrooke
1828 William Fraser (2nd time, for six weeks)
1828-1830 Francis Hawkins
1830-1832 William Martin
1832-1835 William Fraser (third time)
1835-1853 Thomas Metcalfe
1853-1857 Simon Fraser
 •
The R,dge, Flagstaff Tower Chandrawal
Shalimar Gardens

l, ,l 3

I~ N

Pat~arganj

•
Qutub Minar,
I
ZafarMa ha,I Lado Sarai,
f Safdar Jang

\
and Mausoleum o

dd'n Auliya,
Tomb of Nizamu l ~b of Humayun

~
Purana Qila, and o

I -- 1857-58'e ngraved by Guyot & Woo d and published by William Mackenz,•e' Edinburg h, ea· 1860.
Based on a Plan of Dehli

MAP OF DELHI 199

SIMPLIFIED GENEALOGY OF THE MUGHAL DYNASTY

KEY Timur

+ SEQUENCE OF MUGHAL RULERS

(founder of the
Timurid Dynasty)
b. 1336,r, 1370-1405
marriage
shot at point-blank range during
Umar Sheikh Mirza
the Indian Rebellion of1857
d.1494

BABUR
b. 1483, r. 1526-1530

+
HUMAYUN
b. 1508, r. 1530-1539
and 1555-1556

+
AKBAR
b. 1542, r. 1556-1605

+
Prince Salim
JAHANGIR
b. 1569, r. 1605-1627

+
Prince Khurram Mumtaz Mahal
SHAHJAHAN 1593 1631
1592-1666, r 1627-1658

Princess Jahanara
1614 1681
Dara Shikoh
1615 1659
Shah Shuja
1616-1660
"'
AURANGZEB,
ALAMGIR I
b. 1618,r. 1658-1707
Murad Bakhsh
1624-1661

Princess Zebunissa
1638-1702
Muhammad Sultan
1639-1677
Muazzam
SHAH ALAM
BAHADURSHAHI
"'
AZAM SHAH
1653-1707, r 1707
Akbar
1657 1704
Kam Bakhsh
1667-1709

b. 1643, r, 1707-1712

Muizuudin
JAHANDAR SHAH
"'
AZIM USH-SHAN
1664-1712, r. 1712
Rafi ush-Shan
1671-1712
Jahan Shah
1673-1712

~
b. 1661,r 1712-1713

FARRUKHSIYAR ➔ RAFI UO-DARAJAT ➔ SHAH JAHAN II ➔ Roshan Akhtar

b. 1683, r. 1713-1719 1699-1719, r. 1719 1696-1747, r. 1719 MUHAMMAD SHAH
b. 1702, r. 1719-1748

ALAMGIR II AHMAD SHAH

b. 1699, r.1754-1759 1727-1774, r. 1748-1754

+
Ali Gauhar
SHAH ALAM 11
b. 1728, r. 1759-1806

Jawan Bakht
1749-1788
"'
Muinuddin
AKBAR SHAH 11
b. 1760, r. 1806-1837

~
Zinat Mahal ....... Abu Zafar Mirza Jahangir Bakht
1791-1821
Mirza Babur
1796 1835
Mirza Salim
1799-1836
d. 1886 BAHADUR SHAH II
1775-1862, r 1837-1858

Dara Bakht Fakhruddin Zahiruddin Suhrab Hindi Khairuddin Abu Bakar, Jawan Bakht
1790-1849 Fath ul-Mulk (Mirza Mendhu) (Mirza Mughal) 1834-1857" Bakhtawar Shah 1841-1883
(Mirza Fakhru) 1817-1857.. 1828-1857.. 1837-1857"
1816 1856

200
GLOSSARY

Aghan The ninth lunar month in the Hindu calendar khalifa A successor or representative of the prophet Qutub Minar A prominent victory tower constructed
(Aghan is also known as Margasirsha). Muhammad, originally a title held by Ottoman in Mehrauli, likely in the ear y thirteenth century,
amir Noble or an official of high rank. sultans. In India, many rulers adopted this title. and one of the most famous Delhi landmarks.
Asin The seventh lunar month of the Hindu calendar. khanazad Palace-born. ragamala An anthology or "garland" of musical
bagh Garden. khiaban Avenue. modes in the Indian classical cannon.
Ballimaran Literally 'the street of the oarsmen." khilat A robe of honer, or a ceremonial bestowal Resident In India, the representative of the East
Ballimaran was the area famed for its doctors and of honers that includes garments. India Company who took up residence in a city
the celebrated Delhi hakims, and was the area korla Fortress or citadel. or region administered by the Company.
where the poet Ghalib lived and worked. kumedan Commandant. The Ridge The raised hilly area north of the Civil
barahmasa Romantic poetry based on the twelve Lado Sarai An area name:l after an ancient caravan- Lines that later became the British camp during
months of the year. serai near Mehrauli, south of Shahjahanabad. the 1857rebellion.
begam (begum) An honorific title conferred upon lingam The phallic symbol associated with the rissaldars Men of mid-level rank In the cavalry and
women of rank. god Shiva. armored units of the Indian army.
Bhairav raga A raga In Hindustani classical music. Ludlow Castle The British Resident'scastellated house Rohilla The lndo Afghan population of Rohilkhand,
Bhairav is derived from Bhairava, an incarnation in the Civil Lines, initially built by a Dr. Ludlow. a region lying to the east of the Delhi region.
of the god Shiva. madrasa An institution fer Islamic studies, usually sabk-i Hindi (sabk-i Hindi) A brm of poetry also
Bhairavi ragini A musical mode that is the female associated with a mosque referred to as "Indian style" that was developed
aspect of Bhairav raga. maharaja Literally "great king" in Sanskrit. by Indian and Iranian poets from the sixteenth
bhat Cooked rice. mir atash Commander of the artillery. century onwards. It features metaphoricity,
bibi A wife or lady, frequently used to refer to mir bakshi Chief paymaster in the Mughal intertextuality, wordplay, and separation of theme
female companions of European men. administrative system and meaning. The poet use; the same theme for
Also used as an ronorific. Mirza An honorific title for a distinguished male, multiple meanings.
Chandrawal A forested swamp area of Delhi outside or a high-ranking person; a cultured gentleman. Safavid A Persian dynasty of S1ia Muslims who ruled
of the Mughal walled city. mofussil Country stations or rural localities, provinces. over greater Iran from 1502 until 1736.
chattah Entrance arcade. morchhal Fly whisk. sanyasis (sanyasis) Hindu ascetics.
charrri Dome-shaped pavilion. munshi (munshi) A well-educated gentleman. sarpech A jewel encircled by a ,and of pearls and
chela Disciple. Usually refers to a secretary or a writer who is well secured to the front of a turban.
Civil Lines A suburb to the north of the old city and versed in languages, accounts, and legal issues. sepoy A soldier.
the site of the residences of the officers of the mushaira (mushii'ira) Poetic gathering. shahrashob (shahrashob) An [Link] poem lamenting
British civil service. nagari The script in which Sanskrit and Hindi are the ruin or decline of a city and its inhabitants.
cothy (korhi) House or mansion. usually written. shaiva Worshipper of the god Shiva (Siva).
darbar Court of a ruler. nastaliq A fluid, elegant script style developed in shamiana A decorative outdoor party tent.
diwan A collection of poetical works usually by Persia in the fourteenth and fiheenth centuries. Shia Muslim Followers of Islam who recognize the
one poet. nautch Literally "dance." Also refers to a specific descendants of Ali, son-in-aw of the Prophet,
diwan Scribe. kind of dance performed by women in courtly as the legitimate successors to the Prophet.
Diwan-i Am Hall of Public Audience. and social circles in eighteenth- and nineteenth- sowar Goldsmith.
Diwan-i Khas Hall of Private Audience. century India. Sufi An adherent of the inner, 'llystical dimension
fakir A wanderer, pilgrim. Also refers to a Sufi ascetic. nim-qalam A type of grisaille drawing that of Islam who seeks union with the divine.
Flagstaff Tower The tower where the British survivors sometimes uses partial coloration. Sunni Muslim Follower of Islam who recognizes
of the outbreak of the great uprising of 1857 pankha A type of fan, usually made of cloth or reed, the caliphs (originally the Abbasid rulers) as the
gathered on May 11. Later a focal point in the attached to the ceiling and operated with ropes legitimate successors of the Prophet.
British defenses. pulled by attendants. Takhallus A pen name.
gaddi A royal seat or cushion. Usually refers to the partis In the context of Mughal India, efficient tasbih khana "Chamber of telling beads." The set of
throne of a ruler. and sometimes highly trained troops under the three rooms in the Red Fort, Delhi that face the
ghazal A short lyric ~oem written in couplets that orders of French officers but in the service of Diwan+Khas and were used for private worship
deals with themes of love or praise. the Indian states. by the emperor.
hajj Annual pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey that every Pathan A large group of people who were from tazkira Biographical dictionary.
Muslim is expected to make once in a lifetime. present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. I imurid The Turko-Mongol dynasty established by
hammam A public or private bathhouse. Patparganj The site of the battle of Delhi between Timur (1370-1405), the ancestor of the first
haveli Private mansion, usually with a central Lord Lake and the Marathas in 1803. Mughal emperor, Babur
courtyard. peshwa A post equivalent to a prime minister in the ulema ('ulama) The group of Muslim clergy who
hawz Watertan k. Maratha court, which became a hereditary title have completed several years of training and
huqqa (lwqqah or hookah) An instrument made up in the mid-eighteenth century. The office of the study of Islamic sciences; theologians who were
of a water pipe used for smoking where the smoke peshwa became virtually independent during guardians of Islamic custom.
is cooled and filtered through water, usually this period. unani A form of traditional medicine that was
contained within a glass or metal base. peshwaz A dress, loose-fitted at the top with a developed into an elaborated medical system by
jadval The border or margin of a manuscript page. long full skirt. Arab and Persian physicians. It was based on the
jagir An assignment of land sometimes made for pietra dura The technique of creating images and teachings of Greek physician H1ppocrates and
a lifetime. patterns by fitting together cut and polished Roman physician Galen.
jama A long robe, usually with a full skirt that is tied colored stones. urdu-ye mual/a (urdii-ye mu'allii) The multilingual
to one side of the chest and waist. Purana Qila The Old For: built by the Mughal literary culture of late Mughal Delhi.
jharoka-i darshan A covered balcony, ohen part of emperor Humayun, completed in 1538. wazir (vizier) A high-ranking political advisor,
a palace complex and used by rulers for making qanat A textile hanging that was used to line or a chief minister.
public appearances. divide a tent, or to form an enclosure around yogi (jogi) Hindu mendicant or ascetic, one who
jizya Poll-tax that Islamic law imposed on a tent or camp. practices yoga.
non-Muslim subjects. qasida (qasida) Formal panegyric (laudatory speech Zafar Mahal The Mughal Summer palace in Mehrauli
kalawanr Male musician. written in verse). built under the reign of Akbar Shah II with an
qawwals (qawwals) Sufi singers of devotional songs entrance gate reconstructed by Bahadur Shah
zenana Women's quarters of a house.

201
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206 BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONTRIBUTORS

WILLIAM DALRYMPLEis a writer and historian, and codirector MALINI ROY is a specialist in late Mughal paintirg and a
of the Jaipur Literature Festival, Asia-Pacific's largest literary curator of visual arts at the British Library's Asia, Pacific and
festival. All seven of his books have won major literary awards. Africa Collections Department. She received he' PhD from the
His acclaimed Write Mughals (2002) won Britain's most revered School of Oriental and African Studies at the Uriversity of
history prize, the Wolfson, while The Last Mughal (2006) won London. Her publications include "Origins of the Late Mughal
the Duff Cooper Memorial Prize and the Vodafone Crossword Painting Tradition in Awadh" in India's FabledCity: The Art of
Book Award for non fiction. Courtly Lucknow, edited by Stephen Markel and Tushara
Bindu Gude (2010).
JEAN-MARIE LAFONTis senior research scholar and
coordinator of the Centre for Human Sciences, Embassy of SUNIL SHARMAis an associate professor of Persianate and
France, New Delhi, and is attached to lnstitut National des comparative literature at Boston University. He was Aga Khan
Langues et Civilisations Orientales (I NALCO, Paris). Many of Fellow in the History of Art and Architecture Department,
his publications in art and architectural history are devoted Harvard University, from 2008 to 2009. His numerous
to European, especially French, connections to India, including publications include the books PersianPoetryat the Indian
Lost Palacesof De!hi: The EuropeanConnection (2006) and Frontier:Mas'ud Sa'd Salman of Lahore (2000) and Atiya's
LesFranc;ais/TheFrenchand Lahore (2007). Journeys:A Muslim Woman from Colonial Bombay to Edwardian
Britain, coauthored with Siobhan Lambert-Hurley (2010).
J. P. LOSTY is the former curator of prints and drawings at the
British Library's Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections Department. YUTHIKA SHARMArecently received her PhD in South Asian
He is the author of numerous books and articles about Indian art and architecture from the Department of Art History and
painting and book arts, including Calcutta, City of Palaces: Archaeology, Columbia University, New York. Her research
A Surveyof the Ciry in the Days of the East India Company, 1690- looks at the artistic culture of Delhi, manuscripts, and collecting
1858(1990) and "The Delhi Palace in 1846:A Panoramic View by in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Her previous
Mazhar Ali Khan" in Arts of Mughal India, edited by Rosemary doctoral work was at Harvard University, where she studied
Crill, Susan Stronge, and Andrew Topsfield (2004). the built landscape of Victorian Delhi. Her publications include
"A House of Wonder: Silver at the Delhi Durbar Exhibition of
1903," in Delight in Design:Indian Silverfor the [Link] by
Vidja Dehejia (2008).

207
INDEX

Page references in italics indicate Amherst, Lord, 44, 114 and Thomas Metcalfe, 57, 5911,33, Chand, Mihr, Son of Ganga Ram
illustrations and captions. Amiban, 126,128,128n.2, 129 5911-36,64, 67n.19 Colonel Antoine watching a
amir, 201 as patron of artists and literati, nautch, 102 cat.29n.1
A Anderson, James, 30 9-12, 63, 65-66, 67n.31 Nawab Amir al-Umara Zabita
Abbas, Mirza Shah, 186 Anglo-Maratha war (1803-5), 8, 101-2, as a poet, 39, 63, 66 Khan, 94-95
Abd al-Aziz, Shah, 9 172 reign of, 63 view of the Red Fort, 53
Abdallah ibn Muhammad, Dihlavi, 58 antiquarianism,42, 56,158 religious attitudes/stature of, Chandni Chowk (Old Delhi)
Abd ul-Haq, Maul"i, 62 Archer, Major, 14011.2 64-65, 6711.15 laying out of, 1
Abdullah Khan, 3-4, 21,75 Archer, Mildred and the sepoy uprising (1857), street map showing the Fatehpuri
administrative seal of David CompanyPainangs,26-27 10-12, 13,64-65, 6m.31 Masjid at the west end, 28,
Ochterlony, 101 India Revealed,13n.27 on Sufism, 10, 63 53, 156-57
administrative seal of Maharaja Ardeshir, A. C., 76 throne of, 11, n Chandrawal, 201
Dowlat Rao, 97 Asal ud-Daula, 31n.s Bakht, Mirza Jawan, 186 charcah,201
Aftab. SeeAlam 11,Shah Asaral-Sanadid (Syed Ahmed Khan), Baksh, Amir, 140 chami, 19, 19,201
Aghan, 201 34, 56, 56-58 Baldev,47 chaubacha("four kinds of division")
Agra, topographical painting in, 43, 53 ascetics and an attendant, portraits of Ballimaran, 201 land system, 126, 132
Ahmad Shah, 22 seven (Faiz Ali Khan), 139 bandijan,38 cheetahs used in hunting, 172
Ahmed Baksh Khan, 48, sin 25 Ashoka, 27 barahmasapaintings, 21,201 chela,201
Ahsanullah Khan, Hakim, 46 Asiatic Society of Bengal, 31n.13 barahmasapoetry, 201 Chitarman, 4, 17,23n.1,76
Akbarabadi Masjid in the Faiz Bazaar Asin, 201 Bassein, Treaty of (1802), 30 Civil Lines, 201
(Mirza Shah RukhBeg),56,56 ateliers, 2, 4, 17,22, 23n.3, 41, 76 Beato, Felice Clive, Robert, 26
Akbar I, 2 Aurangzeb (later Emperor Alamgir I) Hindu Rao's picket on the ridge, coffeehouses, 5
Akbar 11,Emperor (formerly Muinuddin being carried on a palanquin, 4, Delhi, 189 Colebrooke, Edward, 198
Muhammad), 98, 106, 108, 70-71 Hodson's Horse, 187 Colonel Antoine watching a nautch
110-15 death of, 3, 72 Kashmir Gate and ditch, Delhi, 188 (Mihr Chand), 102 cat.29n,1
court assemblies of, 10 as Emperor Alamgir I, 2, 2 retribution, hanging mutineers, Colonel James Skinner holding a
in darbar, 10, 41, 42, 106, 108, 108-9, at a gathering of princes, 4, 5 12,187 regimental darbar (Ghulam
112-13 Mughal painting tradition under, 4, Bechadeh clan. SeePachhada clan Ali Khan), 310.28, 44, 45, 46,
and four of his sons, 104-5, 108 17,23n.3 begam,201 144, 144-45
Ghulam Ali Khan's portraits for, 41 reign of, 2, 72 Begam Samru (Raja Jivan Ram), 27, 28 Colonel Polier watching a nautch,
handing the crown to Shahjahan in religious orthodoxy of, 17 Begam Samru holding a darbar in 26, 26-27
presence of Jahangir, 19 reputation of, 2 Sardhana (Azam), 27, 28 Colonel Skinner's farm at Dhana
manuscript given as gift by, 54 in a shaft of light, 2, 2 Bell: Major General Sir David (Ghulam Ali Khan), 35, 44, 56,
patronage of artists and literati, 10 Shahjahan imprisoned by, 2 Ochterlony, Bt. K.C.B., 100 148-49
portraits of, 44-46, 45 Teg Bahadur executed by, 2 Bhairavi ragini, 92,201 Company paintings, 10, 26-27, 26-27,
in procession with his so,,s, 110-11 Awadh, 6-7, 22, 22n.s Bhairavraga, 92, 201 53,53
receiving a European officer, Azad, Muhammed Husain. 8, 62, 65 bhat, 201 CompanyPaintings(M. Archer), 26-27
re-creation of, 112 Azam, Muhammad: Begam Samru Bhat caste, 38 Cornwallis, Lord, 30
and James Skinner, 46 holding a darbar in Sardhana, Bhatti clan, 124, 125 cothy (kothi ), 201
Alamgir I. SeeAurangzeb 27, 28 Bhawanidas courtesans, status of, 140
Alamgir 11,22, 72n.2 Azim ush-Shan, 72, 72n.1 dynastic portraits by, 2311.3 courtiers of the raja of Patiala (master
Alam II, Shah ([Link];/ormerly Emperor Aurangzeb being carried artist working for William
Ali Gauhar), 98,102 B on a palar111ui1\4, 70-71 Fraser), 134
capture/blinding of, 8, 27-28, 41, 68, bagh,201 gathering of princes, 4, 5 Cuillier, Pierre (''Perron"), 28, 30, 3m.28
98,98-99 Bahadur, Teg, 2 in Kishangarh, 4
Diwa11-iAftab, 28 Bahadur Shah I, Shah Alam (formerly Bhopal, 33 D
and the East India Company, 7, 26, Prince Muhammad Muazzam) bjbj, 201 Dalchand at Jodhpur's court, 4
41,101 with his sons handing a sarpec/1to Bichitr: Akbar,Jahangirand Shahjahan dance, 27
and the French, 25-26, 28, 30, 31n.s a grandson,;;, 3, 72, 72-73, with ministers, 19 Seealso nautch
and Gentil, 25, 25, 31n.5 72nn1-2 Boigne, Benoit de, 27-28, 30 dancing girls and musicians (Faiz Ali
and Hunhar, 22 painters at court of, 4 boundary disputes (1800s), 120 Khan), 140, 140-41
meaning of his name, 310.1 Bahadur Shah II ([Link];formerly Bourquien, Colonel, 28, 30 dancing girls in the streets of Old Delhi
patronage of artists and literati, 10 Mirza Abu Zafar Siraj al Din box (Lala Faqir Chand), 12, 193 (White), 142
personality of, 25 Muhammad), 108 bracelet with portrait miniatures, darbar (court)
poetry of, 28, 34 birth of, 62 192-93 of Akbar 11,10, 106, 108, 108-9,
reign of, 25, 30 as calligrapher, 10, 12,60, 63, 182-85 British East India Company. SeeEast 112-13
return to the throne in Delhi, 7, in captivity, 186 India Company defined, 201
7 8,41 children/descendants of, 65 British Residents, 8-9, 198 scenes of, 2, 3, 17,19, 21-22, 23
seated on a throne overlooking a concubines of, 63 Seealso East India Company; Dard, Khvaja Mir, 5, 33-34
river (in the style of Dip court life of, 63 individual Residents dargah at Nizamuddin (Yusuf), 5111.26,
Chand), 7, 24,95 death/burial of, 11, 66 Brown, William, 124 59n.21, 166-67
territorial concessions by, 26 vs. the East India Company, 64 Das, Kalyan
Allah Yar Khan, Sahib, seated on a enthroned, 19, 19,46, 63, 176-77 C and Chitarman, 23n.1
morha holding a crutch stick, exile of, 65-66 cantonment at Hansi (Ghulam Ali leadership/stature of, 17
152-53 Ghulam Ali Khan's portraits for, 41 Khan), 51n.12,56, 146, 146-47 Muhammad Shah at the age of
Alwar gaddi (Ghulam Ali Khan), 48, 48 ivory model of, 181 cattle, assessment of, 132 twenty, 18, 18
Alwar [Link] as the khal,fa, 64, 6711.21 cavalry manual, 146, 146-47 portrait of a lady holding a rose, 88
Alwar school of painting, 48 as last Mughal emperor. 10-11,64 census-taking, 124 Samsam ud-Daula Khan Dauran,
American Revolution, 8, 28, 30 lineage of, 62 Chand, Fateh, 22, 92 20-21, 21
Chand, Lala Faqir: box, 12, 193 Dastanbu(Ghalib), 34
Chand, Lala Gokul: Zebal-tavarikh, 34 Davis, H. N., 66

208
Delhi India as a source of riches for, Kala in uniform of Skinner's Govardhan II, 17,76
Anglo-Mughal society in, 41,43, 46, 28,120 Horse, 137 Kamama-i-ishq illustrations by,
48, 51n.3 vs. the Marathas, 7-8, 101 mendicant Lakshman Das, 138 21-22, 21-22
artists' migration from, 4, 6, 22-23 politics at Delhi, 43 six villagers standing on a hillside, Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah
court patronage of artists and revenue settlements introduced 124, 124-25 with his wazir with ltimad
literati, 10 by, 126 tax collectors and village elders, ud-Daula Qamaruddin
cultural/intellectual/artistic vs. Zafar, 64 120, 120-21,122 Khan,21, 21
brilliance of, 4-5, 37, 65-66, Seealso British Residents three herdsmen, Sawunt, Kehur, Great Britain. SeeEngland
67n.31 Eden, Emily, 140 and Hurdut, 43-44, Guliscan,47, 47, 47-49, 49, 51n.24,
as Dar al-Khilafat (seat of the elephants fighting in a courtyard 5111.11,143 51n.26
Mughal Enpire), 1-2, 10,41, before Muhammad Shah two women and a male buffalo in
61-62 (Nainsukh), 4, 16,82-83 the village of Rania, 124, 132, H
decline of, 39, 65-66 Elliott, Charles, 198 132-33 hajj,201
Europeans in, 62 England village of Jeewah Moocuddum Hali, Altaf Husain, 61
Franco-Persian and Franco- aggressiveness/encroachment in near Rania,126, 127 hammam,201
Hindustani culture of, 28 India, 62, 64 Fraser Album, 9, 1311.27, 42-44, 48 Hammam well dedication tablet, 12
French presence ,n, 26 Indian independence feared by, Bardat, Kihar, Sanat, 43, 44 Hansi cantonment, 51n.12,146, 146-47
garden canals of, 61 28,30 eight courtiers of the raja of harem shamiana, 102
growth of, 1 and the sepoy uprising, 64-65 Patiala, 134 Hastings, Lord ard Lady, 55, 5911.14
invasions/ruin
of, 5, 10-11, 21-22, Seealso East India Company eight Sikh courtiers and servants of havefi,201
30, 3111.19, 65-66, 67n.31 ethnographic recording, 12,124,132 the raja of Patiala, 135 Hawkins, Francis, 198
map of, 199 Seealso Fraser Album Kala after killing a tiger, 136 hawz, 201
miniature panorama with the fort Kala in uniform of Skinner's Hayat Baksh bagh(Red Fort palace), Bo
in the distance, 58, 163 F Horse, 137 Heber, Reginald, 28, 102
mutiny mythology of, 12,13,187 Faizabad artists: view of the east face mendicant Lakshman Das, 138 Hering, Henry: Hodson's Horse, 187
panorama taken from the top of of the Red Fort, 26, 53, 53 six villagers standing on a hillside, Himmat Khan, Miyan, 38, 38
the Lahore Gate of the fakir,201 124, 124-25 Hindu Rao's picket on the ridge, Delhi
Red Fort. vi,52, 58, 59n.37, Falk, Toby: India Revealed,1311.27 street scene in the village of Rania, (Beato), 189
168, 168-71 Fane, Henry, 172 55, 124, 126,128, 129 Hindus
poetry in, 62 Fane, Isabella, 172 tax collectors and village elders, jizya tax on, 2, 201
political decline of, 5-6 Faqirullah Khan. Muhammad. 4. 17 120, 120-21, 122 and Muslims, 22, 30
pride in, 62 lady visiting a Saivite shrine, 14,22, three herdsmen, Sawunt, Kehur, revival of, 5-e
siege of, 65 76, 92, 92-93 and H urdut, 43-44, history painting, repression of, 2
as a spiritual center, 34 migration from Delhi, 23 51n.11,143 Hodges, William:Se/ect Viewsof India,
urban views of, 42-43 Muhammad Shah being carried on two women and a male buffalo in 55, 59n.15
Urdu of, 62-63, 66, 6711.10 a palanquin, 19,7211.1,
76-77, the village of Rania, 124, Hodson's Horse (Beato and Hering),
western science/culture embraced 7611.1,
92 132,132-33 187
in, 61-62, 6711-3 ragamafaset by, 22 village of Jeewah Moocuddum Holkar, 30
Seealso Shahjaha1abad; Farrukhsiyar, 72nn.1-2 near Rania, 126, 127 Home, Robert: portrait of William
topograpbical school of death of, 4 Seealso India Revealed Fraser, 118
Delhi artists receiving Husain Ali Khan, 4, 7211.1, French presence/interest in India, horse merchants from Kabul and
Delhi College, 33, 61, 66, 6711.31 74-75 26-27, 28, 31n,5,31n.19,3111.28 Persia,group of, 131
diwan (assistant to a Company and the Sayyid brothers, 3-4 Seealso Company paintings Humayun's tomb, topographical
officer), 122,201 Faruqui, Shamsur Rahman, 33-34 French warfare system, 26 drawing of (Delhi), 55, 158-59
Diwan-i Aftab (Alam II), 28 Firoz Shah T ughlaq, Emperor, 27 Hunhar: Empero· Aurangzeb in a shaft
Diwan-i Am, 201 Flagstaff Tower, 201 G of light, 2,2
Diwan-i Khas, 2,201 Fraser, James Baillie, 9, 36, 43, 48, 124 gaddi,201 Hunhar 11,4, 76
Diwan-i Khas ,n the palace in the Delhi Fraser, Malcolm, 1311.27 TheGardenof Poetry,62 and Alam 11,22
Fort (Ghulam Ali Khan), 40, 42, Fraser, Simon, 198 Gardner, Edward, 8-9 Bahadur Shah enthroned, 19, 19
54, 5911.21,154-55 Fraser,William, 146-47 Genghis Khan, 62 leadership/stature of, 17
diwan poetry, 201 in Alwar,48 Gentil, Jean-Baptiste, 25,25· 27, Muhammad Shah enthroned, 19, 19
Doab, British invasion of. 28, 30, 3111.19 arrival in Delhi, 9 31n.5,53 hunting, 172
dogs used in hunting, 172 as British Resident, 43, 198 Ghalib, Mirza Asadullah Khan huqqa, 201
drawings of inhabitants of Delhi, one dance performances for, 140 on Bahadur Shah I I's fate, 65 huqqa base, 178
of four (portraits of seven death of, 9 Bahadur Shah ll's patronage of, 63 Husain Ali Khan,3-4, 21,74-75
ascetics and an attendant) lndianized tastes of, 8-9 Dastanbu,34 Hyderabad, 30, 33
(Faiz Ali Khar), 139 Kayuth of, 122 on Delhi, 39, 65-66 Hyder Ali, 30
Drugeon, Monsieur, 28 portraits of, 9, 42, 117-19 education of, 28
dynastic genealogies/histories, 46 and James Skinner, 35, 146 and William Fraser, 9
as surveyor/collector, 120 Mihr-i nimroz,34, 46 imperial albums, 38
E wives/children of, 9, 124,126 miniature portrait of, 28, 35 lmpey, Lord and Lady, 9
East India Company Seealso Fraser Album Persian preferred by, 34 India
and Abu Zafar, 1c6 Fraser,William, master artist working for vs. Zauq, 63 British aggressiveness/
and Alam II, 7, 26 41,101 eight courtiers of the raja of ghazal poetry, 33, 201 encroachment in, 62, 64
court paintings produced for, 10 Patiala, 134 glass bowl with gold painted iris design, independence of, 28, 30
(see also Company Pieht ~ikh c-011rtiPrc; and "[Link] 179 map of, 196-97
paintings) the raja of Patiala, 135 globular box decorated with gems, 179 as source of riches, 28
growth/power of, 7 Kala after killing a tiger, 136 Gothic colonial architecture, 65 India Revealed(M. Archer and Falk),
Hyderabad controlled by, 30 13n.27

INDEX 209
lndo-French families. 28, 31n.28 L Mir Kalan Khan, 17,23 seated on a terrace smoking a
Ismail Khan, 58, 59n.40 ladies of the imperial harem M1rza,Agha, 51n.24 water pipe (huqqa) and
ivory model of the last emperor, celebrating the Night of Mirza, defined, 201 accompanied by female
Zafar, 181 MirzaSalim Bahadur and Tarbiyat attendants, 84
Shab-i Barat, 87
Lado Sarai, 201 Khan (Khairullah), 41, 106, tribute to Nadir Shah by, 6
J lady visiting a Saivite shrine 106-7,108 two elephants fighting in a
jadval, 201 Modave, Comte de, 25-26 courtyard before, 4,
(Muhammad Faqirullah Khan),
jagir, 201 mofussil,201 16,82-83
14,22, 76, 92, 92-93
Jahanara, 1 morchhaf,201 mukaddam (village headmen), 124
Lahore, 31n.27,33
Jahandar Shah, 3-4, 72 LahoreChronicle, 65 Moreau, P. E.:portrait of General Mukhlis, Rai Anand Ram:
Jahangir, Mirza. 54, 106, 108 de Boigne, 27,30 Kamama-i-ishq, 21-22, 21-22
Lake, Gerard, Lord, 8, 30, 101-2, 172
Jahan Shah, 72 Lakshman Das (master artist working Mughal Emperor Akbar II in Mum in Khan, 34, 34
jama, 18, 18,201 for William Fraser), 138 procession with his sons and munshi,201
Jami Masjid (Delhi), 53, 165 the British Resident, 110-11 Muraqqa-i Delhi (Dargah Quli Khan),
Lal, Mohan, 120, 120-21,122,123
Jami Masjid (after Thomas and fambardars(cultivators), 124 Mughal painting tradition 6,34
William Daniell), 55, 59n.21, 161 accession/dynastic portraits, 19, 19 mushaira poetry, 33, 65, 201
Laswari, Battle of (1803), 41
Jami Masjid (Mazhar Ali Khan), 56, lingam (symbol of Shiva), 92,201 ateliers, 2, 4, 17,22, 23n-3,41, 76 music, 27
58,165 literary salons, 5 under Aurangzeb, 4, 17,23n.3 Muslims,22, 30,124,201
Jeewah Moocuddum, 124, 125,126 barahmasapaintings, 21,201 mutineers, hanging of (Beato), 12, 187
lithographed books, 33
near Rania, village of, 126,127 Louis-Philippe I, king of France, 28 bazaar/market art, 50 Mutiny Monument (Kissen), 13
Jhajjar, 41, 172,172-73 Louis XVI, king of France, 26 conventional formats of, 17-18 mutiny tourism,12
J hajjar, nawab of, astride a pet tiger in Loustauneau, Pierre, 26 darbarscenes, 2, 3, 17,19, 21-22, 23, Mysore, 30
his garden (Ghulam Ali Khan), 27,28 mysticism, 34
Lucknow, 33
63, 172, 172-73 Ludlow Castle, 201 in Delhi vs. the provinces, 22-23
jharoka-i darshan,2 01 dilution of, 50 N
jharokha portrait of Muhammad Shah M illustrations for manuscripts, 11-12, Nadir Shah
holding an emerald and the Madec, Rene, 26, 26 21-22 Delhi invaded by, 6, 21-22, 34
mouthpiece of a huqqa (Nidha Muslim and Hindu artists' Ghalib on, 46
madrasas, 37, 65-66, 67n.31, 201
Mal),79 Mahal, Shahjahan and Mumtaz: collaboration, 22 with Muhammad Shah, portrait of,
Jivan Ram, Raja portraits of, 12,190-91 nim-qalam convention in, 21 22,23
Begam Samru, 27, 28 maharaja, 201 portraiture, 21 portrait of, 6, 88-89
portrait of the Mughal Emperor ragamala paintings, 17,21-22, nagari, 201
Malagir, 140
Akbar II, 114,114-15 92,201 Nairn, C. M., 67n.31
Malcolm, Sir John, 35, 37-38, 46
portrait of the poet Mumin Khan, mango-shaped scent bottle, 178 revived under Muhammad Shah, Nainsukh
17-23, 18-23 Muhammad Shah seated on a
34,34 Marathas
jizya tax, 2, 201 Seealso topographical school of terrace smoking a water
Anglo-Maratha war (1803-5), 8,
Jones, William, 27 101-2, 172
Delhi artists pipe (huqqa) and
Mughals, 98, 101 accompanied by female
attempted invasion of Delhi, 26
K crisis following Aurangzeb's attendants, 84
vs. East India Company, 7-8, 101
Kala after killing a tiger (master artist Maratha nobleman and his wife, death, 3 two elephants fighting in a
working for William Fraser), 136 decline of power of, 3-4, 7-8, 63 courtyard before
8, 96-97
Kala in uniform of Skinner's Horse etiquette of, 65 Muhammad Shah, 4, 16,
Mughals' alliance with, 41
(master artist working for return to Hindustan, 27-28 genealogy of, 200 82-83
William Fraser), 137 Marchand, Captain, 28 last emperor of, 10-11 (seealso Nana'sAlbum, 76
kafawanr,38, 201 Martin, William, 198 Bahadur Shah 11) nastaliq, 201
Kanphata yogi, 36 vs. Marathas, 5 Natha Shah, Punjabi, 51n.24
mausoleum of Safdar Jang (circle
Karnama-i-ishq (Mukhlis), 21-22, 21-22 of Ghulam Ali Khan), 51n-4, Marathas' alliance with, 41 nautch
Kashmir Gate and ditch, Delhi (Beato), vs. Thomas Metcalfe, 64 defined, 201
158-59
188 Metcalfe, Sir Charles, 108, 108-9, 116 moral decline of, 2 performances of. 26, 102, 102-3,
kayasrh(caste of writers and village as British Resident, 198 size of the empire, 1-2, 25, 31nn.1-2 140, 140-41
accountants), 122 Muhammad Shah, Emperor Raushan Nawab Amir al-Umara Zabita Khan
in darbarwith Akbar 11,10, 106, 108,
Khairullah 108-9 Akthar, 72nn.1-2, 76 (Mihr Chand), 94-95
Mirza Salim Bahadur and Tarbiyat poetry written for, 34 at the age of twenty, portrait of, Nawab Muhammad Abd al-Rahman
Khan, 41, 106, 106-7, 108 18.18 Khan of Jhajjar with his court
portrait of, 116
Shah Alam II (reigned 1759-1806), being carried on a palanquin, 19, and an East India Company
Metcalfe, Sir Thomas. 168
the blind Mughal emperor, 72n.1,76-77, 76n.1, 92 political officer in the cool
attire of, 64
seated on a golden throne, celebrating Holi, 4, 85 weather (Ghulam Ali Khan),
and Bahadur Shah 11, 57, 59n.33,
8, 27,68, 98, 98-99 coronation of1 3 41,175
59n.36, 64, 67n.19
khalifa, 64, 201 darbar scenes of, 19,21 Nawab Muhammad Abd al-Rahman
as British Resident, 59n.24, 198
khanazad(palace-born) artists, 17,201 death of, 6 Khan of Jhajjar with his court in
vs. the Mughals, 64
Khan Bahadur Khan with men of his enthroned, 19, 19,21,80, 82 the hot weather (Ghulam Ali
poetry written for, 34
clan. 130 Reminiscencesof Imperial Delhi, firework display for, 4, 86 Khan), 10, 174
Khan Dauran, 20-21, 21,76, Bo,82 in a garden, 4, So, 80-81 nawab of Jhajjar astride a pet tiger in
56-58, 57, 59n.29, 59n.36, 64
khiaban, 201 holding a bow and arrow, as well as his garden (Ghulam Ali Khan),
and James Skinner, 35
khUat,201 and Syed Ahmed Khan, 56 a huqqa pipe, 4, 78-79 63, 172,172-73
Khusraw, Amir, 2 Metcalfe House, 56-58, 59n.37 holding an emerald and the newspapers, 33, 66
Khwass, Haji, 108 mouthpiece of a /,uqqa,79 Nidha Mai, 17,76
Mihr·i nimroz (Ghalib), 34, 46
Kings of Delhi, 25, 41 imperial painting fostered by, 4 jharokha portrait of Muhammad
Milton, John: ParadiseLost,1
Kissen, Jadu Mutiny Monument, 13 with ltimad ud-Daula Qamaruddin Shah holding an emerald
miniature view of the Jami Masjid
Koh-i-noor diamond, 6 Khan, 21,21 and the mouthpiece of a
of Delhi (Mazhar Ali Khan),
kotla, 201 with Nadir Shah, portrait of, 22, 23 huqqa,79
56, 58,165
kumedan,201 reputation for merrymaking, 4, 17 migration from Delhi, 23
Mir, Mir Taq1,5-6, 33, 61
revival of Mughal painting tradition Muhammad Shah enthroned on a
miratash, 201
under, 17-23, 18-23 terrace at night with his
mir bakshi,3, 201
officers, 21,76, Bo. 82

210 INDEX
 Muhammad Shah in a garden, 4, poet laureates, 34 Rohilla, 201 Shuja ud-Daula, 25
80,80-81 sabk-i Hindi, 34, 201 Roorkee agricultural exhibition (1868), Sikh courtiers and servar\tS of the raja
prince and ladies ir a garden, 6, shahrashob,33-34, 39,201 172 of Patiala ( 11aster artist
90-91 Urdu, 5-6, 33-34, 62 Ross, Alexander, 198 working for William Fraser), 135
Nijabat Khan, 124, 172 Polier, Antoine-Louis, 26, 26-27, 102 Sikhs, 30, 3,n.27, 33, 36
nim-qalam,21, 201 "Translation of the Inscriptions on s Sindhia, Madha Rao (also known as
Nizamuddin Auliya, shrine of, 48-49, Pillars in Feroz Shah Kotla," sabk-i Hindi poetry, 34, 201 Mahadji Sindhia), 27-28, 30, 98
51n.26 3111.13 Safavids, 2,201 entertaining a British naval officer
Nugent, Lady Maria, 8-9 portrait of a lady holding a rose Safdar Jang and a young British military
numismatics, 27 (Kalyan Das), 88 mausoleum of, 51n-4, 158-59 officer with a nautch. 102,
portrait of the Mughal Emperor Akbar 11 tomb, showing the garden and 102-3
0 (Raja Jivan Ram), 114,114-15 water channel, 55, 55 Singh, Balwant, 51n.25
Ochterlony, Sir David prince and ladies in a garden (Nidha Saint James Church, southeast view of, Singh, Bhupal, 4, 76
administrative seal of, 101,101 Mai), 6, 90-91 Delhi (Ghulam Ali Khan), Muhammad Shah celebrating Holi,
attire of, 64 princes, gathering of (Bhawanidas), 56,164 4,85
as British Resident 8, 30, 198 4,5 Sair al-manazil (Mirza Sangin Beg), 34 Singh, Raja [Link],5rn.25
in Indian dress and smoking a printing, 12,33, 66 Salim, Mirza, 106, 106-7, 108, 109 Singh, Raja Banni, 41, 47-48
huqqa and watching Purana Qila, 201 Samru, Begam, 27-28, 28-29, 3,n.28, 34 Singh, Ranjit, 3111.27
a nautch in his house in Samsam ud-Daula Khan Dauran Sita Ram, 59nn.14-15
Delhi, 102, 102-3 Q (Kalyan Das), 20-21, 21 tomb of Safdar Jang, showing the
miniature portrait of, 8, 30, 100, 102 Qadir, Ghulam, 8, 27-28, 98 Sangin Beg, Mirza: Sair al-manazil, 34 garden and water channel,
Old Delhi. SeeShahjahanabad Qalandar, Sharaf Bu Ali, seated sanyasis,201 55,55
Ottomans, 1-2, 201 portrait of, 90 sarpech(turban ornament), 72,201 Skinner, Hercules, 35
Qamaruddin Khan, ltimad ud-Daula, Sauda, Mirza Rafi, 6, 33 Skinner, James ("Sikandar sahib")
p 21,21-22, 23, 80 Sawunt, Kehur, and Hurdut (master death of, 31n.23
Pachhada (Bechadeh) clan, 124, 124n.1, qanats,42, 154-55,201 artist working for William farm at Dhana, 35, 44, 56, 148-49
125,126 qasida (panegyric), 33,201 Fraser), 43-44, 143 and William Fraser,35, 146
Padshahnama,70 qawwals,201 Sayyid brothers. SeeAbdullah Khan; holding a regimental darbar, 3,n.28,
painting tradition. See'vlughal painting Qudsiya Bagh (after Thomas and Husain Ali Khan 44, 45, 46, 144, 144-45
tradition William Daniell), 55, 59n.21, 160 scales of justice, 46, 57, 57-58, 63 military career of, 35
Palam (India), 25, 3rn.2 Qutub Minar (Delhi), 53, 58,201 SelectViewsof India (Hodges), 55, as Nasir ud-Daula Ghalib-e
panegyric (qasida) poetry, 33 59n.15 Jang, 45
pankha, 201 R sepoy, defined, 201 performers employed by, 140,
panorama of Delhi taken from the top Raeburn, Sir Henry: William Fraser sepoy uprising (1857), 10-12, '3, 64-65, 14on.2
of the Lahore Gate of the Red of Ree/ig,9, Ill 67n.31 Tashrihal-aqvam, 35-36, 36, 38,
Fort, Delhi (Mazhar Ali Khan), Rafi ul-Darjat, 72n.2 Seton, Archibald, 42, 126,198 38,151
vl, 52, 58, 59n.37, 168, 168-71 Rafi ush-Shdn, 72 Shab-i 0arat, ladies of the imperial Tazkirar al umara>31n.28, 3:.1,35,
panoramas, vi, 52,54, 55, 168, 168-71 ragamala paintings, 17,21-22, 92,201 harem celebrating the Night of, 36-37, 38, 42, 46, 150
Paradiselost (Milton), 1 Rahman, Karim Abdul, 51n.24 87 White Mughal lifestyle of, 35
partis, 201 Rajput, Salim, 128, 129 Shah Alam II (reigned 1759-1806), the Skinner Album, 43-44, 44, 152-53
Parhan, 201 Rajput Muslims, 124 blind Mughal emperor, seated Skinner's Horse (Irregular Cavalry
parka (sash) with red flowers against Rampur, 33 on a golden throne Corps), 31n.28,35, 43, 144,
silver, 180 Rania (Haryana), 9, 124, 125,126, 127, (Khairullah), 8, 27, 68, 98, 98-99 144-47,146
Patparganj, 201 128, 129-30,132,133 Shahjahan Sleeman, William, 114
patronage Red Fort Akbar 11handing the crown to, 19 Sombre ([Link] Walter Reinhardt),
by Bahadur Shah II, 9-12, 63, miniature panorama of Delhi with darbar scenes of, 19 26-28, 34
65-66, 67n.31 the fort in the distance, imprisoned by Aurangzeb, 2 Soojah Mai, 124
British/European, 9-10, 33-34 58,163 Peacock Throne of, 6, 98, 108 sowar,201
invasions' impact on, 21-22 palace, 1,2, 40, 65, 80, 154-55 reign of, 1-2 Spear, Percival, 3m.19
Peacock Throne of Shahjahan, 6, palace buildings of the Red Fort riding past the Red Fort, 54, 54 Srirangapatnam, ~o
98,108 with Shahjahan riding past, Shahjahanabad established by, 1 street map of Chandni Chowk area
performers, status of, 140 54,54 watching an elephant fight, xii, 70 showing the Fatehpuri Masjid
Perron ([Link] Pierre Cuillier), 28, panorama of Delhi taken from the Shahjahanabad (now Old Delhi) at the west end, 28, 53, 156-57
lO, ,rn.28 top of the Lahore Gate of establishment/building of, 1-2 Sufi
Persian, 33-34, 101 the Red Fort, Delhi, vi, 52, literary culture of, 33-34, 39 defined, 201
peshwa,201 58, 59n.37, 168, 168-71 as Mughal capital, 1-2 Mujaddidi, Chishti, and Tariq-i
peshwai, 201 panoramic view of the east face, Seealso Delhi Muhammadi, 34
Phadnavis, Nana, 76 53,54, 55 shahrashobpoetry, 33-34, 39, 201 Sunni Muslim, 201
photography for ethnographic plan, showing courtyards and outer Shah Rukh Beg, Mirza: Akbarabadi Syed Ahmed Kha 1: Asaral-Sanadid,
recording/historical walls, 58n.3 Masjid in the Faiz Bazaar, 56, 56 34, 56, 56-58
documentation, 12 view from the river Yamuna shaiva,201
pierra dura, 6, 201 (Ghulam Ali Khan), 42, Shaman, 128,129 T
pleasure, pursuit of, 4-6 43.55 shamiana,201 Taj Mahal, 26, 27, 27-28
poetry view of the east face of, 26, 53, 53 Shamoo, 124,125,126, 127,128 Takhallus, 201
barahmasa,201 Reinhardt, Walter ("Sombre"), Shepherd, Charles Tanras Khan, 63
in Delhi, 62 26-28, 34 Two princes: Mirza Jawan Bakht Tarbiyat Khan (Imam Baksh Khan),
diwan,201 Reminiscencesof Imperial Delhi and Mirza Shah Abbas, 186 106, 106-7
The Gardenof Poe1ry,62 (T. Metcalfe), 56-58, 57, Zafar in captivity, 186 casbihkhana, 199
ghazal,33, 201 59n.29, 59n.36, 64 Shia Muslim, 201 Tasbih Khana viewed from the Diwan-i
as imperial pastime, 34 Resident, defined, 201 Shikoh, Dara, 8 Khas and the Scales of Justice
lndo-French, 28 revenue assessment, 126, 132 Shiva, 92, 201 screen (Mazhar Ali Khan), 57,
mushaira,33, 65, 201 Reza-I Hindi, Muhammad: portrait ,hrin~ ur Siidh Sha,af Bu Ali Qalandar 57-58
naturalist, 65 of Nadir Shah, 6, 88-89 at Panipat (Ghulam Ali Khan), Tashrihal-aqvam (J. Skinner), 35-36,
panegyrics (qasida),33 Ridge, the, 201 42,43, 55 36, 38,38, 151
Persian, 33-34 rissaldars,201

INDEX 211
tax collectors and village elders tureen, 162 PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS
(master artist working for Two princes: Mirza Jawan Bakht and
William Fraser), 120, 120-21,122 Mirza Shah Abbas (Tytler and
(biographical dictionary) genre,
t11zk11a Shepherd), 186
38,201 Tyler, Katherine, 102
Tazkirata/-umara (J. Skinner), 31n.28, Tytler, Robert
32, 35,36-37, 38, 42,46, 150 Two princes: MirzaJawan Bakht Cover, pages vi, 14, 21, 22, 24, 32, 36, 37, 38, 41, 43 (fig. 2), 44, 45 (figs. 5
terrain mapping, 120 and Mirza Shah Abbas, 186
and 6), 52, 54-57, 74, 88, 93, 95, 103, 105, 113,115,119, 129, 150-55, 160,
Thornhill, Mark, 64 Zafar in captivity, 186
161,168-71, 174,175, 185, 186 (cat. no. 88): © The British Library Board;
tiger, as Jhajjar emblematic image, 172
Frontispiece, pages 5, 73, 77, 79, 82, 87, 107, 112,130: The San Diego
Timurid dynasty, 64, 201 u Museum of Art; pages xii, 70, 71, 91, 117:image© The Metropolitan
Tipu Sultan, 30 ulema,2,201
tomb of Safdar Jang, showing the unani,201 Museum of Art/ Art Resource, NY; page 2: courtesy of Freer Gallery
garden and water channel United Kingdom. SeeEngland of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; page 3: Museum
(Sita Ram), 55, 55 Urdu of Islamic Art, Doha; pages 7, 25, 68, 89, 96, 99,133,139, 141,156-57,
topographical school of Delhi artists, of Delhi, 62-63, 66, 67n.10 163, 165, 193 (cat. no. 96): © Victoria and Albert Museum, London;
53-58 poetry in, 5-6, 33-34, 62 pages 11,12, 35: photo by Amit Mehra, courtesy of the Red Fort
Akbarabadi Masjid m the Faiz urdu-yemualla, 201 Museum; pages 13, 138, courtesy of Dr and Mrs. K. Robbins; pages 16,
Bazaar, 56, 56 Uzeem, Fuzl, 121,122
83, 179 (cat. no. 82): © The Cleveland Museum of Art; pages 18, 75,
buildings shown in physical/
78, 84, 86, 90, 131,135: © The Trustees of the British Museum; page 19:
cultural environment, 54 V
The Royal Collection© 2011Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth 11;pages
Diwan-, Khas in the Palace in the Victorian art, 65
Delhi Fort, 40, 42, 54, 59n.21, Vigne, Godfrey Thomas, 114 20, 53, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; page 23, photo by Thierry Ollivier,

154-55 villagers standing on a hillside (master Reunion des Musees Nationaux / Art Resource, NY; page 26 (fig. 2):
Ghulam Ali Khan's influence on, artist working for William courtesy of Max Vignes; page 26 (fig. 3): collection of Prince and
41 -43,43,48-49,48-49, Fraser), 124, 124-25 Princess Sadruddin Aga Khan; page 27: courtesy Archives
59n.21 departementales du Finistere, Quimper, France; pages 28 (fig. 5), 29:
H umayun's tomb, topographical w © Trustees of the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin; page 28 (fig. 6a):
drawingof,55, 158-59 Waliullah, Shah, 5 courtesy of Enrico lsacco; page 30: collection des Comtes de Boigne;
Ismail Khan, 58, 59n.40 wazir,3, 201
page 34, photo by Allan Macintyre,© President and Fellows of Harvard
in landscape settings with Wellesley, Lord, 7-8, 30
College; page 42: © Nour Foundation, Courtesy of the Khalili Family
participants, SS Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of,
Trust; page 43 (fig. 3): photo by Prudence Cuming Associates, London,
mausoleum of Safdar Jang, 51n.4, 8,30
158-59 White, H. C: dancing girls in the courtesy of William Dalrymple; pages 45 (fig. 7), 60, 183: with
Thomas Metcalfe's Reminiscences streets of Old Delhi, 142 permission of the Royal Ontario Museum© ROM; pages 45 (fig. 8),
of Imperial Delhi, 56-58, 57, William FraserofReelig(Raeburn), 144-49, 164: courtesy of the Council of the National Army Museum,
59n.29, 59n.36, 64 9,117 London; pages 47, 49: courtesy of Neeru Misra; page 48: photo by
of Middle Eastern shrines, 58 women and a male buffalo in the Prudence Cumings Associates, London, courtesy of Sven Gahlin;
miniature panorama of Delhi with village of Rania (master artist pages 80-81, 178 (cat. no. 80): photograph© Museum of Fine Arts,
the fort ,n the distance, working for William Fraser),
Boston; page 85: The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford; pages 94,
58,163 124,132,132-33
97,101,167,177, courtesy of Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian
paintings/manuscripts given as Wordsworth, William, 65
Institution, Washington, D.C.; page 100, Massachusetts Historical
gifts, 54
paintings on ivory, 58 y Society; page 109: Cincinnati Art Museum; pages 110-11, 173, collection
palace buildings of the Red Fort Yellow Boys, 146 of Cynthia Hazen Polsky. Noel Allum, photographer; pages 116,162:
with ShahJahan riding past, yogi, 201 photo by Sheldan Collins, courtesy of Paul [Link]; page 118:photo
54,54 Yusuf, Muhammad: dargah at by Tom Baker; page 123: © Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, used by
panorama of Delhi taken from the Nizamuddin, 51n.26,59n.21, permission; page 125, 134: courtesy of Francesca Galloway London;
top of the Lahore Gate of 166-67 pages 136, 137: © The David Collection, Copenhagen; page 143: photo
the Red Fort, Delhi, vi, 52, by Prudence Cuming Associates, London; page 159: RI BA Library
58, 59n.37, 168, 168-71 z Drawings & Archives Collections; page 181:photography© The Art
panoramic view of the east face of Zabita Khan, Amir al-Umara Nawab,
Institute of Chicago; pages 186 (cat. no. 88), 188, 189: Jane and Howard
the Red Fort, 53, 54, 55 94-95
with perspective, 53 Zabita Khan, Nawab,36-37 Ricketts Collection; page 187: The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles;

in the picturesque style, 55 Zafar, Abu, 106 pages 190, 191:photograph courtesy of the Peabody Essex Museum;
plan of the Red Fort showing Zafar, Emperor. SeeBahadur Shah II pages 192-93 (cat. no. 95): © The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
courtyards and outer walls, Zafar in captivity (Tytler and
58n.3 Shepherd), 186
Sayed Ahmed Khan's Asar Zafar Mahal, 201
al-Sanadid, 34, 56, 56-58 zamindars (landowners), 124
street map showing the Fatehpuri Zauq (Shaikh Muhammad Ibrahim),
Masjid at the west end, 34,61-63
28, 53, 156-57 Zeb al-tavarikh (Lala Gokul Chand), 34
tomb of Safdar Jang, showing the zenana (women's quarters), 17,201
garden and water channel,
55,55
"Translation of the Inscriptions on
Pillars in Feroz Shah Katia"
(Polier), 31n.13

212 PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS