he phenomenon of lost of mud filtrate into a porous permeable formation due to high

hydrostatic pressure compared to the formation pressure is known as fluid loss. This cause
some major problems in well during drilling as poor cementing job, pipe stuck, and formation
damage. Thus, to safe the well from such problems and in order to make safe and effective
drilling an additive from wheat flour is extracted which is starch, and acting as a fluid loss
control agent. The purpose of this research is to investigate the potential of utilizing this
additive to form environmentally safe, non-toxic, high biodegradability and low-cost water-
based drilling fluid samples with varying the amount of starch. Experimental results showed
that Efficiency of starch obtained from wheat-flour is showing increment in rheological
properties as compare to starch present in market by using same and varying quantity of both
and observed that wheat-flour starch is more efficient as compare to starch in market. On the
other hand, the efficiency of starch is good but it has been also improved by the extraction of
starch from wheat-flour by the centrifugation process
INTRODUCTION
The Drilling fluid has the obligatory properties like carrying out rock cutting towards the
surface,
cleaning & cooling the bit, decreasing resistive forces, stabilizing wellbore & to prevent
fluids that flow from
pores into the borehole. The various methods for designing suitable drilling muds are
developed for avoiding
complexity of problems encountered during drilling operation. Since the initial operations
that were executed
in USA (which consist of clays and water for use) to complicated blends of distinct
particular natural
&artificial materials which are currently used. The drilling mud should be user friendly, cost
effective and
economically viable. Therefore, drilling muds are basically formulated to decrease the effect
of damage and
to ensure the possibility and economically viability of rotary drilling in hydrocarbon
containing formations.
The filter cakes which are formed after the intrusion of drilling mud in the pore space
of pay zone are
compressible and they contain variable porosity and permeability characteristics, with low
void spaces at
the filter channel surface and maximum void spaces on cake surface [1]. In order to reduce
filtrate invasion,
fluid loss additives such as organic polymers are used which prohibit water invasion into
formation. During
the formulation of a mud in addition to microscopic structure and composition of filter cake
related to it and
the information of the characteristics of filtration, are of main importance [2]. During drilling
and completion
varying drilling muds in the bore-hole are used. The most significant factor for the increasing
the production
is the physical and chemical compatibility of the mud with the reservoir rock. By the
formation damage these muds can reduce the productivity of the well by invasion.
Consequently, those additives are used i.e. CaCO3, which can reduce the chances of these
damages in the formations by forming a filter cake of low permeability (optimum thickness)
that reduces further invasion of solids and filtrate in the pore spaces of rock. After drilling
these cakes are washed by for maximizing the flow in the wellbore [3]. Fluid loss and
viscosity of mud are the important factors which must be investigated throughout the drilling
of a well. For that mud is treated with several types of additives i.e. different polymers and
chemicals, to achieve the requirements important for the particular well such as rheology,
control of fluid loss, and weight of mud etc. Starch and calcite are the most important
materials used to control fluid loss and to increase the weight of mud by forming mud cake
respectively [4]. 2. RESEARCH METHOD 2.1. Drilling fluid preparation and properties Few
of the additives along with Barite BaSO4 and Calcite CaCO3 are most commonly used in
waterbased drilling mud. Mainly three main factors which influenced the performance of
drilling fluid are i.e., density, viscosity and filtration of drilling fluid. Therefore, more
consideration for these factors during experimental work for the preparation of water-based
fluid samples should be paid [4]. The fluid samples preparation at laboratory scale is obtained
by the applying this methodology that any material of 1 g added to a 350 ml laboratory barrel
at the standard level, that is relevant to addition of 1 pound of material to a fluid of 1 barrel.
This study is involved the preparation of four water-based drilling fluid samples which
contain Bentonite as a filtration controller and viscosifier, for pH control caustic soda is used,
and barite is used as a weighting agent. Along with them soda ash and Xanthan gum are also
used as a hardness and rheology control materials respectively. The composition of all these
additives is constant for all prepared samples except starch. Then the most important is the
concentration of starch as a filtration control agent is used to prepare samples of densities of
10.5 PPG. One of the samples labeled as sample no.1 is based on pure starch and the rest of
the three samples are based on starch extracted from wheat-flour with varying amount as the
compositions of prepared samples

2.2. Density of mud Density of the mud is the main parameter to consider during study and
before the drilling process as it directly affects the properties of filter cake i.e. damage to the
formation and filtrate loss. An apparatus named as mud balance is used to choose such weight
of mud in ppg that cause ceramic disk to less damage. The most common additive to increase
the weight of mud in production zones is mostly calcite (CaCO3) and barite (BaSO4) to a less
extent used in drilling fluids in hydrocarbon industries [5]. Four drilling mud samples by
formulating both starches are prepared in this study to achieve the density range of 10.5 ppg.
The amount use for the formulation of pure starch-based sample is 0.40 g, and the amount for
the formulation of wheat-flour based samples ranges from 0.35 – 0.45 g. 2.3. Drilling fluid
rheological properties The flow of matter or the fluids deformation is involved in the study of
rheology. The importance of rheology is acknowledged during the fluid flow (velocity
profiles) analysis, viscosities of fluids (apparent, plastic, and marsh funnel viscosities),
cleaning the annular borehole and the losses of friction pressure.

The basis for all the investigations including hydraulics of wellbore and to evaluate the mud
system functionality is the rheological properties. Gel strength and yield points of the fluids
are also included in rheological properties. Mud rheological properties i.e. Gel, viscosities,
yield point, and density are continuously tested throughout the operation of drilling a well.
Mud rheological properties are very critical to maintain and control during the failure due to
result in time, financial loss, and in excessive cases, the result is in the abandonment of the
well. Filtration, pH, chemical analysis (alkalinity and lime content, chloride, calcium, etc.),
and resistivity apart from rheology are also tested throughout the drilling of a well [6]. In
drilling fluid laboratories as well as on rig site, rotational viscometer is frequently used to
measure the rheological properties of mud. The readings are taken on 600, 300, 200, 100, 60,
30 and 6 rpm (rotation per minute). Later these readings are plotted on a chart of shear stress
and shear rate which are used to determine viscosity and appropriate viscosity model.
Rotational viscometer also provides the information about other rheological properties, which
include apparent, plastic, and effective viscosities (µa, µp, and µe), gel strength (Gel) and
yield point (YP) as

2.4. Bingham plastic fluid To identify the properties related to flow for the different mud
types Bingham plastic model is a basic two-parameter model used in drilling industry widely.
It is known to as most common model for fluid to estimate the non-Newtonian fluids
rheology. Shear stress is a straight-line function of shear rate which is the basic supposition of
this model. Yield point or also named as threshold stress is the point where shear rate is zero.
By the reduction in colloidal solids plastic viscosity (PV) is achieved best and as low as
possible for drilling fast. While, to carry cuttings out of the hole, yield point (YP) should be
high enough, but not as much that pressure of pump would be unwanted when flow of mud
initiated. On the behalf of treatment for mud adjustments in YP is done. For the both low and
high shear rates range Bingham plastic model have its own limitations. The physical/solid
reason behind this behaviour is that the liquid generally contains particles (clay) or large
molecules (polymers) which generally have some kind of interaction, while creating a weak
solid structure, formerly known as a false body, and at that point a certain amount of stress is
required to break this structure. Under viscous forces the particles tend to move as the once
that structure has been broken. Again, the particles are linked, by removing that stress [7].
Those results which are acceptable for a drilling mud diagnosis are produced by Bingham
plastic model. But, for hydraulic calculations its accuracy is not that much. A Bingham body
doesn’t begin to flow until a shearing stress, corresponding to the yield value, is exceeded.
The results for Bingham Plastic Model are obtained by plotting graph between shear stress
and shear rate as shown in Figure 1, which are calculated by using the shear stress and shear
rate (5) and (6).
2.5. Drilling fluid ph determination The importance of pH is cleared by knowing this that it
affects the solubility of the organic thinners, contaminant removal, corrosion mitigation and
the dispersion of clays presents in the mud. For hydrogen ion concentration representation of
a mud the vital role is played by pH. pH is mostly used to express the drilling fluid especially
water- based mud acidity or alkalinity. Generally, a numerical value ranges from 0 – 14 are
used for the representation of pH of any fluid which indicates that the hydrogen concentration
in the fluid is an inverse measurement [4]. pH is expressed by the equation given follow: pH
= - log10[H] (7) Where, H is the hydrogen ion concentration in mol. The pH value decreases
according to the formulae as the acidity of the fluid increases by the addition of more
hydrogen atoms. Generally, pH of the fluid is considered at 7. Above the reading 7 indicates
the alkaline pH of any of the fluid. And the pH below 7 referred to acidic pH. In drilling mud
there are main three chemical components involved which are (OH- ) hydroxyl ions,
carbonate ions (CO3 -2 ) and alkalinity of drilling mud including (HCO- ) bicarbonates ions
[8]. The acidity reduced by ions are represented and known as the alkalinity. So for the better
measurement of pH, it is observed that pH meter is mostly used rather than the use of a pH
paper because of that pH meter measured the accurate figures values. However, it is ensured
that the pH meter is calibrated accurately. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1.
Characteristics of drilling fluids Achieved drilling fluid samples densities of four samples of
both starch’s based are 10.5 PPG as shown in Figure 2. Prepared four samples of mud with
rheological properties which are obtained in this study based on different filtration controllers
are shown
After an accurate look to the measured values of prepared samples, the observations are that
the prepared drilling fluid samples rheological properties based on different filtration control
agents are showing the variation in obtained results such as plastic viscosity, apparent
viscosity, yield point, and gel strength of all samples are different. But it is observed that
sample no.2 with amount of 0.40 g of starch from wheat- flour when compared with the
sample no. 1 with amount of 0.40 g of pure starch, all the obtained results of wheat-flour
based starch sample is showing better apparent and plastic viscosities including good yield
point and gel strength as shown in Table 2. 3.2. Bingham plastic model It is discussed that
fluids which are non-Newtonian exhibit a relationship between the shear rate and shear stress
measured for the formulated samples as shown in Figure 1. According to the graphs which
are plotted for four water- based drilling fluid samples representing that the fluid samples of
10.5 ppg are showing almost varying trend except sample no.1 and sample no. 3 which are
same at some extent and then variation occurred also between them as shown in Figure 1. A
general trend line is drawn for the Bingham plastic fluid and it is observed that the two
different filtration control fluid samples exhibit much higher shear stress and a yield point of
35 Ib/100 ft2 is obtained as line cutting the vertical axis as shown in Figure 1. For wheat flour
starch-based sample no. 4 and it is also discussed in Table 2 as compare to the pure starch-
based sample no. 1 and other samples of wheat-flour starch. 3.3. pH determination pH of the
prepared sample is determined by using pH meter and the obtained results are listed as shown
in Figure 3. If a comparison is generated between both starch-based samples which include
pure starch and starch from wheat-flour, it is observed that there is a difference between pH
of all samples. But it is also observed that the sample no.1 which contains pure starch with
amount of 0.40 g is showing a pH value almost similar to the sample no. 3 with amount of
0.35 which is based on wheat-flour starch as shown in Figure. 3.
Though, it is also observed that wheat-flour starch is efficient in pH study, because of the
reason that sample no.1 contains amount of starch 0.40 g and pH value 9.25, and at the same
time sample no.3 contain amount of starch 0.35 g and pH value 9.27. 4. CONCLUSION As
this study is related the investigation about the effect and efficiency of starch derived from
wheat flour to prepare the samples of water-based drilling fluid and compare their results
with the samples which are prepared by using same composition of starch present in market
and used in industry. On the basis of laboratory measurements analysis and interpretation, the
main concluded and recommended points are listed: − Mud weight of 10.5 lb/gal which is
optimum for the X well was selected among the five prepared mud densities, considering that
it can sustain the formation pressure. By using another mud weight the formation starts to
create fractures in the well by the effect of mud weight density. − Efficiency of starch
obtained from wheat-flour is showing increment in rheological properties as compare to
starch present in market by using same and varying quantity of both and observed that wheat-
flour starch is more efficient as compare to starch in market. − On the other hand, the
efficiency of starch is good but it will be also improved by the extraction of starch from
wheat-flour by the centrifugation process. − It is also concluded that less the amount of wheat
flour starch in drilling fluid then higher will be the pH value. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We
would like to acknowledge institute of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering of Mehran UET
Jamshoro for their incredible support in our research

Nano-sized starch is a kind of organic nanoparticles prepared from starch with the size of
50−200 nm, which has been extensively studied these years due to its characteristics of
renewability, biocompatibility, low density, and high biodegradability. It can be roughly
divided into the categories of starch nanoparticles (SNs) and starch nanocrystals (SNCs)
based on its preparation methods and properties; a special distinction is emphasized in this
chapter in order to get a better interpretation. Physical, chemical, enzymatic, or the combined
methods are involved in the preparation of nano-sized starch and are classified into the top-
down and bottom-up protocols, respectively. As the size of starch granules is decreased down
to the nanometer scale, both the specific surface area and total surface energy increase.
Therefore, a highly reactive surface with a greater number of hydroxyl groups is ready for
modification so that new characteristics can be introduced. The strategies of chemical
derivatization, “grafting onto,” “grafting from,” and enzyme modification are adopted to
improve the dispersity, hydrophobicity, compatibility, or crystallinity of the nano-sized
starch. Nano-sized starch or the modified nano-sized starch shows great importance in the
applications of fillers, emulsion stabilizer, and delivery vehicles. Other applications such as
adsorbents, binders, thermo-responsive materials, templates, biosensors, and biomarkers are
receiving increasing attention and also reviewed accordingly. Nevertheless, further research
is needed, especially regarding industrial-scale production and the dispersibility and re-
dispersibility of powdered products of nano-sized starch.
The continuous growing requirement in energy and shrink in the production together calls for
thrive in new technologies in the oil and gas industry. Understanding of drilling fluid
properties aid to design a fluid system with better properties that can be useful for drilling
non-traditional hydrocarbon reservoirs. Drilling fluids are colloids to which a numbers of
additives have been added in order to perform some specific properties. Conventional
chemical additives that are employed to regulate properties of drilling fluids pose various
problems because of their environmental and personnel safety issues. Some of these additives
are toxic, non-biodegradable and have a negative impact on the environment. The oil and gas
industries produces a huge amount of spent drilling fluid, produced water, and accumulated
drill cuttings from drilling operations, which are the sources of environmental pollution.
Present day's environmental safety concerns are triggering the research and use of alternative
multifunctional biodegradable and environmentally friendly drilling fluid additive. Hence
comes the play of bio products to bypass these challenges. This review article is undertaken
to highlight the application of some green bio products in drilling fluid to aid researchers and
the oil and gas industry. This article also emphasizes how these bio products support in
improvement of the drilling fluid properties while remaining cost effective.

Introduction
Today's interest in protecting nature is encouraging researchers and the oil and gas industry to
move towards more environmentally friendly practices. The environmental regulations
introduced by the government motivated the industry to be more efficient in drilling
operations in terms of waste management and disposal. In order to reduce the negative impact
on the environment, environmentally friendly drilling fluid additives are used in drilling
operations. In oil and gas well drilling, drilling operations consistently needs the assistance of
drilling fluid (Kuma et al., 2019). Drilling fluid is a dirty mixer of water and clay and is also
known as drilling mud or simply mud. Drilling fluids correspond to the blood in the human
body during drilling process, pump as the heart, drilled out shales (cutting) as slag, the mud
cleaning system corresponds to the kidneys and lungs. Sieve and shale shakers remove the
cuttings in the mud cleaning system (Skalle, 2011). The purpose of the drilling fluid is to
maintain the proper functioning of the drilling process by carrying the cutting particles from
the borehole to the surface, giving the proper weight of mud to control formation pressure,
lubricating and cooling the drill bit and ensuring the tightness of the borehole wall through
development of a thin and tough mud cake (Agin et al., 2018, ; Yunita et al., 2016). The
increasing problems of drilling technology relate to the composition and functioning of
drilling fluids in a way or another. These problems encompass acid gas penetration, stuck
pipes, differential sticking, fluid destabilization, formation damage, fluid loss, hydrate
formation in the pipes, etc. (Ghosn, 2017).
The required properties of drilling fluids are well described in the ANSI/API recommended
practice for field tests of water-based drilling fluids 13b-1. The specific properties of the
drilling fluid can be different for each well to be drilled. Some of the important properties are
(ANSI/API 2017; Quintero, 2010):
 -
Rheological properties, including plastic viscosity, yield point, gel strength, and
viscosity at low shear rate, allow the achievement of the hydraulic requirement, a
good carrying capacity for drill cuttings and a suspension of the drilled solids, which
should be achieved when the circulation is stopped.
 -
Filtration properties that prevents mud from invading into the formations.
 -
Density or specific fluid weight balances the wellbore column hydrostatically during
the drilling operations.
 -
Inhibition properties generate a good rate of penetration by maintaining wellbore
stability and avoiding sticking of the cuttings to the drill bit.
 -
Lubricant properties helps to overcome stuck pipe problems; etc.
In order to achieve these specific properties and to perform the functions smoothly, drilling
fluids were enriched with chemicals and polymers, as a simple blend of water and clay
cannot. Moreover, during drilling a well no homogenous formations were encountered as all
the formations in the globe are heterogeneous in nature. This results in the formulation of
drilling fluids with different properties depending upon the formations to be drilled at
different depths and different PT (pressure-temperature) conditions. Such a difference in
properties is accomplished by adding different conventional chemical additives (Das et al.,
2020). Since drilling fluid encompasses large particles in significant quantities, they do not
conform to Newton's law and are non-Newtonian, pseudo plastic in nature. They can be range
from simple water-based to oil-base to more complex system like compressed air and
synthetic polymers. It thus becomes a careful task of choosing and maintaining the best
drilling composition (Duru et al., 2020). In addition, the industry today presents a major
challenge as easy-to-drill reservoirs have been depleted. The high temperature degradation
and property change of some chemicals are some disadvantages associated with exploration
and production in HPHT (high pressure- high temperature) environments. This led to the
quest for new additives, tools and technologies to formulate drilling in hostile environments
such as deep and ultra-deep HPHT wells proves to be a smooth operation (Das and
Dutta, 2019).
Spent drilling fluid and produced water together with accumulated drill cuttings are
continuous point sources of environmental degradation by the oil and gas industry. Many of
the commercial chemical additives used in conventional water based mud systems for
economic performance are toxic and non-biodegradable, and if given little or no attention,
pose environment, health, and safety problems. The common commercial chemical additives
such as potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, sodium hydroxide, polyamine, chromium
compromising thinners and fluid loss additives etc. pollute environment and are too
expensive (Al-Hameedi et al., 2019). Compromising the potential of a drilling fluid leads to
disastrous outcome, and the oil company performing the operation incurs a huge cost in to
repair the damage (M. Kuma et al., 2019). At the same time to dispose the contaminated mud
in an environment friendly manner is expensive and very difficult (Talukdar and
Gogoi, 2015). Currently, strict guidelines regarding discharge of water and the disposal of
drill cutting is issued by the US environmental protection agency (EPA). All of these factors
motivated the researchers to develop new nontoxic, biodegradable and inexpensive additives
to help protect the environment (Al-Hameedi et al., 2019).
A significant number of articles are available that discuss and describe the role of some green
bio-products in drilling fluid. This review articles reports on the applications of different bio
products in recent research, development, significance etc. in drilling fluid from recent
publications.

2. The need and value of bio-products in drilling fluid

Non-biodegradable additives used to manage drilling fluid qualities hurt the environment and
endanger people's lives. Alternative drilling fluid additives are thus needed to limit the
amount of non-biodegradable waste released to the environment (Al-Hameedi et al.,
2019 ; Al-Hameedi et al., 2019). The majority of conventional chemical additions are non-
biodegradable compounds that offer a number of risks when released into the environment.
These additions, which include potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, polyamine, and fluid
loss additives, among others, have a harmful influence on the environment. As a result, there
is a desire for novel ecologically friendly additives that may assist manage the properties of
drilling fluids and improve their efficacy while causing the least amount of environmental
damage. In doing so, bio products and various waste products are quite cooperative. In
comparison to certain well-established commercial additives, they give a similar range of
drilling fluid qualities. Bio productss are widely available and inexpensive. As a result, using
it to save money, energy, and time would be a wise decision.
Not only bio products and waste materials are drilling fluid property enhancer or environment
friendly. There are numbers of chemical additives and polymers available such as
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyanionic cellulose (PAC), xanthan gum (xc polymer),
partially hydrolysed poly acrylamide (PHPA), etc. are very outstanding as drilling fluid
additive and environment friendly as well.

Type, chemical composition and morphology of different bio-products

Table 1 shows different bio products, their morphology and whether they are suitable in
HPHT conditions or not.
Table 1. . Bio products chemical composition, morphology and suitability in HPHT.

Sl. Name of the Chemical composition Morphology Suitability in

No. bio product HPHT
condition
1 Avocado pear Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, 125 micron Suitable for
(Persea Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, HPHT
Americana) Zinc, Copper, Manganese, (Igwilo et al.,
Selenium 2019)
2 Banana peel Phosphorus, Magnesium, Sodium, 205 microns, 250 Suitable for
powder Iron, Calcium, Copper, Potassium, micron HPHT
Manganese, Zinc (Ikram et al.,
2021)
3 Banana Glucose 71.76%, xylose, 11.20%; 80 micron –
Trunk arabinose, 7.34%; galactose,
2.02%; mannose, 0.58%; and
galacturonic acid, 7.09%.
4 Bagasse Carbon, oxygen, sodium, 20% of each of 5, HPHT
magnesium, silicon 16, 44, 60 and (Abbas et al.,
100 BSS mesh 2019)
size, 80 micron
5 Black Calcium, iron, magnesium, between 52 and HPHT
sunflower manganese, phosphorus, 400 μm (300—50
seed potassium, sodium, zinc US Mesh size
6 Burnt palm- SiO2 45.50%, MgO 3.20%, 200 micron –
head sponge P2O5 5.38%, K2O 23.30%,
ash powder Fe2O3 3.26%, CaO 12.80%,
Al2O3 5.40%
7 Coconut shell Lignin 29.4%, Pentosans 27.7%, – –
Cellulose 26.6%, Moisture 8%,
Solvent Extractives 4.2%, Uronic
Anhydrides 3.5%, Ash 0.06%
Sl. Name of the Chemical composition Morphology Suitability in
No. bio product HPHT
condition
8 Coconut fiber Lignin 45.84%, cellulose 43.44%, 20% of each of 5, –
hemi-cellulose 0.25%, Pectin's and 16, 44, 60 and
related compounds 3%, water 100 BSS mesh
soluble 5.25%, ash 2.22% size, 80 micron
9 Corn cob Cellulose 41.27%, Hemicellulose –
46.00%, Lignin 7.40%
10 Corn starch Amylose 24.64%, Amylopectin 20 µm, irregular –
75.36%, Crude fats 7.13%, Crude in shape from
proteins 7.70%, Ash 0.62%, spherical to
Phosphor 0.09% polygonal
11 Cotton seed 20% protein, 20% oil and 3.5% 5–8 mm Suitable for
starch HPHT
12 Date seed Fat, Protein, Ash, Potassium, 300 µm Suitable for
Magnesium, Calcium, Phosphorus HPHT
Sodium, Iron (Prakash et al.,
2021)
13 Eucalyptus Extractives, Lignin, Glucans, – –
bark Xylan/mannan,
14 Fenugreek Protein 28.55%, Fat 4.00%, Fiber – –
leaf 6.50%, Ash 3.20%, Moisture
4.00%, Carbohydrates 46.25%
15 Green olive Cellulose (37.5 wt.%), – –
pits powder hemicelluloses (26 wt.%) and
lignin (21.5 wt.%),
moisture (8 wt.%), minerals (1 wt.
%) and proteins, pectines, tannins,
etc
16 Grass Potassium, phosphorus, calcium, 300 µm Suitable for
magnesium, crude protein, acid HPHT
detergent fiber, neutral detergent
fiber
17 Grass ash 300 µm –
18 Cellulose Cellulose, Carbohydrates, Proteins, 63–74 μm, 250– –
from Minerals, Lipids 297 μm size.
groundnut
husk
19 Mandarin Linalool (30.62%), geraniol – –
peel powder (15.91%), α-terpineol (14.52%),
and linalyl acetate (13.76%)
Sl. Name of the Chemical composition Morphology Suitability in
No. bio product HPHT
condition
20 Mango starch Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Oval to ellipsoid Suitable for
ester Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium , granular shape, HPHT
Zinc, Copper, Manganese, smooth surface, 5
Selenium to 12 µm
21 Olive pulp Crude protein, Crude fiber, – Suitable for
Neutral detergent fiber (α- HPHT
amylase), Acid detergent fiber,
Ash, Crude fat, Calcium,
Phosphorus, Soluble sugars,
Starch, polyphenols, tannins
22 Orange peel moisture (40.7%), ash (7.39%), fat Fine (44–74 –
(1.85%), microns),
pectin (7.0%), lignin (6.4%), crude medium
fiber (7.8%), total sugar (14.08%), (Intermediate
reducing sugars (10.70%) and non- 74–250 microns)
reducing sugar (3.70%). and coarse sizes
(> 200)
23 Palm tree leaf tannins, flavonoids, catechins, – –
powder steroids, triterpenes, saponins,
capric (decanoic) acid, lauric
(dodecanoic) acid, myristic
(tetradecanoic) acid, phthalic (1,2-
benzenedicarboxylic) acid,
palmitic (hexadecanoic) acid,
stearic (octadecanoic) acid, linoleic
(9,12-octadecadienoic) acid
(omega-6), linolenic
(octadecatrienoic) acid (omega-3),
and the terpenes citronellol and
phytol
24 Peach pulp Sodium, potassium, zinc, copper, – –
iron
25 Plantain peels Moisture, Lipids, Protein, Ash, 205 microns, 250 –
powder Total starch, Total dietary fiber, micron
Soluble dietary fiber, Insoluble
dietary fiber
26 Potato peel Protein, lipid, carbohydrate, Very fine –
powder Starch, dietary fiber, Ash, phenolic
content, flavonoids
27 Pomegranate Protein, Lípids, Carbohydrates, Fine grained –
peel powder Glucose, Fructose, Sacarose,
Sodium, Potassium, Calcium,
Sl. Name of the Chemical composition Morphology Suitability in
No. bio product HPHT
condition
Magnesium, phosphorus, Iron,
Thiamine, Riboflavin, Ascorbic
acid, Nicotinamide, Organics acid,
Malic acid, Citric acid.
28 Psyllium Arabinose, xylose, uronic acids, – –
husk galactose, rhamnose, glucose and
mannose
29 Rice husk 40% cellulose, 30% lignin, and 1.25 × 10 − 4 m –
20% silica.
30 Saw dust Klason lignin, Hollocellulose, 1.25 × 10 − 4 m –
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
31 Sea shells Calcium carbonate – –
32 Sugar cane Potassium, calcium, magnesium, – –
iron, magnesium, zinc, thiamin,
riboflavin and several amino acids
33 Soya been 36% protein, 19% of oil, 30% – –
peel powder carbohydrates, 5% crude fiber, 5%
of ash and Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
potassium, Calcium, Magnesium,
Iron, Copper, Manganese, Zinc,
Copper.
34 Sunflower Calcium, iron, magnesium, Fine (44–74 µm), Suitable for
seed manganese, phosphorus, medium HPHT
(wiki) potassium, sodium, zinc (Intermediate
74–250 µm) and
coarse sizes (>
200)
35 Tamarind 8–18% (free) tartaric acid and 25– – –
gum outer 45% (reducing) 70% glucose, 30%
fructose
36 Wheat husk carbon, oxygen, silica, potassium, 125 microns Suitable for
powder and low levels of sulfur, phosphor, HPHT
sodium, magnesium, and
aluminum

4. Effect of bio-products in rheological properties of drilling fluid

Prior to mud preparation the bio-products were dried and grinded to powdered form. A good
drilling fluid additive has the ability to substitute the properties of mud to achieve the desired
goal i.e. they have an optimum PV (plastic viscosity) and a good YP (yield point) and gel
strength range. All of these properties can be measured with the Grace M3600 Fann
G Viscometer.
Date seed, grass and grass ash are excellent modifier of the rheological properties of the mud.
The concentrations used by the author (Wajheeuddin and Hossain, 2017) are 0.25, 1.0, 1.5
and 2.0 ppb of each additives in a WBM (water base mud) of 22.5 g of bentonite in 350 ml of
water. The consistency curve of bentonite mud with date seed, grass and grass ash
in Figs. 1a, 2a and 3(a) each shows a Bingham plastic model. Date seed aid in increase PV
and gel strength while not imparting yield point. Higher PV drilling fluid is necessary as it
increases the ECD (equivalent circulating density) and decreases the ROP (rate of
penetration) of a mud. Grass particles increase the apparent viscosity while PV remains
nearly constant in the initial increase in grass concentration in the drilling fluid. In contrast to
date seeds, as shown in Fig. 6c, with increasing concentration of the grass particles YP
gradually increases. Better suspension of cutting is indicated by increasing the gel strength
with increasing grass concentration Fig. 2(d). In case of the grass ash viscosity Fig. 3. YP, gel
strength increased with increasing concentration. A flat gel is quick and fragile and do not
require high pump pressure to restart a circulation, which is why it is desirable over a
progressive gel.

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Fig. 1. Plot of rheological parameters for drilling fluids formulated with date seeds particles
(Wajheeuddin and Hossain, 2017).
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Fig. 2. Rheological parameters for muds formulated with grass particles (Wajheeuddin and
Hossain, 2017).
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Fig. 3. Rheological parameters for muds formulated with grass ash (Wajheeuddin and
Hossain, 2017).
Cellulose generates from groundnut husk were used as substitute for PAC-LVG (polyanionic
cellulose low viscosity grade). Cellulose extracted from groundnut husk by immersing the
washed and dried husk into a 0.5 N sodium hydroxide solution with a solution to the husk
ratio 10:1 in a room temperature overnight. The extracts were heated, washed in warm water
and then cold in water to remove the impurities and gently bring the husk to room
temperature. Then, the sample was neutralized in dilute acid solution to remove the alkali
content and dried to remove the moisture content and fine powder was prepared using a
grinder (Patidar et al., 2020). Two particle sizes of 63–74 μm and 250–297 μm were taken.
The PV and AV (apparent viscosity) of the mud increase with concentration and size, and
remain close to each other before and after hot rolling. While PAC mud PV and AV were
noticeably increased and shows great variation before and after hot rolling Fig. 4. Groundnut
husk remains consistent in YP while PAC stands out in all concentrations and illustrates
incredibly great variation after hot rolling. In the case of gel strength mud samples show large
fluctuations before and after hot rolling. PAC increases the gel strength after hot rolling,
while the husk mud reflects a consistency indication flat rheology profile for the
additive Fig. 5.
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Fig. 4. PV, AV at varying concentrations before and after hot roll at concentrations increased
from 1 to 4% of the additives (Patidar et al., 2020).
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Fig. 5. YP, Gel0, Gel10 at varying concentrations before and after hot roll is shown. Gel10
readings of PAC at 3–4% concentration are showing abnormal behavior (Patidar et al.,
2020) .
Mango starch esters are inherently pseudo plastic in nature indicating lower apparent
viscosity with increasing shear stress Fig. 6. This type of mud is useful for cleaning wellbore
from cutting samples, needs minimal pump pressure, and increases the ROP. While a high
viscosity at a low shear rate is useful to prevent cuttings from accumulating in the borehole
and to move the cuttings from the borehole bottom to the surface. Starch ester mud has a
higher viscosity (increases from 10.8 to 13.4 cp) than commercial additives (calcium
hydroxide, NaCl, commercial fluid control additive etc.) which can aid in cleaning of the
wellbore and a higher yield point (1.4 - 2.1 Pa) and gel strength (0 – 1.02 Pa) value that can
help on keep cutting particles in suspension under ongoing and static conditions
(Marques et al., 2019).

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Fig. 6. Drilling fluid with starch ester and commercial additive (a) Flow curves and (b)
viscosity curves (Marques et al., 2019).
Table 2 shows the effect of different bio-products on the rheological properties of a drilling
fluid. The bio-products were dried and grinded into fine particle before being used as an
additive in drilling fluid. Some researchers are studying their aged properties to differentiate
the bacterial problem and temperature effect by leaving the sample in static state.
Table 2. Summary of effect of bio-products in rheological properties.

Author(s), year Material Study Concentratio PV YP(lb/ Gel Gel

category n (cp 100 ft2) strength strength
) initial final
(10 sec) (10 min
lb/100 ft2 ) lb/100
ft2
Oluwatoni A. Akeju Oyster sea Rheolog 0 g 6 1 10 14
et al., (2014) shells y, filtrate 3 g 7 16 14 16
(O.A. Akeju et al., loss 6g 6 22 16 20
2014) 9g 5 10 18 20
Alireza Salmachi Psyllium Rheolog 0.25 wt% 3 1 - -
et al., (2016) husk y, 0.5 wt% 8 4 - -
(Salmachi et al., filtration 0.75 wt% 14 17 11 -
Author(s), year Material Study Concentratio PV YP(lb/ Gel Gel
category n (cp 100 ft2) strength strength
) initial final
(10 sec) (10 min
lb/100 ft2 ) lb/100
ft2
2016) for 1 wt% 28 36 11 -
WBM
M. T. Al-saba et al., Banana Rheolog 1 ppb 4 32 30 -
(2018) (Al- peel y, 2 ppb 3 15 13 -
saba et al., 2018) powder filtration, 5 ppb 6 9 7 -
pH for
WBM
Olive pulp 1 ppb 8 73 75 –
Corn cob 2 ppb 6 26 29 -
6 ppb 6 53 70 -
10 ppb 7 71 83 -
Corn starch 2 ppb 2 37 36 –
Pomegranat 2 ppb 3 11 9 –
e peel
powder
Tamarind 5 ppb 10 63 56 –
gum outer
Peach pulp 5 ppb 2 32 25 –
Soya been 5 ppb 4 23 89 –
peel
powder
Sugar cane 5 ppb 17 21 25 –
Grass 5 ppb 6 11 80 –
Coconut 6 ppb 3 77 70 -
shell 10 ppb 10 40 60 -
Peretomode JP Burnt palm- Rheolog 1g 5 3 Not
(2018) head y and 2g 5 4 mentione
(Peretomode, 2018) sponge ash alkalinity 3g 5 7 d
powder for 4g 5 9
WBM 5g 5 12
Plantain 1g 4 4 Not
peels 2g 3 7 mentione
powder 3g 3 8 d
4g 3 10
5g 3 12
Author(s), year Material Study Concentratio PV YP(lb/ Gel Gel
category n (cp 100 ft2) strength strength
) initial final
(10 sec) (10 min
lb/100 ft2 ) lb/100
ft2
A.T.T. Al-Hameedi Mandarin Rheolog 1 wt% 14 14 10 14
et al. (2019) (Al- peel y, 2 wt% 24 17 10 14
Hameedi et al., powder density, 3 wt% 38 33 12 17
2019) pH, 4 wt% 63 57 24 28
filtration,
resistivit
y
Palm tree 1.5 wt% 9 5 6 11
leaf powder 3 wt% 12 5 7 12
(fresh)
Palm tree 1.5 wt% 9 6 6 12
leaf powder 3 wt% 9 5 6 11
(48 h aged)
Grass 0.5 wt% 9 19 20 25
powder 1 wt% 9 20 22 26
1.5 wt% 13 25 26 33
Green olive 0.75 wt% 6 30 23 31
pits powder 1.5 wt% 7 26 20 29
Abo Taleb T. Al- Palm tree Rheolog 1.5 wt% 9 5 6 11
Hameedi et al., leaf powder y, 3 wt% 12 5 7 12
(2019) (fresh) filtration,
(Al-Hameedi et al., pH for
2019) WBM
Palm tree 1.5 wt% 9 6 6 12
leaf 3 wt% 9 5 6 11
powder
(aged
48 h)
Abo Taleb T. et al., Potato peel Mud 1 wt% 7 7 9 13
(2019) (Al- powder weight, 2 wt% 8 6 8 12
Hameedi et al., rheology, 3 wt% 9 6 8 12
2019) filtrate 4 wt% 10 6 8 12
loss, mud
cake, pH,
resistivit
y
Mazlin Idress et al., Sunflower Rheolog 0.8 wt% 13 12 8 14
(2019) (Idress and seed (Fine y, 1.3 wt% 15 11 8 15
Hasan, 2019) 44 – 74 filtration 2.2 wt% 17 13 9 18
Author(s), year Material Study Concentratio PV YP(lb/ Gel Gel
category n (cp 100 ft2) strength strength
) initial final
(10 sec) (10 min
lb/100 ft2 ) lb/100
ft2
µm) for 2.7 wt% 18 16 10 19
WBM 4 wt% 19 17 12 21
Sunflower 0.8 wt% 11 12 9 15
seed 1.3 wt% 12 12 9 15
(Medium 2.2 wt% 13 13 11 18
74 250 µm) 2.7 wt% 15 13 11 19
4 wt% 16 14 12 22
Sunflower 0.8 wt% 10 10 8 13
seed 1.3 wt% 11 11 9 16
(Coarse > 2.2 wt% 12 11 11 17
200 µm) 2.7 wt% 13 13 11 19
4 wt% 14 14 13 23
Orange peel 0.8 wt% 13 22 9.5 12
(Fine 44 – 1.3 wt% 14 22 11 13
74 µm) 2.2 wt% 16 23 10 15
2.7 wt% 17 25 10 16
4 wt% 18 31 12 17
Orange peel 0.8 wt% 12 21 8 12
(Medium 1.3 wt% 13 21 8 14
74 250 µm) 2.2 wt% 13 23 9 15
2.7 wt% 13 24 11 17
4 wt% 15 26 13 18
Orange peel 0.8 wt% 11 18 9 13
(Coarse > 1.3 wt% 12 20 9 14
200 µm) 2.2 wt% 12 21 10 17
2.7 wt% 12 22 12 18
4 wt% 13 22 14 19
Abdulmaliq Banana Rheolog 2g 1 10.5 Increases –
Abdulsalam et al., peel ash y, 4g 1.5 17.5
(2020) density, 8g 2.5 30
(Abdulsalam et al., pH for
2020) WBM
Plantain 2g 3 15 Increases –
peel ash 4g 4 22
8g 4.5 27.5
Abo Taleb T. Black Rheolog 0.5 wt% 7 22 23 27
Al-Hameedi et al., sunflower y, 1.5 wt% 8 35 31 35
(2020) seed shell filtration 2.5 wt% 8 32 30 35
(Al-Hameedi et al., powder
Author(s), year Material Study Concentratio PV YP(lb/ Gel Gel
category n (cp 100 ft2) strength strength
) initial final
(10 sec) (10 min
lb/100 ft2 ) lb/100
ft2
2020) (fresh)
Aged for 0.5 wt% 7 26 28 33
30 h 1.5 wt% 13 47 41 46
2.5 wt% 13 45 38 42
Althamas Yaseer Wheat husk Rheolog 1 wt% 7 11 5 6
et al., (2020) powder y 2 wt% 11 20 7 9
(Yaseer et al., 2020) filtration, 3 wt% 15 25 10 11
pH for 4 wt% 20 30 12 13
WBM
Wheat husk 1 wt% 11 12 6 7
powder 2 wt% 14 17 8 9
after 3 wt% 18 19 12 10
treating at 4 wt% 19 24 14 15
100° temp.
Althamish Ahmed Glycerol Rheolog 0.5 wt%, 5 1 1 12
(2020) coated y, 1.0 wt%, 7 12 12 22
(Ahmed, 2020) crushed filtration 1.5 wt%, 16 58 58 37
fenugreek 2.0 wt% 17 56 56 68
leaf
Fenugreek 0.5 wt% 6 3 19 27
leaf and 1.0 wt% 9 22 43 51
basil seed 1.5 wt% 18 30 60 78
combined 2.0 wt% 22 50 100 130
Mostafa Eucalyptus Rheolog 10 g 17 16 8.5 10
Sedaghatzadeh bark y, pH, 30 g 22 23 12 14.5
et al., (2020) powder filtration,
(Sedaghatzadeh et a density
l., 2020) for
WBM
Cellulose nanoparticle can also be used as a good rheology modifier. Presence of Cellulose
nanoparticles (CNPs) extracted from corncob in silicate mud improves the viscosity, yield
point and gel strength. With increase in concentration of CNPs from 0.1 to 0.5 wt% it
increases the PV and yield point of the mud in 150 and 170° centigrade. It also enhances the
gel strength from 12 to 52.1 lb/100 ft2 in 150 °C and from 5 to 28.5 lb/100 ft2 in 170 °C
(Fereydouni et al., 2012). Cellulose nanocrystals obtained by synthesis of microfibrillated
cellulose enhances the PV, yield point and gel strength of a mud (Makonjwa, 2015). Mei
Chun Li et al. (Li et al., 2015) and Song, K et al. (Song et al., 2016) also studies the effect of
cellulose nano particles on rheological properties of drilling fluid and found out that it
enhances the rheology of mud effectively.
5. Bio-products effecting density of drilling fluid
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. The density of a drilling fluid is achieved
by adding weighing materials that dissolve and suspend in a drilling fluid that controls the
formation pressure and helps in combating shale sloughing. Barite is one of the most
commonly used material. Any substance that is denser than water and does not affect the
other mud properties can be used as weighing material. Highly concentrated water soluble
salts such as chlorides, bromides, formates, phosphates and solid weighting materials are two
generic kinds of weighting materials (Ádewale and Salihu, 2014). The selection of the
weighing material to be used in the drilling fluid depends on the need to (Ádewale and
Salihu, 2014; Al-Bagoury and Steele, 2012).
 i)
Provide low rheology (low plastic viscosity) especially in liquids with a high density
>2.0SG.

 ii)
Show low settling tendency, providing low sag.

 iii)
To be easily removable from the reservoir by mechanical or chemical means.

 iv)
They must be hard enough not to form fines when drilling which can cause formation
damage or high gel counts.

 v)
Should contain a minimum of coarse particles to prevent abrasion.

 vi)
To be sustainable and readily available and in large quantities.

 vii)
To have a good HSE profile.

 viii)
To be cost effective.
dummy Table 3
Table 3. Experimental studies on bio-products used in drilling fluid to regulate density.

Author(s), year Material Effect on mud weight with

increasing concentration of the
additive
Abo Taleb T. et al., (2019) (Al- Potato peel Negligible effect on density with
Hameedi et al., 2019) powder increasing concentration (poorly
increases)
A.T.T. Al-Hameedi et al. (2019) Potato peel Increases
(Al-Hameedi et al., 2019) powder, Decreases
mandarin peel Negligible
powder, Decreases
grass powder,
Author(s), year Material Effect on mud weight with
increasing concentration of the
additive
green olive pits
powder
Mostafa Sedaghatzadeh et al., (2020) Eucalyptus Increase
(Sedaghatzadeh et al., 2020) bark powder
Abdulmaliq Abdulsalam et al., (2020) Banana peel Increases
(Abdulsalam et al., 2020) ash, increases
Plantain peel
ash

6. Bio-products improving filtration properties of drilling fluid

Fractures present in a formation are important storage spaces and permeable channel in
reservoirs, from which, however, drilling fluid frequently escapes. The application of
granulated LCM with various PSD and graded compositions is the most frequently used
treatment. The mud cake permeability largely depends on PSD, as colloidal particle packed
firmly than large sized particles (Wajheeuddin and Hossain, 2017). It prevents further loss
and invasion of drilling fluid into the reservoir and thus effectively protects the subsequent
formation damage effectively (Zhu et al., 2019). The formation of an impermeable thin and
tough mud cake, which is considered to be ideal mud, is a very important property of a
drilling fluid. There are various environmentally friendly additives which help to do so
(Borah and Das, 2020).
A WBM with bentonite as a base, addition of date see, grass and grass ash 300 µm could be
good substitute for the filtrate loss reducing agent Figs. 7, 8, 9. with increasing concentration
of this additive 0.25, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 ppb, the quantity of filtrate loss reduces. Compared to the
three additives, grass has a higher filtrate loss of 24.7%, followed by date seed 20% and grass
ash 19% (Wajheeuddin and Hossain, 2017).

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Fig. 7. Filtration properties of mud formulated with date seed of 300 μm (Wajheeuddin and
Hossain, 2017).
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Fig. 8. Filtration properties of mud formulated with grass of 300 μm (Wajheeuddin and
Hossain, 2017).

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Fig. 9. Filtration properties of mud formulated with grass ash of 300 μm (Wajheeuddin and
Hossain, 2017).
Cellulose generated form groundnut husk was used as a filtrate loss controlling agent and
compared to PAC. 63–74 μm sized husk particle resemble the PAC pattern than 250–297 μm
sized particle and showed a lower filtrate loss in fresh condition compared to the hot
roll Fig. 10, although PAC showed the lowest filtrate loss (Patidar et al., 2020). Itaconic acid
grafted copolymer on corn starch was also used as a filtrate loss control agent. It was
synthesized by conventional radical dispersion polymerization using a redox initiation
system. The modification of the starches was verified and drilling fluid was formulated with
three different concentrations. In their experiment it was noted that it decreases the quantity
of filtrate loss to 21%, 38% and 31% over the base mud with increasing concentration and
can be adopted as a replacement for filtrate loss controlling means (Soto et al., 2020).
 1. Download : Download high-res image (663KB)
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Fig. 10. Filtration losses at 10, 20, and 30 min before and after hot roll (Patidar et al., 2020).
Starch ester made from mango kernel was thermally stable and cane be used in HPHT. The
filtrate loss obtained in the HPHT filtration test is important to demonstrate the control of
fluid loss through rock formations under high pressure temperature condition when oil based
fluids were necessitated. Like organophilic clay, mango starch ester has a lower filtrate loss
of 8 ml to 7.2 ml than other commercial additives, suggesting that it has the capability to
reduce the fluid influx through porous formations by interacting between its hydrophobic
portions and the component, which forms the filter cake (Marques et al., 2019).
dummy Table 4
Table 4. Summary of experimental studies on the use of bio-products as filter loss material.

Author(s), year Material Study Particle size Concentratio Filtrate loss

category n and mud
and mud cake
type thickness
Oluwatoni A. Akeju Oyster Sea- Rheology Not 0 g, 3 g, 6 g, Proves to be
et al., (2014) shells and mentioned 9g a suitable
(O.A. Akeju et al., filtrate substitute as
2014) loss for LCM
WBM
Alireza Salmachi Psyllium husk Rheology Not 0.25 – 1 wt% Excellent
et al., (2016) , filtration mentioned fluid loss
(Salmachi et al., for WBM controlling
2016) agent
M. T. Al-saba et al., Banana peel Filtration, Not 1 ppb 22 ml, 0.12
(2018) (Al- powder rheology, mentioned 2 ppb inch
saba et al., 2018) pH for 3 ppb 20 ml, 0.02
WBM inch
17 ml, 0.04
inch
Olive pulp 1 ppb 14 ml, 0.37
inch
Corncobs 2 ppb 18 ml, 0.02
6 ppb inch
10 ppb 16 ml, 0.16
inch
13.4 ml, 0.10
inch
Pomegranate 2 ppb 20 ml, 0.06
peel powder inch
Tamarind gum 5 ppb 11.2 ml, 0.09
10 ppb inch
9 ml, 0.11
inch
Author(s), year Material Study Particle size Concentratio Filtrate loss
category n and mud
and mud cake
type thickness
Tamarind 5 ppb 11 ml, 0.15
outer inch
Peach pulp 5 ppb 14 ml, 0.09
inch
Soya been peel 5 ppb 10 ml, 0.10
powder inch
Sugar cane 5 ppb 17.8 ml, 0.12
inch
Coconut shell 6 ppb 12 ml, 0.08
10 ppb inch
14.2 ml, 0.11
inch
A.T.T. Al-Hameedi Mandarin peel Rheology Not 1 wt% 7 ml, 1.6 mm
et al. (2019) (Al- powder , density, mentioned 2 wt% 6 ml, 1.4 mm
Hameedi et al., pH, 3 wt% 4.5 ml,
2019) filtration, 4 wt% 1.35 mm
resistivity 4 ml, 1.35
for WBM mm
Palm tree leaf 1.5 wt% 9.25 ml,
powder (fresh) 3 wt% 1.9 mm
8.5 ml, 2 mm
Palm tree leaf 1.5 wt% 9.5 ml, 2 mm
powder (48 h 3 wt% 9 ml, 2 mm
aged)
Grass powder 0.5 wt% 7.25 ml,
(LPLT) 1 wt% 2 mm
1.5 wt% 7 ml, 2 mm
6.25 ml, 2.5
mm
Grass powder 0.5 wt% 26 ml,
(HPHT) 1 wt% 3.4 mm
1.5 wt% 23 ml,
3.5 mm
20 ml, 4.5
mm
Green olive 0.75 wt% 10 ml,
pits powder 1.5 wt% 2.4 mm
11.5 ml, 3
mm
Author(s), year Material Study Particle size Concentratio Filtrate loss
category n and mud
and mud cake
type thickness
Abo Taleb T. Al- Palm tree leaf Rheology Not 1.5 wt% 9.25 ml,
Hameedi et al., powder , mentioned 3 wt% 1.9 mm
(2019) filtration, 8.5 ml, 2 mm
(Al-Hameedi et al., pH for
2019) WBM
Abo Taleb T. et al., Potato peel Mud Not 1 wt% 11 ml,
(2019) (Al- powder weight, available 2 wt% 1.7 mm
Hameedi et al., rheology, 3 wt% 10 ml,
2019) filtrate 4 wt% 1.75 mm
loss, mud 9 ml, 1.8 mm
cake, pH, 8.75 ml, 1.8
resistivity mm
for WBM
Hari Ganesh et al., Coconut fiber Hydratio 5, 16, 44, 20 wt% of Pine leaf
(2019) Pine leaf fiber n test, 60, 100 BSS all additives fiber is a
(Ganesh et al., Bagasse bridging mesh size poor LCM
2019) test, lost and bridging
circulatio material and
n test for coconut fiber
WBM is
intermediate;
while
bagasse was
more
effective as
LCM and
bridging
material.
Kevin C. Igwilo Avocado pear Filtration µm 2ppb 9 ml,
et al., (2019) (Persea for SBM 4 ppb 1.25 mm
(Igwilo et al., 2019) Americana)see 6 ppb 7 ml,
d 8 ppb 1.25 mm
5.5 ml,
1.25 mm
4 ml, 1.25
mm
Avocado pear 2ppb 4 ml,
Pulp 4 ppb 1.25 mm
6 ppb 3.8 ml,
8 ppb 1.25 mm
3.4 ml,
1.25 mm
3 ml, 1.25
Author(s), year Material Study Particle size Concentratio Filtrate loss
category n and mud
and mud cake
type thickness
mm
Avocado pear 2ppb 6.5 ml,
seed+pulp 4 ppb 1.25 mm
6 ppb 5 ml,
8 ppb 1.25 mm
4.3 ml,
1.25 mm
3.4 ml, 1.25
mm
Mazin J. Shibeeb Cotton seed Filtration Raw seed 100 g Filtrate loss
et al., (2019) for WBM (5–8 mm) is lower
(Shibeeb et al., 6.6 ml than
2019) the reference
mud 7.4 ml
Mazlin Idress et al., Sunflower Rheology µm 0.8 wt% 14.1 ml,
(2019) (Idress and seed , filtration 1.3 wt% 0.9 mm
Hasan, 2019) for WBM 2.2 wt% 13.8 ml,
2.7 wt% 1.2 mm
4 wt% 13 ml,
1.4 mm
12.4 ml,
1.43 mm
11.5 ml, 1.5
mm
µm 0.8 wt% 14.8 ml,
1.3 wt% 1.1 mm
2.2 wt% 14.5 ml,
2.7 wt% 1.25 mm
4 wt% 13.8 ml,
1.31 mm
12.6 ml,
1.45 mm
11.8 ml, 1.7
mm
µm 0.8 wt% 13.8 ml,
1.3 wt% 1.2 mm
2.2 wt% 13.2 ml,
2.7 wt% 13.1 mm
4 wt% 12.8 ml,
1.33 mm
11.8 ml,
1.45 mm
Author(s), year Material Study Particle size Concentratio Filtrate loss
category n and mud
and mud cake
type thickness
11 ml, 1.6
mm
µm 0.8 wt% 16.2 ml,
1.3 wt% 1.2 mm
2.2 wt% 15.4 ml,
2.7 wt% 1.36 mm
4 wt% 14.1 ml,
1.56 mm
13.5 ml,
1.7 mm
12.9 ml, 1.9
mm
Orange peel µm 0.8 wt% 14.8 ml,
1.3 wt% 1.1 mm
2.2 wt% 14.5 ml,
2.7 wt% 1.12 mm
4 wt% 14.2 ml,
1.24 mm
13.9 ml,
1.36 mm
13.2 ml,
1.45mm
µm 0.8 wt% 15.2 ml,
1.3 wt% 1.18 mm
2.2 wt% 15 ml,
2.7 wt% 1.29 mm
4 wt% 14.6 ml,
1.34 mm
14 ml,
1.45 mm
13.5 ml, 1.55
mm
µm 0.8 wt% 13.6 ml,
1.3 wt% 1.2 mm
2.2 wt% 13.1 ml,
2.7 wt% 1.25 mm
4 wt% 13 ml,
1.32 mm
12.8 ml,
1.4 mm
12.5 ml, 1.5
mm
Author(s), year Material Study Particle size Concentratio Filtrate loss
category n and mud
and mud cake
type thickness
µm 0.8 wt% 16.1 ml,
1.3 wt% 1.3 mm
2.2 wt% 15.7 ml,
2.7 wt% 1.4 mm
4 wt% 15.5 ml,
1.55 mm
15 ml,
1.65 mm
14.8 ml, 1.72
mm
O.E. Agwu et al. Rice husk Filtration 1.25 × 104 0.005 kg 24.5 ml,
(2019) (Agwu et al., for WBM m 0.01 kg 2.8 mm
2019) 0.015 kg 18 ml,
0.02 kg 3.2 mm
16 ml,
3.7 mm
13 ml, 3.8
mm
Saw dust 0.005 kg 27 ml,
0.01 kg 2.6 mm
0.015 kg 23.5 ml,
0.02 kg 2.9 mm
19 ml,
3.1 mm
16 ml, 3.3
mm
Rizki Akbar et al., Coconut Filtration 80 mesh 0.5, 1, 1.5 (For 2 g
(2019) (Akbar et al., Fibres, for WBM and 2 g concentration
2019) Bagasse, ) Lost
Banana Trunk circulation
80°F were
42, 34, 52 ml
respectively.
For 200°F
were 60, 40,
50 ml
respectively.
Abo Taleb T. Black Density, 300–50 US 0.5 wt% LPLT:
Al-Hameedi et al., sunflower seed rheology, mesh size 9.75cc,
(2020) shell powder filtration 2.3 mm
(Al-Hameedi et al., for WBM HPHT:
2020) 25.5cc, 4mm
Author(s), year Material Study Particle size Concentratio Filtrate loss
category n and mud
and mud cake
type thickness
1.5 wt% LPLT: 9.5cc,
2.5 mm
HPHT: 25cc,
4.1mm
2.5 wt% LPLT: 8.5cc,
2 mm
HPHT: 24cc,
4mm
Althamish Ahmed Glycerol Filtration Not 0.5 wt%, 61 ml,
(2020) coated crushed and available 1 wt%, 0.8 mm
(Ahmed, 2020) fenugreek leaf, rheology 1.5 wt%, 54 ml,
basil seed for WBM 2 wt% 1.1 mm
of each 45 ml,
2.0 mm
30 ml, 2.4
mm
Althamas Yaseer Wheat husk Filtration, µm 1 wt% 16 ml,
et al., (2020) powder (before rheology 2 wt% 1.8 mm
(Yaseer et al., 2020) hot roll) for WBM 3 wt% 8 ml, 2 mm
4 wt% 7.4 ml,
2.1 mm
6 ml, 2.5 mm
Wheat husk 1 wt% 18 ml,
powder (after 2 wt% 1.6 mm
hot roll at 3 wt% 8.4 ml,
100 °c) 4 wt% 1.7 mm
8 ml, 1.9 mm
6.5 ml, 2.6
Mostafa Eucalyptus Filtration 65 – 245 10 – 30 g Excellent
Sedaghatzadeh bark powder for WBM µm fluid loss
et al., (2020) reducer
(Sedaghatzadeh et al
., 2020)
Cellulose nanoparticles also enhances the filtration property of drilling fluid. Cellulose nano
particles extracted from corn cob reduces the filtrate loss from 3.6 to 1.5 cm3/s and mud cake
thickness from 0.12 to 0.6 mm at 150 °C and filtrate loss from 12.5 to 3.9 cm3/s and mud
cake thickness 0.21 to 0.12 mm at 170 °C. Cellulose nanocrystals obtained by synthesis of
microfibrillated cellulose reduces the filtration loss from 28.9 ml to 13 ml in 30 mins
(Makonjwa, 2015). Polyanionic cellulose nano particles are more effective than polyanionic
cellulose in filtration properties. Where the polyanionic cellulose reduces the amount of
filtration loss from 14 to 6 ml and mud cake thickness from 0.2 to 0.7 mm, polyanionic
cellulose nanoparticles reduces the same from 12 to ml and mud cake thickness from less
than 0.1 to less than 0.6 mm (Fereydouni et al., 2012). Mei Chun Li et al. (Li et al., 2015) and
Song, K et al. (Song et al., 2016) also studied the effect of cellulose nano particles on
filtration properties of drilling mud and found out that it works excellently in reducing the
amount of filtrate loss and mud cake thickness.

7. Effect of bio-products on pH of drilling fluid

Acidic (pH value below 7) drilling fluid usually corrodes the drilling equipment and also
pollutes the environment. It is therefore extremely important to regulate the pH value of a
drilling fluid. Typically, water based drilling fluid performs better in the pH range between
8.0 to 10.5. Important chemicals like sodium, carbonate, sodium hydroxide, calcium
hydroxide were broadly added to raise the pH of the mud. If the same can be achieved from
bio-product, it is considered more convenient from the environmentally friendly point of
view. duumy Fig 11

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Fig. 11. pH of cellulose obtained from groundnut husk of different particle sizes and
comparison with PAC (Patidar et al., 2020).
The pH of the drilling fluid plays a crucial role in the drilling fluid. An acidic fluid can
corrode drilling equipment, which can lead to dangerous incident. It is therefore very
important for the engineers to maintain a good range of pH range. The bio-products listed
in Table 5 can be useful to regulate the pH by adding the pH reducer in high alkaline mud
and pH enhancer in acidic mud.
Table 5. pH of mud influenced by bio-products.

Author(s), year Material Concentration pH with increasing

mixed in reference concentration
mud
A.O.J. Adebowale et al., Banana ash 0.2 – 1.4 g Increases with
Author(s), year Material Concentration pH with increasing
mixed in reference concentration
mud
(2015) (Adebowale – concentration while
Mnape et al., 2015) deceases on aging
Plantain ash 0.2 – 1.4 g Increases with
concentration while
deceases on aging
Peretomode JP (2018) Burnt palm-head 1 – 5 g Increases 9 – 11
(Peretomode, 2018) sponge ash Increases 9 - 12
powder,
Plantain peels
powder
M. T. Al-saba (2018) (Al- Banana peel 1 - 5 ppb (Decrease than 9.5
saba et al., 2018) powder base mud pH value)
8.11 – 7.6
Olive pulp 1 ppb 9.08
Corn cob 2 – 10 ppb 9.28 – 8.64
Corn starch 2 ppb 9.4
Pomegranate 2 ppb 7.4
peel powder
Tamarind gum 5 – 10 ppb 8.3
Tamarind gum 5 ppb 4.7
outer
Peach pulp 5 ppb 8.4
Coconut coir 5 ppb 8
Soya been peel 5 ppb 8.3
powder
Sugar cane 5 ppb 8.41
Grass 5 ppb 8.05
Coconut shell 6 – 10 ppb 8.64 – 8.3
A.T.T. Al-Hameedi et al. Potato peel 1 - 4 wt% 8.4 - 7.9
(2019) (Al-Hameedi et al., powder 1 - 4 wt% 8 - 6.8
2019) Mandarin peel 1.5 - 3 wt% 8.8 – 8
powder 1.5 – 3 wt% 8.7 – 8.1
Palm tree leaf 0.5 – 1.5 wt% 9.4 – 8.7
powder (fresh) 0.75 – 1.5 wt% 8.5 – 8.1
Palm tree leaf (Decreases)
powder (48 h
aged)
Author(s), year Material Concentration pH with increasing
mixed in reference concentration
mud
Grass powder
Green olive pits
powder
Okologume Chinedu Wilfred Burnt coconut Increases
et al., (2019) (Wilfred and husk
Jefferson, 2019)
Abo Taleb T. Al-Hameedi Palm tree leaf 1.5 – 3 wt% Decreases in both
et al., (2019) powder fresh and aged
(Al-Hameedi et al., 2019) condition
Mostafa Sedaghatzadeh et al., Eucalyptus bark 10 – 30 g pH reducer
(2020) (Sedaghatzadeh et al., powder 12.69 of base mud to
2020) 9.54
Abdulmaliq Abdulsalam et al., Banana peel ash 2–8g Increases with
(2020) (Abdulsalam et al., concentration
2020) decreases while
aging
Plantain peel ash 2 – 8 g Increases with
concentration
decreases while
aging
Althamas Yaseer et al., (2020) Wheat husk 1 – 4 wt% Slight increment 9.7
(Yaseer et al., 2020) powder – 9.8

8. Vegetable base oils in lubrication of drilling fluid

Vegetable oil based lubricants can be used as a lubricant material to other additives when
drilling in a high pressure temperature zone to reduce the drag and torque between the drill
string and the formation. Lubricants having relatively high viscosity, high lubricity, high
flash point, high thermal and oxidative stability, low corrosivity, low pour point,
low flammability nontoxic and biodegradable are considered good lubricant. A high lubricity
increases the ROP reducing expenses (Kania et al., 2015). Castor oil, which is extracted from
castor beans, has multiple health benefits. It has a high flash point to withstand the risk of
fire, easy to store and transport. It is suitable for vegetable OBM applications in any weather.
Castor oil has a greater density among all natural fatty oils. Its influence on base oils is shown
in Table 6. As it is biodegradable, it has negligible impact on the environment. Castor oil has
a high viscosity and is superior to other vegetable oils such as Palm, Jatropha, and Groundnut
oils in terms of thermo-physical properties. It has good oxidative thermal stability owing to
the existence of monounsaturated ricinoleid acid that is aggregated with an 18 carbon fatty
acid chain hydroxyl functional cluster (-OH) (Setyawan et al., 2011). dummy Table 7
Table 6. Influence of oil fatty acid (FA) on vegetable oils (Setyawan et al., 2011).
Properties Castor oil Vegetableoil Vegetable oil (unsaturated) Di
(ricinoleicacid) (saturated)
Monounsaturate Di unsaturated/tri Polyunsaturated
d unsaturated
Chemical C18H34O3 C 18:0 C 18:1 C 18:2 C 18:n + 4 Cx
structure (C18:1) C 18:3
Oxidative OS (-) OS (+) OS (-) OS decreases Dramatically OS
Stability decreases stable decreases more decrease stability sta
(OS) with with than presence of (—)
unsaturation unsaturation monounsaturated
FA do(—)
Viscosity nonlinear nonlinear nonlinear it decreases less 18
(μ) decrease decrease decrease with than the presence cs*
with with unsaturation. of
unsaturation. unsaturation. First double monounsaturated
First double First double bond presents FA do
bond bond higher effect
presents presents
higher effect higher effect
Low it increases It decrease it increases it increases less low increase (+) It
temperature (+++) (+++) than the de
flow presence of
properties monounsaturated
(CP and FA do (++)
PP)
+: low direct correlation between biodiesel property and fatty acid profile; ++: medium direct
correlation; +++: significant direct correlation; -: low inverse correlation; –: medium inverse
correlation; —: significant inverse correlation.
Table 7. Physical properties of some veg oil (Setyawan et al., 2011).

Parameter Specific Pour Boiling Flash Kinematicviscosity

gravity point point point
Unit °C °C °C °C °C
Biodiesel palm oil 0.87 6.11 80 112.22 3.68
(Rubiandini et al., 2007)
Biodiesel Jatropha Oil 0.85 11 120 81 4.53
(Priwanza, 2007)
Groundnut oil (Dosunmu 0.774 N/A N/A N/A N/A
et al., 2010)
UP V 0.828 19 270 112.22 6.5
Saraline (Seang et al., 0.78 −46 N/A 81 3.3
2007)
Sarapar (Seang et al., 0.76 −11 N/A 112.22 271.1
Parameter Specific Pour Boiling Flash Kinematicviscosity
gravity point point point
2007)
Crude castor oil 0.954 −21 N/A 271.1 251.1

9. Effect of sea shells in drilling fluid

Sea shells are very rich in calcium carbonate. Powdered and calcined shells of eggs, snails,
oysters and periwinkles were used as filtrate loss reducing material and oil well cement
additives (Agwu et al., 2020). Various research have been carried out on the sea shell powder
in drilling fluids, and their functions are shown in Table 8. Below-
Table 8. Different shells used in drilling fluid and their function (Agwu et al., 2020).

Author(s), year Material Work description

(shell)
Phansalkar and Oyster shell They are inexpensive, inert to fatty acid and
Popham (1959) widely available which cause them attractive
(Phansalkar and additive to add in drilling fluid. It can be used as
Popham, 1959) weighing material to a limited extent.
Akeju et al. (2014) Oyster shell Fine sized shell particle are excellent filtrate loss
(O.A. Akeju et al., 2014) reducer for WBM while it didn't affect the
viscosity.
Igwe and Kinate (2015) Periwinkle Increasing concentration of the shell doesn't
(Igwe and Kinate, 2015) shell ash improve the filtration properties, 2 g is found to
be the optimum concentration to reduce filtrate
loss.
Li et al. (2018) (Li et al., Crab shell Rheological property improves on addition of
2018) waste nanocrystals from the crab shell. Addition of PAC
along with crab shell boosted filtration properties.
Iqbal et al. (2019) Egg shell Calcium carbonate from egg shell enhances the
(Iqbal et al., 2019) rheology of the drilling fluid and using 275 g–
410 g of it yields densities ranging from 9.5 to
11 lb/gal.
Onolemhemhen et al. Egg shell The addition of 30 g eggshell increased the pH by
(2019) and Snail 8% and the density by 13%, while 3 of the snail
(Onolemhemhen et al., shell shell were increased by 30 and 8%, respectively.
2019) Combined shell of 15 g increases the pH by 55%
and the density by 29%. Snail works better as a
pH improver than eggshell, and eggshell is
effective in increasing mud weight..
Nik Ab Lah et al. (2019) Eggshell Coarse sized eggshells reduces filtrate loss and
(Lah et al., 2019) mud cake thickness. It has no effect on PV, YP
and stability of the emulsion.
Gimba et al. (2020) Ca(OH)2 Act as pH enhancer but poor LCM.
Author(s), year Material Work description
(shell)
(Gimba et al., 2020) from
calcined
eggshell

10. Bio products as shale inhibitor

Well stability is one of the major challenge that encountered among many complications and
challenges encountered during drilling operations. There is increase in research of more
functioning, environmentally friendly mud in drilling mud engineering. They are employed to
meet different issues related to environmentally sensitive areas around the globe
(Aggrey et al., 2019).
The shale is exposed to the water-based drilling fluid when drilling into a shale deposit. As a
result of coordination, electrostatic contact, and hydrogen bonding, water molecules in the
drilling fluid are adsorbed by the inter-layer of clay minerals and onto the surface of the clay
particles, resulting in surface hydration. Free water can also enter the interior of the rock
through micro-cracks in the shale, causing a cascade of physico-chemical and mechanical
changes. The mechanical changes cause the original micro-cracks inside the shale to expand
and widen, forming macro-cracks that provide routes for water molecules to enter the shale,
increasing the contact area between fluid and clay particles and resulting in ion and osmotic
hydration. Shale hydration causes inter-particle contact and cementation to weaken, resulting
in a reduction in the compressive strength and hardness of the rock. Diffusion osmosis,
according to research, reduces the compressive strength of shale, making it less mechanically
stable. The rock structure is further eroded as the degree of hydration increases, forcing the
wellbore to expand and fall off, creating wellbore instability. It was shown that shale–fluid
interactions can be regulated to reduce shale hydration and hence improve wellbore stability
(Cao et al., 2019).
There are a number of additives which can be used as shale inhibitor. Among them are
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide (PHPA), xanthan gum
(xc polymer), polyethylene glycol (PEG), ferric chloride-lignin sulfonate (FCLS)
(Zhang et al., 2019), cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate,
KCl (Cao et al., 2019), crude extract containing saponins from Chromolaena odorata leaf
(Aggrey et al., 2019), sodium silicate (Khodja et al., 2010), gemini surfactants
(Murtaza et al., 2020), An amine compound called hexamethylene diamine (Ismail et al.,
2015), polyacrylamide (PAC), salt, tetramethylammonium chloride (TMAC)
(Koteeswaran et al., 2018), nanosilica and Nano Glass Flakes (Gholami et al., 2021), etc.

11. Conclusion
This paper examined the extensive use of numerous bio-products that can replace other
chemicals to protect the environment. Various types of bio-products have been developed
that are more stable, better performing, and cost effective. Strict environmental regulations
prompt us to develop eco-friendly additives for drilling fluid that can be used in difficult
drilling situations. It can be highlighted that

 -
Bio products such as date seeds, grass, mango starch, potato peel, sunflower seed,
fenugreek leaves, mandarin leaves, palm tree leaves, plantain peel, wheat husk, olive
 pulp, corn cob, pomegranate peel, peach pulp, soya been peel, sugar cane, coconut
shell, eucalyptus bark, orange peel etc. works as a good rheology modifier for drilling
fluids.
 -
As fluid loss controlling agents potato peel, cotton seed, mandarin leaf, palm leaf, rice
husk, saw dust, wheat husk, avocado pear pulp, eucalyptus bark, and psyllium husk
shows excellent results. They can be substituted for or can be added with other
nontoxic polymers to minimize the volume of filtrate loss.

 -
Some bio products can be utilized to control the pH of a mud such as banana ash,
plantain ash, burnt palm head sponge ash, plantain peel, banana peel, olive pulp, corn
cob, corn starch, pomegranate peel, tamarind gum, peach pulp, coconut coir and shell,
soya been peel, sugar cane, grass, mandarin peel, eucalyptus bark, wheat husk, etc.

 -
Sea shells attract researchers because of their availability, good range of mud
properties, and stability under high pressure and temperature conditions. Many
seashells can be used as LCM and rheology modifier.

 -
Castor oils have been shown to be more effective at lubrication than other vegetable
oils.
Hence in order to improve essential characteristics of a drilling fluid combination of two or
more bio-products can be utilized. The synergistic impact of these bio-products in drilling
fluids can lead to a successful enhancement of their properties, which at the same time
protects the environment form pollution and is at the same time inexpensive.

The advantages of utilizing bio product in drilling fluid is they are easily available, provides
more or less same characteristics as commercial additives and most importantly they are very
cost effective. However, there are some disadvantages also associated with it. Some bio
products are not enduring like other commercial additives and doesn't work effectively in
HPHT conditions. This needs to be studied further in near future to learn and detect the
characteristics of different bio products whether single handed or in combination with other
additives in different environmental conditions.