ADVANCED CONCEPTS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

This book explains the basic and advanced technology behind the Power
Electronics Converters for EV charging, and their significant developments, and
introduces the Grid Impact issues that underpin the grid integration of electric ADVANCED CONCEPTS
vehicles. Advanced Power Electronics for Electric Vehicles reviews state-of-
the-art and new configurations and concepts of more electric vehicles and EV AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR
charging, mitigating the impact of EV charging on the power grid, and technical
considerations of EV charging infrastructures. ELECTRIC VEHICLES
The book considers the environmental benefits and advantages of electric vehicles
and their component devices. It includes case studies of different power electronic
converters used for charging EVs. It offers a review of PFC-based AC chargers,
WBG-based chargers, and Wireless chargers. The authors also explore multistage
charging systems and their possible implementations. The book also examines
the challenges and opportunities posed by the progressive integration of electric
drive vehicles on the power grid and reported solutions for their mitigation.

The book is intended for professionals, researchers, and engineers in the electric
vehicle industry as well as advanced students in electrical engineering who benefit
from this comprehensive coverage of electric vehicle technology. Readers can
get an in-depth insight into the technology deployment in EV transportation and
utilize that knowledge to develop novel ideas in the EV area.

EDITED BY
Arun Kumar Verma
Akshay Kumar Rathore
Edited by

AKSHAY KUMAR RATHORE

ARUN KUMAR VERMA

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
ISBN: 978-1-032-36073-7

[Link]
CRC Press titles are available as eBook editions in a range of digital formats
 Advanced Concepts and
Technologies for Electric Vehicles

This book explains the basic and advanced technology behind the Power
Electronics Converters for EV charging, and their significant developments, and
introduces the Grid Impact issues that underpin the grid integration of electric
vehicles. Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles reviews state-
of-the-art and new configurations and concepts of more electric vehicles and
EV charging, mitigating the impact of EV charging on the power grid, and technical
considerations of EV charging infrastructures.

The book considers the environmental benefits and advantages of electric vehicles
and their component devices. It includes case studies of different power electronic
converters used for charging EVs. It offers a review of PFC-based AC chargers,
WBG-based chargers, and Wireless chargers. The authors also explore multistage
charging systems and their possible implementations. The book also examines the
challenges and opportunities posed by the progressive integration of electric drive
vehicles on the power grid and reported solutions for their mitigation.

The book is intended for professionals, researchers, and engineers in the electric
vehicle industry as well as advanced students in electrical engineering who benefit
from this comprehensive coverage of electric vehicle technology. Readers can get
an in-depth insight into the technology deployment in EV transportation and utilize
that knowledge to develop novel ideas in the EV area.
Advanced Concepts and
Technologies for Electric
Vehicles

Edited by
Akshay Kumar Rathore
Arun Kumar Verma
Cover image: © Akshay Kumar Rathore

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use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement
or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of
the MATLAB® software.
First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
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CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Akshay Kumar Rathore and Arun Kumar Verma;
individual chapters, the contributors

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ISBN: 978-1-032-36073-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-36074-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-33013-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134

Typeset in Times
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
Contents
Editor Biographies...................................................................................................vii
Contributors ..............................................................................................................ix

Chapter 1 Introduction to Electric Vehicles ........................................................1

Kirti Mathuria, Monika Dabkara, Santhosh S, Sandeep N,
Arun Kumar Verma, and Harpal Tiwari

Chapter 2 Introduction to EV Charging Systems..............................................21

Kirti Mathuria, Asmita Singh, Sandeep N, Arun Kumar Verma,
Saravana Prakash P, and Harpal Tiwari

Chapter 3 Basic Power Factor Correction (PFC) Converters for Plug-in

EV Charging......................................................................................41
Abhinandan Dixit, Karan Pande, and Akshay Kumar Rathore

Chapter 4 A Comprehensive Overview of Wide Band-Gap (WBG)-Based

DC-DC Converters for Fast Plug-in EV Charging ..........................91
Nil Patel, Luiz A. C. Lopes, and Akshay Kumar Rathore

Chapter 5 Advance Current-fed DC/DC Converters.......................................111

Pan Xuewei and Akshay Kumar Rathore

Chapter 6 Wireless Inductive Power Transfer................................................. 147

Suvendu Samanta and Akshay Kumar Rathore

Chapter 7 Power Grid Impacts of Electric Vehicle (EV) Integration ............ 203
D. S. Kumar, A. Sharma, and C. D. Rodríguez-Gallegos

Chapter 8 Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging

on Power Grid ................................................................................. 231
B. Sivaneasan, N. K. Kandasamy, K. T. Tan, and D. R. Thinesh

v
vi Contents

Chapter 9 Electric Vehicle Development in Singapore and Technical

Considerations for Charging Infrastructure ....................................257
Elsa Feng Xue

Index......................................................................................................................271
Editor Biographies
Akshay Kumar Rathore (IEEE Fellow) is a professor (Engineering) at the
Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore. Prior to this appointment, he served
as an associate professor at Concordia University, Montreal, Canada and as an
assistant professor at the National University of Singapore, Singapore. He received
his Master of Technology degree in electrical machines and drives from the Indian
Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi, India, in 2003, and his Ph.D. in power
electronics from the University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada in 2008.
Dr. Rathore is a recipient of the 2013 IEEE IAS Andrew W. Smith Outstanding
Young Member Achievement Award, 2014 Isao Takahashi Power Electronics
Award, 2017 IEEE IES David Irwin Early Career Award, 2020 IEEE Bimal Bose
Award for Industrial Electronics Applications in Energy Systems, and 2021
Nagamori Award.
Arun Kumar Verma is a senior member of IEEE, received his master’s degree in
Energy Studies and his Ph.D. in Power Electronics from the Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India, in 2010 and 2015, respectively. He was a
visiting graduate researcher with the Smart Grid Energy Research Centre(SMERC),
University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA, during 2014–2015. He was a
postdoctoral research fellow with the Energy Research Institute, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore, during 2015–2016. He is currently an
Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at the Indian
Institute of Technology, Jammu, India. Prior to this appointment, he served as an
Assistant Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Malaviya
National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Jaipur, India. He won the prestigious
BASE fellowship for advanced solar energy research in 2014. He has been
conferred with the prestigious POSOCO Power System Research Award 2016.

vii
Contributors
Abhinandan Dixit Karan Pande
GaN Systems Power Integrations
Ottawa, ON, Canada Montreal, QC
Canada

Monika Dabkara
Malaviya National Institute Nil Patel
of Technology Gina Cody School of Engineering and
Jaipur, Raj, India Computer Science
Concordia University
Canada
N. K. Kandasamy
Lite-On Pte Ltd
Singapore Akshay Kumar Rathore
Engineering Department
Singapore Institute of Technology
Sivaneasan Bala Krishnan Singapore
Singapore Institute of Technology
Singapore
C. D. Rodríguez-Gallegos
Solar Energy Research
Dhivya Sampath Kumar Institute of Singapore (SERIS)
Singapore Institute of Technology Singapore
Singapore

Santhosh S
Kirti Mathuria Malaviya National Institute
Malaviya National Institute of Technology
of Technology Jaipur, Raj, India
Jaipur, Raj, India

Suvendu Samanta
Sandeep N Indian Institute of Technology
Malaviya National Institute Kanpur, UP, India
of Technology
Jaipur, Raj, India
Anurag Sharma
Newcastle University
Saravana Prakash P Singapore
Malaviya National Institute Singapore
of Technology
Jaipur, Raj, India

ix
x Contributors

Asmita Singh Arun Kumar Verma

Malaviya National Institute Indian Institute of Technology
of Technology Jammu, J&K
Jaipur, Raj, India India

Kuan Tak Tan Elsa Feng Xue

Singapore Institute of Technology Singapore Institute of Technology
Singapore Singapore

D. R. Thinesh Pan Xuewei

Singapore Institute of Technology Harbin Institute of Technology
Singapore Shenzhen, Guangdong, China

Harpal Tiwari
Malaviya National Institute
of Technology
Jaipur, Raj, India
 1 Introduction to Electric
Vehicles
Kirti Mathuria, Monika Dabkara, Santhosh
S Sandeep N, Arun Kumar Verma, and
Harpal Tiwari

CONTENTS
1.1 A Brief History of Electric Vehicles...............................................................1
1.1.1 History of Electric Vehicle ..................................................................2
1.1.2 Recent Development in Electric Vehicles...........................................5
1.1.3 Opportunities, Scope, and Challenges in Electric Vehicles ...............6
1.2 Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles ....................................................7
1.2.1 Reduction of Pollutant Gases in the Environment..............................7
1.2.2 Global and Local Energy Savings .......................................................8
1.2.3 Dependency on Fuel.............................................................................9
1.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) .......................................................................9
1.3.1 Drivetrain............................................................................................ 10
[Link] Series Drivetrains ................................................................ 10
[Link] Parallel Drivetrains .............................................................. 11
[Link] Series/Parallel Drivetrains ...................................................11
1.3.2 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV).......................................... 11
1.3.3 Renewable Energy Resources............................................................12
1.4 Battery Electric Vehicle .................................................................................13
1.5 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle..............................................................................14
1.6 Extended Range Electric Vehicle ..................................................................14
1.7 Solar-Powered Cars........................................................................................16
1.7.1 How Do Solar-Powered Cars Work? ................................................16
1.7.2 Current Developments in Solar-powered Cars.................................. 17
1.8 Future of Electric Vehicles ............................................................................18
References................................................................................................................ 19

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The issues of climate change or global warming have been rigorously discussed by
many governments since the early 21st century. A great number of relevant reports
have revealed that the negative impact of climate change is dominantly driven by
human activities. With the globally increasing civilization and industrialization, a large
number of fossil fuel burnings in industries have led to the acute problem of air pol­
lution. Simultaneously, the exhaust emissions from automotive vehicles cannot be

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-1 1
2 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

ignored. Vehicle emissions, which mainly include CO2, CO, NOx, and particulate
matter (PM10 and PM2.5), have been considered the major contributors to the effect of
greenhouse gases, also leading to the increase in different forms of cancers and other
serious diseases.
The ever-rapidly growing transportation sector consumes about 49% of oil
resources. Following the current trends of oil consumption and crude oil sources, the
world’s oil resources are predicted to be depleted by 2038. Therefore, replacing non-
renewable energy resources with renewable energy sources and use of suitable
energy-saving technologies seems to be mandatory. Electric Vehicles (EVs) as a
potential solution for alleviating traffic-related environmental problems have been
investigated and studied extensively.
Because they offer a cleaner and more effective substitute for gasoline-powered
cars, electric vehicles are significant. They are known to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and enhance air quality, which reduces global warming and climate change.
By producing less waste, electric vehicles also aid in lowering electric pollution [1].
Due to this, sales of electric cars are estimated to account for nearly one-third of all
vehicle sales by 2030. Since the 2000s, electric vehicles have rapidly increased in
popularity. In addition, electric vehicles are becoming more widely available and
affordable, making them a powerful force in the transportation sector [2].

1.1.1 HISTORY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

A Complete Guide:

1828 – Invention of the Electric Motor: The electric vehicle was first invented in
1828 by Hungarian inventor Ányos Jedlik. He developed the motor using electric
current from a battery to power an electric train.
1832 – First Small-Scale Electric Vehicle Produced: In 1832, William Morrison of
Scotland produced the first electric vehicle. It was a small-scale electric car that could
only travel for a distance of about 12 miles on one charge.
1881 – Electric Trams Introduced: In 1881, electric trams were introduced in the
city of Berlin. These electric trams ran on overhead wires and could travel up to
16 miles per hour.
1889 – Electric Vehicles Hit US Market: In 1889, electric vehicles were brought to
the United States market by William Morrison. Morrison first encountered electric cars
in Europe and noticed their popularity, decided to introduce the technology to US
consumers. This was a defining moment in the electric vehicle boom that was to come
in the early 1900s.
1900 – Electric Vehicle Increase in Popularity: The electric vehicle boom started in
the early 1900s and lasted until around 1920. This was when electric vehicles became
more popular than gasoline-powered cars. The main reason for this was that electric
vehicles were more affordable and required less maintenance than gasoline cars. In
addition, electric vehicles were quieter and cleaner, so electric cars became the pre­
ferred mode of transport for women.
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 3

1901 – First Hybrid Car Invented: In 1901, a Canadian electric car manufacturer
named Henry Seth Taylor produced the first hybrid electric vehicle. This electric car
was powered by both gas and batteries.
1908 – Ford Model T Introduced: In 1908, Henry Ford introduced the Model T
electric car. The electric vehicle was a great success as it offered an alternative to
gasoline-powered cars at a lower price point than people could afford.
1909 – Electric Vehicles Took Up to One-Third of US Market Share: By 1909,
electric vehicles took up to one-third of the market share in the USA due to their
growing popularity.
1920 – Electric Vehicle Boom Ended: The electric vehicle boom ended in 1920 when
the cost of gasoline dropped, and electric vehicles became more expensive to produce
than gasoline cars. In addition, the rise of the automobile industry led to a decrease in
demand for electric vehicles. Many electric vehicle companies stopped producing
electric cars and switched over to gasoline-powered cars. This led many electric car
manufacturers out of business as they could not compete with the automobile industry.
1947 – First Mass Production of Electric Car Introduced: In 1947, electric vehicles
were reintroduced to the market by Henry Ford’s son Edsel and Ford Motor Company.
The electric car was named “Edsel” after its creator and, sitting at an affordable price
point at $650 per vehicle.
1971: NASA’s Electric Lunar Rover Landed on the Moon: In 1971, electric
vehicles came back when NASA’s electric Lunar Rover was sent to land on the Moon.
This electric rover ran on solar energy and traveled up to a distance of 400 miles. This
was a key point in laying the foundation for the comeback of the electric vehicle, as
NASA’s Lunar Rover provided some essential market exposure.
1973: New Generation of Electric Vehicles Ushered In: In 1973, electric vehicles
were reintroduced to the market by General Motors with their electric car model, the
EV-01. The EV-01 was a small two-seater electric car that ran on lead-acid batteries.
1975: Sebring-Vanguard became sixth-largest automaker off the back of the
CitiCar: In 1975, electric car manufacturer Sebring-Vanguard became the sixth
largest automaker in the USA due to their electric car model, the CitiCar. The CitiCar
was a small two-seater electric car that ran on lead-acid batteries and traveled up to a
distance of 40 miles on a single charge. This electric car was popular with commuters
who didn’t need to travel far distances regularly and wanted an electric vehicle that
wouldn’t cost them much money in maintenance costs or gasoline charges. However,
the small lift in growth for electric vehicles died off in 1979.
1979 – Electric Vehicle Interest Died Off: As electric cars became more popular, the
market demand for electric vehicles grew. However, in 1979 this growth died off as
electric car manufacturers could not keep up with the increasing demands of the
consumers. In addition, gasoline prices decreased, which made electric cars less
affordable compared to gasoline-powered cars.
1996 – EV1 Produced: In 1996, General Motors produced its electric car model, the
EV-01. The EV-01 was a small two-seater electric car that ran on lead-acid batteries
and traveled up to a distance of 40 miles on a single charge. However, the EV-01 was
only leased to consumers and not sold, which limited its market exposure.
4 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

1997 – First Mass-Produced Hybrid Car: In 1997 electric car manufacturer Honda
released their electric car model, the Insight. The Insight was a two-door hatchback
electric vehicle that ran on an electric battery and gasoline fuel source. The hybrid
electric vehicle became popular with eco-conscious consumers who wanted to reduce
their carbon footprint while still using gasoline cars as they were more affordable in
comparison to electric cars.
1998 – Toyota Prius Introduced: In 1998 electric car manufacturer Toyota released
their electric vehicle, the Prius. The Prius was a four-door electric hybrid car that ran
on an electric battery and gasoline fuel source. This electric vehicle became popular
with eco-conscious consumers who wanted to reduce their carbon footprint while still
using gasoline cars as they were more affordable than electric cars. However, the EV-
01 was only leased to consumers and not sold, which limited its market exposure.
2008 – Tesla Roadster Produced: In 2008 electric car manufacturer Tesla produced
their electric sports car, the Roadster.
2011 – Nissan LEAF Released: In 2011, Nissan released their electric car model, the
LEAF. The LEAF was a five-door electric hatchback that ran on an electric battery and
could travel up to 100 miles on a single charge. This electric car became popular with
consumers who wanted an electric car that could travel long distances without
recharging.
2013 – Costs to Produce Electric Batteries Dropped: Due to improved electric
battery technology and a mining boom in precious metals used in electric cars,
manufacturers could produce electric vehicles at a lower cost than ever before. This
made electric cars more affordable for consumers and increased their popularity.
2016 – Norway Backed Electric Vehicle’s Growth: In 2016 Norway led the world to
become the first country to have 5% of all registered cars as plug-in electric models.
The government supported this growth, which offered a number of incentives for
citizens to purchase electric vehicles, such as tax exemptions and charging infra­
structure investments.
2018 – Plug-In Electric Vehicles Skyrocketed: In 2018, electric car sales reached a
new record high. The plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every
250 motor vehicles on the world’s roads at the end of 2018. This was largely due to the
decreasing cost of electric batteries, the increasing availability of charging infra­
structure, and the growing popularity of electric vehicles among consumers.
2020 – Tesla Model Y Released: In 2020 electric car manufacturer Tesla released
their electric SUV model, the Model Y. The Tesla Model Y was an electric battery-
powered SUV that could travel up to 316 miles on a single charge. This electric
vehicle became popular with consumers who wanted an electric vehicle that had the
performance of a sports car but also offered the practicality of an SUV.
2021 – The Future of Electric Vehicles: The industry continues to grow due to the
decreasing price of electric batteries and government efforts to increase the accessi­
bility of electric vehicles. Therefore, making electric vehicles more affordable than
ever before for consumers. As electric vehicles become cheaper and more accessible,
electric vehicle sales will likely continue to grow, and electric vehicles will become
the dominant form of transportation globally [2].
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 5

1.1.2 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

As the world is alarmed by pollution and environment-related issues, EVs with zero
emissions should be considered as a boon. The upcoming decades will be called as the
decades of Electric Mobility due to recent development in semiconductor devices,
battery technologies, advanced communication techniques, extended driving range,
charging stations, etc. As EVs come under various configurations like PEV (Plug-in
Electric Vehicle), HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle), FCEV (Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle),
etc. which provide a wide choice criterion for people according to their requirements.
Governments are also taking all initial and beneficial steps to make Electric Vehicle
popular among the people. Since from early 1800s Electric vehicles paved a long way
to mark their presence on the roads similar to Internal combustion (IC) vehicles. Due
to advanced battery technologies, the price of the batteries has been reduced by 50%
in the last four years with a simultaneous improvement in battery performance like
energy, power life cycle, etc. On the other hand, EV manufacturers are putting all
head-to-toe efforts for a durable, sustainable electrical drive with minimum cost thus
overall making an EV affordable for everyone [3].
The major automobile industries Tesla, BMW, Nissan, Honda, etc. are playing a
key role to revolutionize the EV market globally. For making the EV popular the
charging infrastructure is an integral part that needs to be considered therefore,
various smart charging ways permit the driver to charge the EV battery by con­
trolling the rate and time of charging according to energy demands of the hours like
vehicle to grid (V2G) charging which provides energy to the grid during high
demand hours from the parked EV, thus making the EV drivers prosumer who can
consume and provide the electricity as well. Wireless charging uses the principle of
electromagnetic induction, where the electricity is transferred through magnetic
coils which are installed as receiving coils in the vehicle and transmitting coils on
the road; allows to charge the vehicle in both dynamic and static ways and also
helps in improving the charging speed, allows the driver to charge the vehicle on the
streets and signals and the wireless charging allows to charge the multiple vehicles
at a time. The first wireless charging station will be established in Norway by 2023
for electric taxis with a capacity of 75 KW. The global wireless electric vehicle
charging market was valued at $6,857.80 thousand in 2020 and is projected to reach
$207,415.10 thousand by 2030 [4]. The Ev ecosystem is given in Figure 1.1.
Ultrafast charging takes only a few minutes to charge the vehicle which is equal to
regular driving breaks and some electric vehicles like Kia EV6 and Hyundai IONIQ 5
provide 60 miles of driving for just 5 minutes of charging by a 250 KW charger.
Battery swapping technology enables the consumer to swap the discharged battery
with charged one in just a few minutes like fueling the ICE vehicle and renewable
charging allows to charge the vehicle through abundant renewable resources, and in
grid-to-vehicle charging (G2V), the grid is allowed to charge the vehicle. According
to the recent pace of EVs, it is predicted to have 145 million EVs on the world’s road
by 2030 as the sales of EVs will be about 7 million per year by 2030.
In the past year, Tesla Model 3 was one of the highest-selling EVs with
worldwide sales of 500,000 with a driving range of 358 miles with ultrafast
charging, and another most popular EV is the Tesla Model Y which has a driving
6 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Cognizance

Consumer
perception
Pricing

Fuel Price

EV
Vehicle Supply EV Market EV Demand
Manufacturing Carbon
Emissions

Electricity Tariffs
& Regulations

Domestic
Charging
Infrastricture
Public

Offices, Malls &

Parkings

FIGURE 1.1 Scope of the EV ecosystem strategy.

range of 244 miles and is a battery-electric compact cross over, Volkswagen ID.4 is
also a battery-electric compact crossover with a driving range of 260 miles, BYD
Qin plus is the only PHEV which becomes widely popular as it comes with blade
battery technology with a driving range of 620 miles. Nissan Leaf Plus is also the
most popular EV due to its less cost with a driving range of 215 miles. At present
consumers have a wide range of choices for the EV as recently there are 23 plug-in
and 36 hybrid models available in the EV market with variable sizes and pricing. As
the pricing of gasoline vehicles is continuously rising while EV prices are declining
day by day, making an EV as the first choice for buying the vehicle. Today the
world is moving toward clean and efficient energy as it is required to save the
environment and thus EVs will play a major role.

1.1.3 OPPORTUNITIES, SCOPE, AND CHALLENGES IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The transportation sector will get electrified in the upcoming decades as per the
recent scenario of EVs in the world. While shifting to the EVs market a well-
established charging infrastructure should be maintained in such a way that fuel
stations should be superseded by EV charging stations on the roads. The challenge
of designing and operating the financially viable and sustainable charging infra for
EVs with different levels of charging like home charging, commercial charging, and
ultrafast charging is still formidable for EV manufacturers. Over the past few years
battery technology has improved dramatically as a result of a significant reduction
in the cost of the battery but the size of the battery pack has increased and also the
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 7

downslope for the cost of the battery is slower than the cost per KWh, thus the
compact battery pack is still an optimistic sector for growth. The battery swapping
technology is also getting widespread attention due to its ease and minimum time
requirement process but the major challenge for these markets is again a battery! As
all the EV manufacturers have their own battery mechanisms making battery
swapping difficult for different manufacturers as there are no common criteria for
EV batteries and these techniques still need to be improved with a sound solution.
Battery lifecycle and cost also drag the EV market but to reduce this drawback the
recycling of EV batteries in a greener way can be the biggest opportunity for lifting
up the EV market in terms of batteries [5].
Unlike, ICE vehicles maintenance and services are not available for EVs, the
challenge is giving training to consumers or service engineers for operating and
maintaining the EV, thus an opportunity arises for the training and service centers
of EV to aware the public about EVs. Dealing with surplus energy requirements for
EVs is both an opportunity and a challenge for electric utilities. Electrical utilities
have secured the surplus energy demand during peak hours as the home charging
for EVs during the night can overload the transformers and distribution utilities.
Smart or net-metering has to be deployed for managing the peak loads and pro­
viding additional discounts for the off-peak charging hours can balance the energy
demands [6,7].
Grid energy storage modules should be introduced for charging the EVs directly
from the grid and again when energy is needed during peak hours the energy can be
regained from the EV which we can call as Vehicle to Grid charging (V2G). An
orientation of new electricity tariffs is needed for making the EV successful as ICE and
making the EV market an opportunistic at every level. The requirement of additional
power can be fulfilled by renewable resources and among them solar integrated EV
charging will be the biggest achievement as developing the solar-powered charging
infrastructure for EVs will help in balancing the energy demands from the utilities and
consuming the abundant solar power for charging the EV will be a greener way to save
the environment. The opportunities and challenges in EV are given in Figure 1.2.

1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

1.2.1 REDUCTION OF POLLUTANT GASES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
According to a report by Electric Power and Research Institute (EPRI) the emission of
greenhouse gases (GHG) and other air pollutants can be significantly reduced by
using electric transportation compared to gasoline vehicles. Passenger vehicles con­
tribute about 60% of the total carbon emission from the transportation sector and thus
by electrifying those vehicles from renewable resources by 2050, we can reduce
environmental changes. Addressing about 23% of global energy-related GHG
emissions, the carbon emission from the transportation sector, which mostly con­
tributes to climate change, can be reduced. Not surprisingly, an EV can reduce pol­
lution while using brakes as EV uses a regenerative braking system which restores the
energy back to the battery and on the other hand ICE vehicle mostly uses a disk brake
which creates pollution. The tires of ICE vehicles also emit particle mass (PM) which
8 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Opportunities and
Challenges in EV

Technical Market Policy Infrastructure

Battery Efficiency Services & Charging

Training Electricity Tariff Infrastructure
and Life Cycle

EV batteries Battery
Range Anxiety Capital Cost Policies Recycling

Electrical Waste
Safety Battery Material Management of
Batteries & EV

Charging Time EV fleet

FIGURE 1.2 Flowchart for the opportunities and challenges in EV.

will react with the other pollutants in the air and form harmful gases, on the other
hand, the tires of EV are designed and manufactured with special features to tolerate
the weight of the batteries and thus they will emit less particle mass.
An ICE vehicle emits all tailpipe pollution e.g., NO2, CO, HC, etc. which are
responsible for many respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
The ICE vehicle also emits C6H6 (benzene) and aromatic hydrocarbons
responsible for human cancer, therefore the ultimate solution for eliminating these
pollutants is to switch to EV from ICE and take steps forward for a cleaner and
healthier environment. Although EVs are charged from the fuel-based electric grid,
the GHG emission will only be 1/3rd while producing this electricity as compared
to using ICE vehicles. The GHG emissions will be significantly reduced if we
electrify the future vehicles on the road ranging from light-duty vehicles to
medium-duty commercial vehicles and to heavy-duty vehicles. By penetration of
EV into the market, carbon emissions will reduce by 8.4 million tons in 2030, and
by 2050 it will be reduced by 49.5 million tons. For realizing a greener environment
there must be a transition of fossil energy to electrical energy which can be achieved
in maximum EVs run on the road.

1.2.2 GLOBAL AND LOCAL ENERGY SAVINGS

According to a report by IEA, the energy consumption of the transportation sector is
increasing by 1.4% annually. Globally Electric Vehicle will account for 4% of
global electricity demand by 2030. As the world is moving toward the target of a
greener environment and sustainable development there will be a total of 25 million
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 9

EVs on the roads which will share the electricity for charging and as a result the
demand will increase from 4% to 10% globally, thus managing the charging of the
off-peak hours charging for EVs will be given preference with the modified tariffs.
On the other hand, while looking at the brighter side of sustainable development,
there will be 16,000 GWh that can be stored in those 25 million EV batteries by
2030 and can be utilized by the grid at suitable times. EVs will be entirely beneficial
only when charged with a renewable source of electricity and to see these fruitful
environmental changes there are decades to go; but steps have to be taken right now
for the future generation to live in a healthy, clean, and greener environment.
Although in V2G system for EVs, there are some technical constraints related to
batteries and consumer participation which will limit the energy withdrawal to 5%
only, and thus 600 GWh of energy can be consumed globally from the estimated
EVs target by 2030. According to a study an owner is expected to save about $800
to $1000 per year with EV which also helps to build the economy. A gasoline
engine is responsible for about 64% to 75% of energy losses while EV will have
energy loss of about 15%–20% only. The regenerative braking system used for EVs
makes it about 77% to 100% efficient when calculated for vehicle-to-fuel efficiency.
About 1.5 million gram of CO2 can be saved by just one electric vehicle on the road
which make a huge difference in energy consumption, supply, and demand and thus
making a balance energy bar graph with a cleaner and greener environment [8].

1.2.3 DEPENDENCY ON FUEL

The highly efficient electric drive components of an EV can make a sharp decline in
fuel cost. Unlike conventional vehicles, the fuel economy of every EV is measured
in Miles per gallon of gasoline-equivalent (MPGe) and Kilowatt hour (KWh) per
100 miles metrics as all EVs depend completely or partially on electric power.
Expanding the EV fleet over time, the well-to-wheel (W2W) GHG emission will get
reduced and the dependency on petroleum by the transportation sector reduces which
makes other sectors to touch the crown of success. As fuel economy gets improved by
saving the fuel taxes, the revenue can be used to build up the other infrastructure for
EVs like charging stations and discounted electricity tariffs. It is estimated that by
2040 the EV penetration to the market will go up to 60% against the conventional
vehicle which will decline the dependency of transportation on fuel to a remarkable
extent. If the miles covered by EV are for the short-drive only and longer drives
commute through only conventional vehicles then the consumption of oil will remain
the same and it makes no difference in introducing EVs [9].

1.3 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (HEV)

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a con­
ventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion
system (hybrid vehicle drivetrain). The presence of the electric powertrain is
intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better
performance. Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as
regenerative brakes which convert the vehicle’s kinetic energy to electric energy,
10 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 1.3 Schematic of a hybrid electric vehicle.

which is stored in a battery or [Link] Schematic of a hybrid electric

vehicle is given in Figure 1.3.
Some varieties of HEV use an internal combustion engine to turn an electrical
generator, which either recharges the vehicle’s batteries or directly powers its
electric drive motors; this combination is known as a motor–generator. Many HEVs
reduce idle emissions by shutting down the engine at idle and restarting it when
needed; this is known as a start-stop system.

1.3.1 DRIVETRAIN
A drivetrain is a collection of components that deliver power from a vehicle’s
engine or motor to the vehicle’s wheels. In hybrid-electric cars, the drivetrain’s
design determines how the electric motor works in conjunction with the conven­
tional engine. The drivetrain affects the vehicle’s mechanical efficiency, fuel con­
sumption, and purchasing price.

[Link] Series Drivetrains

Series drivetrains are the simplest hybrid configuration. In a series hybrid, the
electric motor is the only means of providing power to the wheels. The motor
receives electric power from either the battery pack or from a generator run by a
gasoline engine. A computer determines how much of the power comes from the
battery or the engine/generator. Both the engine/generator and the use of
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 11

regenerative braking recharges the battery pack. The engine is typically smaller in a
series drivetrain because it only has to meet certain power demands; the battery
pack is generally more powerful than the one in parallel hybrids to provide the
remaining power needs. This larger battery and motor, along with the generator, add
to the vehicle’s cost, making series hybrids more expensive than parallel hybrids.

[Link] Parallel Drivetrains

In vehicles with parallel hybrid drivetrains, the engine and electric motor work in
tandem to generate the power that drives the wheels. Parallel hybrids tend to use a
smaller battery pack than series drivetrains, relying on regenerative braking to keep it
recharged. When power demands are low, parallel hybrids also utilize the motor as a
generator for supplemental recharging, much like an alternator in conventional cars.
Since the engine is connected directly to the wheels in parallel drivetrains, the
inefficiency of converting mechanical power to electricity and vice versa is eliminated,
increasing the efficiency of these hybrids on the highway. This reduces but does not
eliminate, the efficiency benefits of having an electric motor and battery in stop-and-go
traffic.

[Link] Series/Parallel Drivetrains

Series/parallel drivetrains merge the advantages and complications of parallel and
series drivetrains. By combining the two designs, the engine can both drive the
wheels directly (as in the parallel drivetrain) and be effectively disconnected, with
only the electric motor providing power (as in the series drivetrain). The Toyota
Prius helped make series/parallel drivetrains a popular design. With gas-only and
electric-only options, the engine operates at near-optimum efficiency more often. At
lower speeds, it operates more as a series vehicle, while at high speeds, where the
series drivetrain is less efficient, the engine takes over and energy loss is minimized.
This system incurs higher costs than a pure parallel hybrid since it requires a
generator, a larger battery pack, and more computing power to control the dual
system. Yet its efficiencies mean that the series/parallel drivetrain can perform
better – and use less fuel – than either the series or parallel systems alone.

1.3.2 PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (PHEV)

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a
hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge
by connecting a plug to an external electric power source. A PHEV shares the
characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having an electric
motor and an internal combustion engine, and of an all-electric vehicle, also having
a plug to connect to the electrical grid. PHEVs have a much larger all-electric range
as compared to conventional gasoline-electric hybrids and also eliminate the “range
anxiety” associated with all-electric vehicles because the combustion engine works
as a backup when the batteries are depleted.
The introduction of HEVs into the transportation sector can be viewed as a good
start, but the range (the distance that can be traveled with one charging cycle) is not
adequate. So PHEVs have started penetrating the market, in which the batteries can
12 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

be charged at any point where a charging outlet is available. For HEVs, the impact
on the grid is not a matter of concern, since HEVs are charged from their internal
combustion engine by regenerative braking, whenever the driver applies a brake. As
a result, batteries in HEVs maintain a certain amount of charge (70%–80%). In the
case of PHEVs, the car batteries are used steadily while driving in order to maxi­
mize fuel efficiency and the battery charge decreases over time. The vehicle thus
needs to be connected to the power grid to charge its batteries when the vehicle is
not in use. During its charging time, the plug-in vehicle more than doubles the
average household load. Hence, for PHEVs, a major concern is the impact on the
grid, since they can be plugged in for charging at any point in the distribution
network regardless of time. PHEVs will be posed as a new load on the primary and
secondary distribution network, where many of these circuits are already being
operated at their maximum capacity. With the increase in the number of PHEVs, the
additional load has the potential to disrupt the grid stability and significantly affect
the power system dynamics as a whole [10].

1.3.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Buildings and cars have a significant impact on the increasing energy demand, global
warming, and air quality. Hence, research is quickly gearing toward interconnected
renewable energy-based systems for transportation and residential/commercial
buildings. PHEVs benefit from an existing infrastructure that can directly use
renewable energy. Even though the present grid system is capable of supplying power
during peak hours, energy can be stored in the storage systems to provide it for peak
hours. This would increase the reliability of the system. This stored energy can be
obtained from renewable energy sources. The storage medium can be the ESU
(Energy Storage Unit) of the PHEV itself. At a household level, this system can be
designed to provide power to the household utilities as well as the PHEV. If the
capacity of the ESU is more than required of the average of a vehicle i.e., 33 miles/
day, this extra energy can be used to provide to the grid. Figure 1.4 shows that a
Photovoltaic Array can provide power to the ESU as well as the grid. Vehicle battery
recharging takes place during off-peak hours, taking advantage of cheaper rates and
the available energy stored in the residential batteries from renewable sources during
daylight. The residential batteries are used as a buffer for surplus and needs. If neither
the renewable source nor the batteries are able to supply the requested energy, some
energy is purchased from the grid. The exchange of energy between the users with
self-generating capability is based on Net Metering System. If the electricity provider

FIGURE 1.4 A typical PV array that can provide power to both PHEV as well as the grid.
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 13

provides more kWh to the customer than what the customer-generating facility feeds
back to the electricity provider’s system, the customer’s energy charges shall be
calculated using the customer’s net energy usage for a billing period. On the other
hand, if the customer’s generating facility feeds more kWh back to the electricity
provider’s system, then the customer’s net billing is negative during the billing period.
The negative net billing shall be allowed to accumulate as a credit to offset billing in
the next billing cycle [10].

1.4 BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Electric vehicles with only batteries to provide power to the drive train are known as
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). BEV has entered a high-speed developing period
due to new regulations and homologations which aim to limit emissions and lead
automakers to focus on CO2-free transportation. The range of such vehicles depends
directly on the battery capacity. Typically, they can reach 100 km to 250 km on one
charge depending on driving conditions, style, vehicle configuration, climate, and
road conditions [11]. Architecture of battery electric vehicle is given in Figure 1.5.
Because the vehicle is powered only by batteries or other electrical energy
sources, zero-emission can be achieved. However, the high initial cost of BEVs, as
well as their short driving range and long refueling time has limited their use. Still,
new BEV architectures have been proposed that use several energy sources (e.g.,
batteries, supercapacitors, and even reduced-power fuel cells) connected to the
same dc bus, which should eventually reduce the refueling time, expand the driving
range, and drive down the price.
Electronic components have a significant diffusion inside not only electric
vehicles but also combustion engine vehicles. In the past, there were only low-
voltage electronic components that were supplied by 12 V batteries. But today BEV
has an electric propulsion system that is supplied by High Voltage (HV) battery unit
that provides around 355 V to HV components. The voltage in the high voltage link
can be reached up to 900 V in some electric vehicles. There are various propulsion
architectures for BEV such as single-centered e-machine, in-wheel hub motors, etc.

FIGURE 1.5 Architecture of battery electric vehicle.

14 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

1.5 FUEL CELL ELECTRIC VEHICLE

The development of substitute green power sources is essential to replace the existing
need for fossil fuels in order to minimize its harmful effects on the environment and
health. Among the substitutes, fuel cell technology is an encouraging replacement
source of energy for sustainable development. Conventional fuel sources are
responsible for rapid climate change as well as global warming. On the contrary, fuel
cell does not emit any harmful gases or substances such as carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, etc. Fuel cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy, unlike con­
ventional engines which convert fossil fuels into heat and light energy.
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) use fuel cells to generate electricity from hydrogen and
air. The electricity is either used to drive the vehicle or stored in an energy-storage
device, such as a battery pack or supercapacitors. FCVs emit only water vapor and
have the potential to be highly efficient. However, they do have some major issues: 1)
the high price and the life cycle of the fuel cells; 2) onboard hydrogen storage, which
needs improved energy density; and 3) a hydrogen distribution and refueling infra­
structure that needs to be constructed [2]. FCVs could be a long-term solution.
Although prototypes have already been proposed by manufacturers, the potential of
FCVs, including hydrogen production and distribution facilities, has yet to be proven.
Among the several kinds of fuel cells available, the proton exchange membrane
fuel cell (PEMFC) is used widely because of its characteristics such as high effi­
ciency, fast startup, and ability to perform at low temperatures. Having a lifespan of
5000 h and a high-power density (0.3–0.8W/cm2), PEMFC is perfectly suited for
electric vehicles. However, the PEMFC has the limitations of having sensitivity to
carbon monoxide (CO) and the use of costly platinum catalysts. A hydrogen storage
tank in fuel cell electric vehicle is given in Figure 1.6.

1.6 EXTENDED RANGE ELECTRIC VEHICLE

The extended-range electric vehicle (E-REV) is essentially an all-electric vehicle,
with an electric motor providing all motive power and a tiny internal combustion
engine (ICE) providing additional electric power. It might also be considered a

FIGURE 1.6 Hydrogen storage tanks in fuel cell electric vehicle.

Introduction to Electric Vehicles 15

series hybrid with a considerably bigger battery. When the battery reaches a certain
degree of discharge, the ICE activates a generator, which delivers energy to the
motor and recharges the battery. The natural range restriction of a BEV can be
solved using this setup.
E-REVs, unlike parallel hybrids and other series hybrids with their smaller batteries
and restricted electric range, can operate in the full-electric mode for short distances,
clean and energy-proficient as BEVs. E-REVs use the ICE to keep the battery charged
over longer distances, yet they use far less fuel than standard ICEVs for two reasons:

• An E-engine REV is substantially lesser than that of a standard ICEV; it

just needs to fulfill typical power demands as the battery pack provides
peak demand. An ICEV‘s engine, on the other hand, must be able to
handle peak-power surges, such as accelerations.
• An E-engine REV runs at a steady, high-efficiency rotation speed, whereas
an ICEV’s engine frequently runs at low or high rotation speeds, with low
efficiency in both cases.

Figure 1.7 schematically illustrates the different forms of E-REV operation. The
battery state-of-charge (SoC) is close to 100% when the car starts its journey. The

FIGURE 1.7 Battery state-of-charge (SoC) in different extended-range electric vehicle

(E-REV) operation modes.
16 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

electric motor provides all of the vehicle’s power, drawing energy solely from the
battery, and there are no local exhaust emissions. Each regenerative braking
operation partially recharges the battery. The vehicle shifts to the extended-range
mode when the battery is drained to a pre-determined SoC – shown in Figure 1.7 as
three levels of increasing severity, green, orange, and red. The ICE is turned on as
needed while the car is in this mode to keep the battery within the SoC range
indicated by the green and red dashed lines.
With electricity taken from the grid, the battery SoC is recovered to 100% after the
journey. A tiny gas turbine could be used to replace the piston engine as a range
extender in the future. The Jaguar C-X75 hybrid concept car is an E-REV with two
tiny gas turbines (each weighing 35 kg) that charge the battery (15-kWh lithium-ion).
The 1350-kg vehicle can be driven up to 205 mph (330 km h1) with a total torque of
1600 Nm thanks to four 145-kW electric motors, one at each wheel. The C-X75 has a
70-mile (113-kilometer) electric-only range and a 60-liter gasoline tank.

1.7 SOLAR-POWERED CARS

As awareness of clean and sustainable energy supplies has developed, solar-
powered cars have become more prominent. Many automakers are developing solar
cars, and the technology can change the automotive industry’s future. Solar cars are
electric vehicles that transform sunshine into electricity using photovoltaic panels.
These cars can store some solar energy in batteries and function properly at night or
when there is no natural light. When used on a large scale, solar-powered cars help
lessen both ecological and noise pollution. Numerous solar-powered car concepts
are being created right now. Several small and large car manufacturers are working
on solar hybrid cars. According to some estimates, solar car sales may surpass
$689 billion by 2027. To capitalize on the idea, automakers are already creating
intermediary energy sources such as solar roof panels for battery charging and
internal systems. A solar powered car is given in Figure 1.8.
Solar automobiles, on the other hand, are constrained by design and technology.
For a vehicle like this, numerous solar panels would be necessary, but space is
restricted. As a result, the vast majority of solar cars created thus far are designed
for solar car racing rather than everyday use. At the time, the Sun Swift IV is the
fastest solar car in the world. Students from the University of New South Wales
designed this vehicle for Solar Racing. Equipment used in the vehicle is connected
to a combination of what is used in the cycling, aircraft, and automotive industries.
Furthermore, none of the cars has yet been designed to run solely on solar power.
They also use concepts that would be unrealistic in real life. For example, the roofs
are typically flat and large to accommodate more solar cells; to conserve energy,
they’re made with lightweight materials that wouldn’t resist even a little accident,
and they can only carry one person but no cargo.

1.7.1 HOW DO SOLAR-POWERED CARS WORK?

Photons, or light particles, excite electrons in a solar panel, resulting in an electric
current. A network of linked photovoltaic cells is what solar panels are. Each solar
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 17

FIGURE 1.8 Solar-powered car.

cell is made up of two semiconductor layers of silicon (mostly). To give each

“layer” a negative or positive electrical charge, silicon is combined with additional
elements, most commonly phosphorus and boron. At the intersection of the two
layers, an electric field is created. When a photon of light knocks an electron loose,
it is pushed out from the silicon junction by the electric field. On the cell’s sides,
metal conducting plates gather and transfer electrons to wires. The electrons then
can flow freely, just like any other energy source. The following are some of the
advantages of utilizing solar cars:

• It conserves fuel and hence, is cheaper to run

• It is environmentally friendly and sustainable
• Air and Noise pollution is not an issue for solar-powered electric vehicles
• Noise and air pollution are also lessened by the use of solar electric vehicle

1.7.2 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SOLAR-POWERED CARS

One of the earliest solar-powered automobiles was built by General Motors and
shown at a conference in Chicago in 1955. The “Sun mobile,” a solar-powered
15-inch (38-cm) concept “vehicle,” was made up of a tiny Pooley electric motor and
12 selenium photovoltaic cells. The back wheel shaft was rotated by the Pooley
electric motor with a pulley. The first solar car was constructed, but it was too small
to be driven. Another amazing solar-powered car is the Sono Motors Sion.
According to the company, this is the first commercially available hybrid solar-
electric car. It has a range of up to 160 miles (255 kilometers) and charges itself
18 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

using solar energy. In 2019, Toyota developed a solar-powered Prius prototype that
generated 180 watts of electricity per hour and had a range of 3.8 miles (6.1
kilometers) after a day of charging. Later versions, on the other hand, claimed to
give 860 W of power and a single-charge range of 27.6 miles (44.5 kilometers).
Because the solar panels could only power the third battery, the automobile had to
be charged at a charging station.

1.8 FUTURE OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

By the end of 2020, there will be 10 million electric vehicles on the road, following
a decade of rapid growth. Despite the epidemic, worldwide automobile sales fell by
16% in 2020, despite a 41% increase in electric car registrations. Europe eclipsed
China as the world’s largest electric vehicle (EV) market for the very first time,
selling about 3 million units (equivalent to 4.6% market share). Electric bus and
truck registrations also increased in key countries, hitting 600,000 and 31,000 units
globally, respectively. In 2020, consumer expenditure on electric vehicles will reach
USD 120 billion. Governments worldwide spent USD 14 billion to promote electric
vehicle sales in 2019, which is up 25% from the year before, owing primarily to
higher incentives in Europe. However, the share of government aid in total ex­
penditure on electric cars has decreased over the previous five years, showing that
EVs are becoming much more desirable to buyers. According to a recent projection,
the EV market would be worth at least $475 billion by 2025. Automobile manu­
facturers have stated more ambitious goals for electrification. Eighteen of the
world’s top 20 automakers, which will account for more than 90% of new car
registrations in 2020, have announced intentions to extend their model line-ups and
rapidly increase the production of light-duty electric vehicles. Electric heavy-duty
vehicle models are becoming more widely available, with four major vehicle
companies predicting an all-electric future [10].
Three main factors underpin the viability of electric vehicle sales in the fore­
seeable years:
Strong regulatory frameworks: several countries have enacted important legisla­
tion, such as CO2 emission limits and zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) mandates. By the
end of 2020, more than 20 countries will have imposed limitations on traditional
automotive sales or will have mandated that all new sales be ZEVs. Additional
incentives to safeguard EV purchases from the economic recession: certain European
countries extended purchase incentives, while China delayed the end of its subsidy
program; the number of electric car models has increased, and battery prices have
reduced [11,12]. Projected growth for EV sales in India is given in Figure 1.9.
Existing policies throughout the world suggest considerable growth over the
next decade: in 2030, the worldwide EV stock will reach 145 million, con­
tributing to 7% of the road vehicle fleet, according to the Stated Policies Scenario.
The Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) was created in 2010 by the Clean Energy
Ministerial. Recognizing the advantages of electric cars, the EVI is dedicated
to promoting their adoption worldwide. Its goal is to help governments better
grasp the policy challenges underlying electric mobility, as well as serve as a
knowledge-sharing platform.
Introduction to Electric Vehicles 19

FIGURE 1.9 Projected growth for EV sales in India by 2025.

• Support and monitor the rollout of electric car chargers.

• Encourage governments and businesses to commit to using electric cars in
their fleets.
• Expand the breadth of policy study and exchange of knowledge.
• Assist governments with capacity building and training.

In India under the FAME II scheme,133 million USD is allotted to promote and
incorporate infrastructure for charging stations in India. The Ministry of Heavy
Industries issued an expression of interest in October 2020, inviting investors to
participate in the project by installing at least one charging station every 25 kilometers
along significant routes and every 100 kilometers to accommodate HDVs. The rapid
development of EV mobility and industrial adoption of battery manufacturing will
drastically change the scenario of EVs in the world.

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[3] M. R. Khalid, M. S. Alam, A. Sarwar, and M. S. J. Asghar, “A comprehensive
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20 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

[7] M. R. Khalid, I. A. Khan, S. Hameed, M. S. J. Asghar and J. -S. Ro, “A

Comprehensive Review on Structural Topologies, Power Levels, Energy Storage
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 2 Introduction to EV
Charging Systems
Kirti Mathuria, Asmita Singh, Sandeep N,
Arun Kumar Verma, Saravana Prakash P, and
Harpal Tiwari

CONTENTS
2.1 General Information about Electric Vehicle Charging System ....................22
2.1.1 The Status of Conductive Charging for EVs ....................................23
2.1.2 Smart Charging of EVs......................................................................23
2.1.3 Solar Charging of EVs.......................................................................24
[Link] AC Charging from PV ........................................................25
[Link] EV-PV Power Converter Built-In with DC Charging .......26
2.1.4 Contactless Charging of EVs.............................................................26
2.1.5 Types of Charging..............................................................................27
[Link] Charging by On-Board and Off-Board...............................27
[Link] Wireless and Wired Charging.............................................28
[Link] Uni and Bidirectional Charging .......................................... 28
2.2 Classification of EV Charging and Requirements ........................................28
2.2.1 Classification of EVs.......................................................................... 28
[Link] Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) .......................................... 29
[Link] Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle (PHEV).........................................30
[Link] Hybrid Electric Vehicle....................................................... 30
2.2.2 Classification of EV Charging ...........................................................31
[Link] Level 1 Charging................................................................. 32
[Link] Level 2 Charging................................................................. 32
[Link] Level 3 Charging................................................................. 34
2.3 Safety and Design Standards ......................................................................... 34
2.3.1 Electrical Vehicle Charging Standards..............................................34
2.3.2 Isolation Requirements and Safety Precautions for EV Chargers....35
2.3.3 EV Charging Protections ...................................................................37
[Link] In-Cable Control Box (ICCB).............................................37
[Link] Controls on the Ground.......................................................37
[Link] Temperature Control............................................................ 37
2.3.4 Electrical Vehicle Charging Safety Tips ........................................... 37
2.3.5 Impact of EV Chargers on Utility ..................................................... 38
[Link] Impact of RES .....................................................................38
[Link] Impact on Grid Stability...................................................... 38
[Link] Impact on Grid Current Harmonics ....................................38

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-2 21
22 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

[Link] Impacts on Grid Loss ..........................................................38

2.4 Communication and Regulatory Framework.................................................39
References................................................................................................................ 40

2.1 GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT ELECTRIC VEHICLE

CHARGING SYSTEM
A significant obstacle to the sustained advancement of human civilization is climate
change. Governments throughout the world are striving to lower carbon emissions,
of which road transportation frequently makes up a substantial percentage. As a
result, many nations have implemented electric vehicle (EV) emission targets. The
environmental benefits of EVs have garnered considerable attention in recent years.
Rapid improvements in battery production technology have increased energy
density, increased charge cycles, improved safety, and lowered cost, all of which
are contributing to the continued rise in EV adoption. Sales of EVs are booming
worldwide due to government initiatives encouraging cleaner modes of mobility
and less energy waste. Given the present and planned goals, it is expected that there
will be 500 million EVs on the roads by 2030.
Infrastructure for the transport or charging of EVs is essential as the technology
for these vehicles develops rapidly. Expanding the usage of electric vehicles
necessitates not only technological improvements to the vehicles themselves but
also the development of a reliable network of charging stations. Potentially a
massive market on a global scale, this might prompt significant investments in
supporting infrastructure. Governments worldwide have developed ambitious
strategies to become world leaders in EV design, research, and production and to
attract EV-related foreign direct investment.
Therefore, the charging infrastructure and EV technologies will act as the pri­
mary facilitator for this change in mobility away from ICE-based vehicles. Home,
office, retail, recreational, and highway areas will all need EV charging stations.
The distribution network must deliver the EV charging power at the lowest possible
cost, with the least amount of support, and with the highest level of dependability.
A high percentage of EVs on the road can raise peak grid demand and potentially
overburden distribution network infrastructure. Second, fossil fuels are used to
power most of the current energy grid. A significant portion of the emission level is
transferred between vehicles and power plants during charging. EVs are thus not
environmentally friendly as one might think. Thus, it will be essential for future
EVs to be charged by utilizing renewable energy sources like the sun or wind [1].
With their capacity to serve as quick-response storage for the grid and a regu­
lated load at the same time, EVs have the potential to be a game-changer.
High EV costs, limited operating range, and rapid battery deterioration are the
primary obstacles to the spread of EVs. To overcome these difficulties, efficient
charging technologies are required, and the enhancement of the EV battery’s life
cycle and an increase in EV performance are required. The charging strategy and
communication technologies are utilized to determine the efficiency of the charging
technology. The power levels, the charger type, and the power quality (PQ) utilized
for EV charging are all factors that might impact charging efficiency.
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 23

The existence of charging stations specifically designed for electric vehicles will
be essential to the successful execution of a seamless transition to e-mobility. In this
context, five technologies are essential to the infrastructure for charging electric
vehicles: Smart charging, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) aspect, photovoltaic (PV) charging
of EVs, on-road charging of EVs, and contactless charging [2].

2.1.1 THE STATUS OF CONDUCTIVE CHARGING FOR EVS

Cables using either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) may now be used
to recharge EVs. There is no universally accepted standard for charging power, as
there are many available options. The AC charger is an isolated AC/DC converter
and is the easiest way to charge an electric vehicle. Three different AC charging
systems are used worldwide: the Type 1 SAE J1772-2009 system utilized in the
United States, the Type 2 Mennekes charger system implemented in Europe, and
the charger by Tesla.
The European Type 2 connector uses a three-phase 400 V grid connection,
allowing higher charging capabilities up to 43 kW compared to the North American
Type 1 connector (up to 63 A). The control pilot (CP) and proximity pilot (PP) are
used for interacting with the EV. Electric vehicle manufacturers have mostly shifted
to using Type 2 EV chargers instead of the EV plug alliance’s Type 3 EV chargers.
The onboard AC charger in commercial EVs generally has a maximum charging
output of 20 kilowatts (kW) due to space and weight constraints. The drivetrain
propulsion power electronics are the lone exception, typically providing signifi­
cantly greater power (80–500 kW). Onboard-integrated chargers are what these
devices are termed. The integrated chargers used for electric vehicle charging
combine the inverter for the drivetrain with the windings of the propulsion motor. A
43 kW integrated “Chameleon” charger is seen in the Renault Zoe. It is recom­
mended to use an off-board charger while charging a high-power electric vehicle
(one with a capacity of more than 50 kW).
DC charging was developed to alleviate the size and weight restrictions of an
onboard charger and allow for quicker EV charging (up to 350 kW). DC chargers
come in three varieties at the moment: Type 4 CHADeMO, CCS/COMBO
(Combined Charging System), and Tesla’s own domestic and international offer­
ings. Table 2.1 provides more evidence of this [3].

2.1.2 SMART CHARGING OF EVS

EVs contribute to the grid because of their flexibility in charging power, ability to
ramp up or down in power swiftly, and capacity to charge and discharge. But at the
moment, this potential is untapped. The method of charging an EV at the moment is
unregulated; once attached to a charger, fixed power charging takes place till the
charging is finished. With smart charging, the power and the direction of EV
charging can be continually adjusted (dynamic charging).
For both EV owners and the companies who offer the infrastructure for EV
charging, smart charging of EVs can have the following advantages Figure 2.1:
24 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 2.1
Power Adapters, Voltage, and Current in Europe and the United States
Type of Power Total Connectors Level of Voltage, Current,
Adapters (Communication) Charging Power Ratings
Type1 SAE Power-3 [L1, N, E] Level 1 (AC) 1-phase 120V ≤ 16A,
JI772 Control-2 [CP, PP] upto 1.9 KW
USA (PWM over CP) Level 2 (AC) 1-phase 240V ≤ 80A,
upto 19.2 KW
Type 2 Power-4 [L1, L2, L3, N, E] Level 1 (AC) 1-phase 230V, ≤ 32A,
Mennekes Control-2 [CP, PP] 7.4 KW
Europe (PWM over CP) Level 2 (AC) 3-phase 400V, ≤ 63A,
43 KW
Type 4 Power-3 [DC+, DC-, E] Level 3 (DC) 200-500V ≤ 400A,
CHADeMO Control-7 200 KW
(CAN communication)
SAE Power-3 [DC+, DC-, E] Level 3 (AC) 200-1000V DC ≤
CCS Control-2 [CP, PP] 350A, 350 KW
Combo (PLC over CP, PE)
Tesla US Power-3 [DC+, DC-, E or L1, N, E] Level 3 (DC) Model S, 400V ≤
Control-2 [CP, PP] 300A, 120 KW

1. Lower EV charging costs based on energy pricing

2. Establish new revenue sources, such as vehicle-to-grid
3. Use wind energy more at night and solar energy more during the day to
charge EVs. Renewable energy can be stored in EV batteries, negating the
need for additional storage.
4. Reduce losses in the distribution system.
5. Using demand-side management, EV charging can lower the grid’s peak
demand. This postpones or eliminates the requirement for distribution
network infrastructure updates.

The conventional method for smart charging is taking one or a handful of these
applications into account during optimization to get either direct or indirect
financial advantages. Although this approach is more straightforward, it under­
utilizes smart charging’s potential and renders the benefits economically
unappealing. In the future, it will be crucial to combine several intelligent charging
applications into a unified framework. The cumulative effects will then become
economically appealing for widespread application.

2.1.3 SOLAR CHARGING OF EVS

The infrastructure for charging electric vehicles must receive all or most of its
power from renewable resources to guarantee that using electric vehicles results in
net zero CO2 emissions. Here, the decreasing cost of PV over time and its simplicity
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 25

FIGURE 2.1 AC Dynamic charging_CHADeMO v 1.2 and CCS.

of integration into the distribution network become crucial. Office buildings and
industrial zones make excellent locations for solar EV charging because they can
have PV panels on their roofs and in their parking lots [4].
Beyond the overall reduction in CO2 emissions, there are additional benefits of
charging EVs from PV:

1. EV and PV can be deployed close to one another.

2. PV energy can be stored in an EV battery.
3. Lowered grid energy demand because the EV charging power comes
locally from PV
4. Lower EV charging costs and a smaller impact from changes to PV feed-in
tariffs

[Link] AC Charging from PV

A conventional PV inverter and an EV charger that is connected to the AC grid can
be utilized to charge EVs from PV, as shown in Figure 2.2(a). However, compared
to DC, this AC connection is less effective because
26 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 2.2 (a) Using a dedicated PV inverter and EV charger to charge an EV from
solar panels. (b) A PV and AC grid-integrated multiport power converter (MPC) for recharging
the EV.

1. Because PV and EV are DC devices, transferring power over AC involves

different conversion stages and losses.
2. To power the PV and EV, two inverters will be required.
3. The converters must communicate to enable the EV to be charged using
PV power.

[Link] EV-PV Power Converter Built-In with DC Charging

Connecting the EV, PV, and grid in a single integrated multi-port converter, as
shown in Figure 2.2(b), is a better way to deal with the abovementioned problems.
It comprises a DC-DC converter for photovoltaics, an isolated DC-DC converter for
electric vehicles, and an AC grid connecting the DC-AC inverter. A DC link is used
to connect these sub-converters. Because of safety concerns, the rules for charging
EVs say that there is a need for these converters. The PV converter follows the solar
array’s maximum power point, and the charging current controls the EV charger.

2.1.4 CONTACTLESS CHARGING OF EVS

Contactless charging of EVs using inductive power transfer (IPT) is becoming
increasingly common as a critical component of EV autonomy. This method
transmits energy through air gaps between charge pads that are only weakly linked
via electromagnetic coupling. Figure 2.3 depicts a schematic of the system.
These are the critical elements of this technology:

• Base power electronics: The rectified AC from the 3-phase or 1-phase grid,
and DC is provided to an inverter that creates the AC input for IPT.
• Charging pads: Researchers are looking into several magnetic architectures
that make magnetic coupling and power transfer as efficient as possible.
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 27

FIGURE 2.3 EV IPT-based system illustrating the many stages of power [Link].

• Compensation circuit: The use of resonant capacitors in the compensation

circuitry is being looked into as a way to compensate for the primary and
secondary inductive leakages. Researchers are looking at various combi­
nations, like series-series (SS), series-parallel (SP), parallel series (PS),
parallel-parallel (PP), etc.
• Vehicle electronics: Energy is first regulated by the inbuilt rectifier and dc
voltage regulator before being stored in the battery.

IPT systems are useful for charging comfortably without plugging in a cable and
removing the risk of electrocution, especially in bad weather. Additionally, it is
naturally safe, reliable, and needs little maintenance. Additionally, independent
inductive charging can be used to supplement advancements in autonomous vehi­
cles [5].

2.1.5 TYPES OF CHARGING

[Link] Charging by On-Board and Off-Board
The charger’s location determines whether an EV charger is considered off-board
or on-board. In most cases, there is onboard AC level 1 and level 2 charging. The
charging process moves more slowly due to the charger’s mounting on the
vehicle. DC-level charging is made possible by an off-board charger, which
features quick power transfer and power conversion that happens outside of the
EV. The integrated onboard charger is the term given to a charging system that
28 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

makes use of already installed propulsion systems without the need for any extra
charging infrastructure. The motor winding inductance is employed as a filter,
and the inverter used for propulsion powers the built-in charger by acting as a
bidirectional converter [6].

[Link] Wireless and Wired Charging

Depending on the power transfer method, wires (conductive charging) and wireless
technologies (inductive charging) are the two main types of charging electric
vehicles. In conductive charging, a cable physically connects the EV charger
connector to the power supply.
This method of power distribution is common to virtually all EVs on the road
today since it is both straightforward and very effective. Inductive charging elim­
inates the need for a direct wire connection between the EV and the charger.
Electromagnetic induction is used to supply electricity to the battery. Inductive coils
can be installed in EVs and charging stations to allow wireless charging. Wireless
charging has several advantages, the most important being its longevity, conve­
nience, speed, and electrical safety.
When the battery is charged while the EV is in motion, its size is smaller, and it
takes less time to charge fully. Instead of using a corded or wireless charging
method, one may change to a fresh battery. The batteries of electric vehicles can be
swapped out with fully or partially charged ones at designated charging stations.
Eliminating peak loads, charging batteries at a central hub during off-peak hours,
charging batteries with renewable energy, boosting customer comfort by reducing
charging station trips, prolonging battery life, and enhancing dependability are
among the key advantages.

[Link] Uni and Bidirectional Charging

The direction of power flow determines whether a charging process is considered
unidirectional or bidirectional. The principal controller of the vehicle determines the
charging rate during unidirectional charging, in which electricity flows only in one
direction, from the grid to the battery. In bidirectional charging, an aggregator sits
between the EV charging network and the utility and controls the power flow in
both directions Vehicle to grid (V2G) and Grid to Vehicle (G2V)(G-V and V-G).
The exchange in energy rate for V-G is governed by the aggregator, which keeps a
close eye on power usage,Time of Discharge (ToD) ToD price, availability of EV,
arrival/departure duration, SoC, and generating capacity. Power from batteries is
sent back to the grid when demand exceeds supply, and electric vehicles may be
charged during times of surplus [7] Figures 2.4 and 2.5.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF EV CHARGING AND REQUIREMENTS

2.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF EVS
EVs can be divided into three main types based on how their electrical and fuel
energy sources are grouped:
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 29

FIGURE 2.4 Classification of EV [Link].

FIGURE 2.5 Types of power flow in [Link].

[Link] Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

BEV needs a motor and an Energy Storage System (ESS) to work. It doesn’t need a
traditional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) to support it. When the charge is
gone, BEVs are plugged into a power source to charge their batteries. BEVs can
also charge their batteries through a process called “regenerative braking,” which
uses the vehicle’s electric motor to help slow it down and to get back the energy that
the brakes usually turn into heat [8] Figure 2.6.
The main advantages of BEVs are

• Zero exhaust fumes

• No need for Gas/oil refueling
• Charging at home
• Rapid start-up and easy-going acceleration
• Relatively low operating expenses
30 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 2.6 Architecture of [Link].

Some disadvantages of BEVs are

• Less range than comparable gas-powered vehicles;

• Higher initial cost; nevertheless, the payback period from fuel savings is
just roughly two to three years.

[Link] Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle (PHEV)

The plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) combines the ICE with an electric motor and
ESS. Because it has an ICE, the PHEV is an excellent choice for long trips. Two
distinct modes of operation—charge depletion (CD) and charge sustaining
(CS)—make up a PHEV’s overall operation. When the PHEV’s battery state of
charge (SoC) drops below a certain level, the ICE is disabled, and the EV is driven
only by its battery. When the PHEV’s SoC drops below the minimum required, it
changes to CS mode, where the IC engine takes over propulsion duties while the
battery’s charge is maintained at a level just over the minimum required. A third
mode, (CB) was developed to improve fuel economy. Optimally and dynamically
using the electric motor and IC engine throughout a driving cycle in CB mode, both
may operate for longer at their most efficient settings, resulting in total efficiency
reductions [9] Figure 2.7.
The advantages of PHEVs are

• Superior Mileage Capability

• Reduced environmental damage from emissions
• Lower fuel usage compared to vehicles powered by internal combustion
engines

The disadvantages of PHEVs are

• Not effective reduction of pollution

• Expensive to operate in comparison to BEVs

[Link] Hybrid Electric Vehicle

This vehicle has two ways to move: an ICE equipped with a fuel tank and a motor
with an ESS. HEV is driven by both the ICE and the electric motor simultaneously.
But HEVs don’t have a way to charge from the power grid. Instead, they get all the
energy they need to move from the fuel and the regenerative braking system
Figure 2.8.
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 31

FIGURE 2.7 Architecture of [Link].

The advantages of HEVs are-

• Longer driving range than BEV’s

• Lesser fuel consumption compared to ICE-based vehicles.
• Lesser emission than ICE-based engines.

Some disadvantages of HEVs are

• Zero tailpipe emission is not attained

• The modes of operation are complicated
• High-priced in comparison to BEV’s
• Inexpensive compared to ICE-vehicles

2.2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF EV CHARGING

EV chargers need to be made with several different things in mind. With the help of
charging infrastructure and different charging levels, how charging affects the

FIGURE 2.8 Architecture of [Link].

32 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

power grid, the price, the equipment, the site, the total charging time, and the
amount of power. There are many things to look at that need to be taken into
account when installing charging infrastructure and electric vehicle supply equip­
ment (EVSE). These include: Charging station uniformity; charging time and
length; charging policy distribution; and demand mechanisms Table 2.2.

• Charging station uniformity

• Charging time and duration
• Distribution and Demand Policies
• Regulatory workings

The availability of charging infrastructure helps minimize the price and need for on-
board energy storage devices. A few of EVSEs most crucial parts are:

• Vehicle charging connectors and codes

• Charging stations in public and private spaces
• Assortment of plugs for making connections
• Power sources and safety gear

There are three power levels for EV charging: Level 1 charging, Level 2 charging,
and Level 3 charging.

[Link] Level 1 Charging

This is a very gradual charging method. Typically, a NEMA 5-15R 120V/15A
single-phase grounded outlet is used for Level 1 charging in the United States. The
universal J1772 connector is used for this EV charging port. Onboard chargers often
supply these and may produce as much as 1.9 kW of power from a 120-volt, single-
phase ac source. Charging currents between 15 A and 20 A are acceptable. Since
standard plugs may be found in most places. Level 1 charging can take 18–20 hours
to fully charge an EV, depending on the ESS type and storage capacity. In most
cases, this is most useful for whole-night charging in garages. In-vehicle chargers
often support this charging standard.

[Link] Level 2 Charging

There is a standard way of payment in both public and private establishments.
Private charging stations use a 220 V supply, whereas public stations use 208 V. An
on-board 3.3-kilowatt-hour recharge allows for around 15 miles per hour of driving
time. The exact amount of time spent charging a 6.6 KW onboard charger, however,
will allow for around 30 miles of driving. They employ specialized equipment to
speed up the charging process and need a professional electrical installation with a
separate power supply. The initial setting up expenses are between $1000 and
$3000. These chargers are convenient since they charge quickly and utilize a
standard plug for connecting vehicles. One may anticipate being able to charge their
vehicle through either alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc) with the stan­
dard’s SAE J1772 AC charger connection on top and a DC pin connector at the
bottom.
TABLE 2.2
Charging Station Classification Based on Charging Power Level
Levels Type Power Supply Power rating Protection Time for Charging
AC Level 1 On-board (Home) 120/230V(AC);12A to From 1.4 KW to Breaker in cable 11–36 hours for EV
16A (Single phase) 1.9 KW (16–50 KWh)
AC Level 2 On-board (Home or 208/240V(AC);15A to From 3.1 KW to Pilot function and breaker 2–7 hours for EVs
workplace) 80A (single/split 19.2 KW in cable (16–30 KWh)
phase)
DC Level 3 Off-board (Public 300V-600V(DC) From 50 KW to Communication and Less than half hour
places similar to gas (Max. 400A) (Three 350 KW monitoring between the (20–50 KWh)
stations) phase) charging station and the
Introduction to EV Charging Systems

electric vehicle
DC ultra-fast Off-Board (Public 800V (DC) and higher; 400 KW and Liquid cooling, Few minutes for EVs
places similar to gas 400A and higher more monitoring, and (20–50 KWh)
stations) (Polyphase) communication between
the charging station and
the EV
33
34 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

[Link] Level 3 Charging

In the future, this might increase concerns about the range of extended-range ESS
for EVs. This suggests slower commercial rapid charging for electric vehicles (in an
hour). They are often built beside the highway in a line with the gas stations [10].
Off-board chargers typically require a three-phase input voltage of 480 V or more.
There is the option of using a direct dc connection to the vehicle. Level-1 and
Level-2 EVSE are associated with SAE J1772 standards. However, level-3 EVSE is
not (situated outside the EV). Increased losses in distribution transformers, fre­
quency and voltage variations, harmonic distortion, peak demand, and thermal
loading of the distribution and transmission system, particularly transformers, are
only some drawbacks of level 2 and level 3 chargers. About 80–100 miles of the
range may be restored in about 20–30 minutes with this charging method. The total
price tag for this pricing structure ranges from $30,000 to $160,000.

2.3 SAFETY AND DESIGN STANDARDS

2.3.1 ELECTRICAL VEHICLE CHARGING STANDARDS
There are few regulations available globally that manage EV charging foundations.
The SAE (Society for Automobile Engineers) and IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers) standards are applied by the USA and based on markers. In
contrast, IEC (International Electromechanical Commission) is limitlessly applied
in Europe. Japan and China have their EV charging norms named CHAdeMO and
Guobiao (GB/T) standards, respectively [11].
For charging levels 2 and 3, the National Electrical Code recommends ensuring
the cables and connections are de-energized before plugging them into the EV. This
comes at an extra cost to EVSE. Standards and charging protocols for EVs are
currently being developed by several international organizations, including:

A. Society for Automobile Engineers

SAE J1772: This conveys design and safety rules for charging control and
connectors, and this is applicable for ac as well as dc charging stations
SAE J2293: Guidelines are set for electric vehicles and the off-board
EVSE that connects to a power grid to provide electricity for the
vehicle’s onboard electronics.
SAE J1773: Inductive Coupled Charging
SAE 2836: Communication purposes
SAE 2894: Concerns about Power Quality
B. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE 2030.1.1: Quick DC charging for EVs
IEEE P2690: Vehicle Authorization, Charging Network Management
IEEE P1809: Electric Transportation Guide
IEEE 1547: Power grid integration/distribution system tie-ins
IEEE 1901: Overnight charging data rates
IEEE P2030: Smart grid interoperability
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 35

C. International Electro-mechanical Commission (IEC)

IEC-1000-3-6: Concerns about the quality of power
IEC TC 69: About charging-station infrastructure and mandatory safety
features
IEC TC 64: Electrical systems installation, safeguards against electric
shock.
IEC TC 21: Regarding BMS
D. International Organization for Standardization
ISO 6469-1: 2009: Part of a portable, rechargeable power supply.
ISO/CD 6469-3: 3: Safety Operations
E. Japan Electric Vehicle Association
JEVS G101-109: Fast Charging
JEVS D701: Batteries
JEVS C601: EV Plugs for charging
F. National Fire Protection Association
NFPA 70: Safety Measurement
NEC 625/626: EV charging systems
NFPA 70E: About Safety
NFPA 70B: Electrical Equipment Maintenance
G. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) INC
UL 2231: Safety purpose
UL 2594/2251,2201: EVSE

2.3.2 ISOLATION REQUIREMENTS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR EV CHARGERS

All the primary components of EVs, including dc-dc converters, electric motor
driving inverters, high voltage batteries, and the charging module, which are con­
nected to the electrical grid, require isolation. As a result, the power transformer is the
most critical component of the infrastructure linking EVSE to the larger grid. For both
on-board and off-board chargers to work appropriately, the EV’s chassis must be
earthed. Despite their lack of isolation, the many advantages of dc-dc converters
cannot be overstated. However, the dc-dc converter stage of low-frequency tech­
niques lacks galvanic separation. That’s why a line frequency transformer, which
provides galvanic isolation between the grid and the batteries, is so crucial. To reduce
the amount of magnetic material needed and the overall size of the device, the high
operating frequency is the greatest possible motivation. Because of factors such as the
need for converter cooling systems, inductors, capacitors, and an isolation trans­
former, battery chargers are generally kept in off-board locations.
To accommodate more comprehensive ranges of frequencies, the dc-dc converter
step uses high-frequency transformers to provide galvanic isolation. The size,
losses, and cost of transformers may all be significantly reduced with careful design.
The main merits of giving isolation by high-frequency transformers are:

• Better regulation of voltage

• Reduced size
36 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

• Safeguarding load equipment

• Utility across a range of applications

The difficulties observed while giving isolation by high-frequency trans­

formers are:
• High snubber losses.
• Impact on soft switching operation for partial load conditions.

The current electrical voltage level must be dropped down to a level acceptable for
Level 2 charging equipment, i.e., 208 V to 240 V, to meet the applicable power
requirements of such devices. Installation of isolation transformers can do this for
Level 2 charging processes and step-up operation for Level 3 charging schemes if
this is impossible. A suitable quality isolation transformer will set you back any­
where around $8000.
For safety reasons, galvanic isolation is preferable to the more expensive isolated
onboard charges, which can be used in charging circuits. Main concerns, including
increased weights and space chargers and greater price, can be overcome if existing
traction hardware is used, i.e., inverter for the charging circuit and traction motor.
The primary concern is reducing the risk of electric shock to the vehicle’s owner
during the charging process for electric vehicles, regardless of whether the circuit is
grounded Table 2.3 Figure 2.9.

TABLE 2.3
Isolation and Safety Standards for EVs
Technical Code for Various Details
Standards
SAE J2929 This concerns propulsion battery safety.
SAE J2910 This tests hybrid automobiles and bus electric safety.
SAE J2344 EV Safety rules
SAE J 2464 Defines recharging energy storage system safety
regulations.
ISO 6469-1:2009(IEC) RESS, EVs, within and outside a person’s protection
ISO 6469-2:2009(IEC) EV safety, prevent internal breakdowns
ISO 6469-2:2001(IEC) Electric hazard protection
IEC TC 69/64 Safety of EV infrastructure, electrical installation, shock
prevention
NFPA 70/70E Workplace, charging system, branch protection safety
UL 2202 Charger protection
UL 2231 To protect power supply circuits.
UL 225a Protects couplers, plugs, and receivables.
DIN V VDE V0510-11 Safety guidelines for secondary battery installation
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 37

FIGURE 2.9 Off-board EV [Link].

2.3.3 EV CHARGING PROTECTIONS

The home EVSE must also have these safety certifications and provide maximum
charging protection for the device at all times, regardless of who is using it.

[Link] In-Cable Control Box (ICCB)

The ICCB for a home EVSE is between the power outlet and the vehicle con­
nection. By transmitting data between the charging port and the EV, this gadget
assures safe charging. The ICCB provides many layers of security for both the EV
and the charger, including safeguards against over-voltage, over-current, under-
current, and under-voltage. To guarantee the ICCB communicates the correct
voltage and current range when charging the EV, protections play a critical role.

[Link] Controls on the Ground

For both the driver’s and the EV’s protection, the charging station must include a
ground(earth) connection. To prevent the charger’s circuitry from getting energized
in the absence of grounding or to interrupt the circuit in the event that grounding is
lost at any point in the charging process, the charger must be fitted with a device
that monitors ground continuity inside the charging system.

[Link] Temperature Control

If the EVSE is to be used in a location with fire risk, it must have over-temperature
protection for the ICCB and the AC power cord. This safeguard ensures that ICCB
will shut down immediately to prevent the transmission of more charges in the
event of overheating.

2.3.4 ELECTRICAL VEHICLE CHARGING SAFETY TIPS

• When charging an EV, be sure to stick to the guidelines provided by the
manufacturer. If you need any further clarification, be sure to contact a
nearby authorized retailer.
• Investing in a charger that has been validated as safe by an independent
testing facility.
• Level 1 EV charging must be done at a wall outlet rated for at least as
much current as the charger used. You must not use the usage of an ex­
tension cable or a multi-outlet adaptor.
• A residual current device should be connected to the charging system. If an
issue is detected, power can be cut off to prevent a fire.
38 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

• When not in use, keep all parts of the charging device out of the reach of
youngsters.
• Take care of your charging station’s parts by following the guidelines
provided by the manufacturer. Extreme wear and tear might be an indicator
of a dangerous electric current. Using a damaged EV charger is dangerous
and should be avoided.
• Water damage to your electric vehicle charging station may be avoided by
simply covering the plug. Make sure it’s okay to charge your EV in the
rain by consulting the manual.

2.3.5 IMPACT OF EV CHARGERS ON UTILITY

Utility strain rises with the widespread installation of EV chargers. This is a bigger
problem for utilities that haven’t been adequately maintained.

[Link] Impact of RES

Due to the intermittent nature of RES, one of the challenges is incorporating them.
Intermittency problems and difficulty in connecting electric vehicle chargers have
arisen as a result of the development of power converters and high-density ESS.
During the process of charging and discharging electric vehicles, the goal is to
maintain tight control over the supply and demand dynamics of the utility.

[Link] Impact on Grid Stability

The load that electric vehicles put on the grid might potentially cause stability issues
for the power system. Even without an electric vehicle load, many distribution
systems operate dangerously close to the edge of stability; hence, conducting a
stability study is essential before attaching electric vehicle chargers as load [12].

[Link] Impact on Grid Current Harmonics

The power electronics non-linearity present in electric vehicle chargers is the cause of
the injection of current harmonics. The high magnitude of total harmonic distortion
(THD) for the input current is dominated by odd harmonics. In most cases, EV
chargers contain input filters that are inserted one step before the front-end rectifier.
The purpose of these filters is to filter out the input line current and decrease its
harmonic content. Electric vehicle chargers utilize high-frequency or moderated
PWM approaches to reduce the current harmonics. In addition, matrix converters have
a role in multi-phase EV chargers. These high-frequency converters make the circuit
more complicated yet result in a reduction in THD. Even the power factor is impacted
when there is a high harmonics content in the input line current. This, in turn, leads to
an increase in the RMS value of the line current, which in turn degrades the different
assets of the grid.

[Link] Impacts on Grid Loss

Losses in the grid caused by EV chargers make the I2R losses high, where I is the
RMS value of the current drawn and R is the equivalent resistance of the grid. The
shortening of the life span of grid parts is also due to the high losses in the grid. To
Introduction to EV Charging Systems 39

have low losses, the EV charger should take in-line current with fewer harmonics
and a high-power factor.

2.4 COMMUNICATION AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

As the number of EVs that can communicate increases, the exchange of energy and
its information, the robustness of EV aggregators, and other EVs will increase,
being portable and secure. For user safety and the lifetime of the battery and
charging connections, the EV, the EVSE, and the onboard charger must commu­
nicate with one another. Continual transmission of a sufficient battery voltage and
current from EVs to EVSE is required. The electrical connection between the
chassis and the battery is monitored by the EVSE, which performs routine ground
fault checks. It communicates with the battery management system (BMS) to ensure
proper charging and discharging, which is essential for maintaining the battery at
the right SoC. EVSE communicates with the centralized management system
(CMS) to adjust the rate of charging in response to fluctuations in system demand
and tariff pricing (CMS).
When it detects that the plug is fully inserted, the vehicle will send a signal to the
EVSE for protection. By delivering a signal to the on-board charger, which starts
the power flow and begins charging the battery, arcing may be prevented. EV Smart
Grid integration, data interchange, aggregator control, and energy flow can be
improved by better management of the EV network. The EV network’s heavy
reliance brings up many issues with communication and technology.
Because of the wide variety of standards that are now in use, it is more chal­
lenging for electric vehicles and connected infrastructure to interact with one
another. As a result, EV supply equipment has to implement standardized con­
nections, charging stands, plugs, power outlets, and protective devices to adhere to
the standards of various regulatory boards [13]. Electric vehicles are equipped with
two connectors: one is used to plug-in into the EV outlet, and the other is used to
plug into the charging station. The power rating of the charging socket and the kind
of electric vehicle determine the type of connector used.
Type-1 and Type-2 connectors are used for slow and fast charging, whereas
CHAdeMO and Combined Charging System (CCS) connections are used for DC
rapid charging. The new CHADeMO charging standard is widely adopted since it
delivers the maximum power and can fully charge electric vehicles in about half an
hour. CCS includes both AC and DC connectors, thus the name “combination
connection.” High-gauge supply wires, a protective earthing system, a mechanism
of bidirectional signaling, and safety connections are all features universal to all
charging standards. Proximity Pilot and Charge Pilot wire pairs are used in IEC and
SAE connector specifications, respectively. The CHAdeMO uses a complex set of
signals and a Controller Area Network to enable communication between an
electric vehicle and an EVSE (CAN bus).
Numerous international organizations, including IEEE, IEA, IEC, SAE, and ISO,
enlisted various charging standards to standardize the charging procedure. Listed
below are a few charging standards:
40 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

• IEC TC 69: Infrastructure for charging and standards for safety

• IEEE 2030.1.1: Rapid DC charging
• J1722: Types of Charging Connectors
• ISO/IEC 1511S: EVSE and controller communication for V-G.
• J1773: Wireless charging
• NEC625/626: System for EV charging

REFERENCES
[1] M. Y. Metwly, M. S. Abdel-Majeed, A. S. Abdel-Khalik, R. A. Hamdy, M. S.
Hamad and S. Ahmed, “A Review of Integrated On-Board EV Battery Chargers:
Advanced Topologies, Recent Developments and Optimal Selection of FSCW Slot/
Pole Combination,” in IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 85216–85242, 2020.
[2] M. Yilmaz and P. T. Krein, “Review of battery charger topologies, charging power
levels, and infrastructure for plug-in electric and hybrid vehicles,” IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 2151–2169, May 2013.
[3] T. Chen et al., “A Review on Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Development
in the UK,” in Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy, vol. 8, no. 2,
pp. 193–205, March 2020.
[4] S. Pareek, A. Sujil, S. Ratra and R. Kumar, “Electric Vehicle Charging Station
Challenges and Opportunities: A Future Perspective,” 2020 International
Conference on Emerging Trends in Communication, Control and Computing
(ICONC3), Lakshmangarh, India, 2020, pp. 1–6.
[5] G. R. C Mouli, P. Venugopal and P. Bauer, “ Future of Electric Vehicle Charging,”
in 19th International Symposium on Power Electronics, 2017, pp. 1–7
[6] G. R. C. Mouli, J. Kaptein, P. Bauer, and M. Zeman, “Implementation of dynamic
charging and V2G using Chademo and CCS/Combo DC charging standard,” in 2016
IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), 2016, pp. 1–6.
[7] H. Lund and W. Kempton, “Integration of renewable energy into the transport and
electricity sectors through V2G,” Energy Policy, vol. 36, no. 9, pp. 3578–3587, 2008.
[8] C. E. Thomas, “Fuel cell and battery electric vehicles compared,” Int J. Hydrogen
Energy, vol. 34, no. 15, pp. 6005–6020, 2009.
[9] M. Yilmaz and P. T. Krein, “Review of battery charger topologies, charging power
levels, and infrastructure for plug-in electric and hybrid vehicles,” IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 2151–2169, May 2013.
[10] N. Naik, M. G. M and C. Vyjayanthi, “Research on Electric Vehicle Charging
System: Key Technologies, Communication Techniques, Control Strategies and
Standards,” 2021 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Electrical Power and
Energy Systems (ICEPES), Bhopal, India, 2021, pp. 1–6.
[11] M. C. Falvo, D. Sbordone, M. Devetsikiotis, and I. S. Bayram, “EV charging sta­
tions and modes: International standards,” in Proc. Int. Symp. Power Electron.,
Elect. Drives, Autom. Motion (SPEEDAM), Jun. 2014, pp. 1134–1139.
[12] K. M. Tan, K. Vigna Ramachandaramurthy, and J. Y. Yong, “Integration of electric
vehicles in smart grid: A review on vehicle to grid technologies and optimization
techniques,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 53, pp. 720–732, Jan. 2016.
[13] S. Habib, M. M. Khan, F. Abbas, L. Sang, M. U. Shahid and H. Tang, “A
Comprehensive Study of Implemented International Standards, Technical
Challenges, Impacts and Prospects for Electric Vehicles,” in IEEE Access, vol. 6,
pp., Mar, 2018.
 3 Basic Power Factor
Correction (PFC)
Converters for Plug-in
EV Charging
Abhinandan Dixit, Karan Pande, and
Akshay Kumar Rathore

CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................41
3.1.1 Plug-In Chargers................................................................................. 42
3.1.2 Conventional OBC Architecture........................................................44
3.2 Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) Based PFC EV Chargers ................46
3.2.1 Need of Power Factor Correction (PFC)...........................................46
3.2.2 Bridgeless Boost.................................................................................48
3.2.3 Semi-Bridgeless Boost PFC............................................................... 49
3.2.4 Bridgeless Interleaved Boost PFC Converter....................................50
3.2.5 Bridgeless SEPIC and CUK PFC Converter.....................................50
3.3 Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM) Based PFC EV Chargers ...........51
3.3.1 Interleaved DCM Buck-Boost Charger-Based PFC EV Chargers ... 52
[Link] Design of Interleaved DCM Buck-Boost Converter ..........57
3.3.2 Bridgeless Buck Boost Derived Front-End PFC Converter ............. 71
[Link] Design Bridgeless Buck Boost Derived Front-End PFC
Converter.............................................................................. 74
3.3.3 Evaluation of PFC-Based EV Chargers ............................................ 82
Bibliography ............................................................................................................88

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The automotive industry globally is witnessing a major transformation due to research
and development on transportation electrification. Growing concerns for the en­
vironment and energy security clubbed with rapid advancements in technologies for
powertrain electrification are transforming the automotive business. One of the key
facets of such a change is the rapid development in the field of electric mobility which
might transform the automotive industry like never before. Electric vehicles (EVs) for
road transport enhance the energy efficiency, require no direct fuel combustion, and
rely on electricity – the most diversified energy carrier, thereby contributing to a wide

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-3 41
42 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

ELECTRIC VEHICLES VS
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
600
Electric Vehicles
500
IC Engine Vehicles
400

300

200

100

0
Fuel Cost Annual maintenance Emission CO2
Per 100 Gallons ($) Costs ($) CO2e/mile

FIGURE 3.1 Comparison of EV and IC.

range of transport policy goals. Figure 3.1 shows a comparison between the classical
IC engine vehicle and EVs [1]. It is observed that EVs are a realistic solution to offer
reduced maintenance cost, better fuel economy, and limits CO2 emissions as com­
pared to the classical IC engines. Global EV sales figures have been growing rapidly
and according to an analyst, the global fleet of EV sales could rise to 120 million in
2030 [2]. At the end of 2019, the global fleet of plug-ins was 7.5 million counting light
vehicles [3]. Medium and heavy commercial vehicles add another 700,000 units to the
global stock of plug-in vehicles [4]. EVs comprise a broad spectrum of vehicles right
from two-wheelers, three-wheelers (rickshaws), golf carts, intra-logistics equipment,
passenger cars, trucks, and electric buses.
Figure 3.2 illustrates the classification of EVs depending upon their battery
capacity whereas Table 3.1 shows EV charging type. Three-wheelers are an intrinsic
part of local transportation in Southeast Asian countries. E-rickshaw has gained
popularity in the Asian market post-2010 because of their symbolic resemblance with
traditional auto-rickshaw, they are also exhausting as they don’t require all-day
peddling unlike cycle rickshaws resulting in more rides in a day proving more
profitability. E-rickshaw is hauled by an electric motor ranging from 850 W to 1400
W, which is supplied from a lead-acid battery pack of 100–120 Ah [4]. An article
published by Bloomberg claims that the South Asian countries combined have 1.5
million electric three-wheeled rickshaws, which are more than the total number of
electric passenger cars sold in China since 2011 [5]. India and China are the two
biggest manufacturers of E-Rickshaw [5]. According to an analyst it is estimated that
about 60 million Indians hop on an e-rickshaw every day [6].

3.1.1 PLUG-IN CHARGERS

As shown in Figure 3.3, plug-in chargers for the EVs are classified into two types
namely on-board chargers and off-board chargers. An offboard charger is generally
Basic PFC Converters 43

Electric Vehicles

Low Power EVs High Power EVs

(48/72 V) (400/600V)
Battery Battery

Two-Wheelers (Bikes) Passenger Cars

Three-Wheelers (Trio) Electric Buses

Golf Carts, E-rickshaw

Intra Logistics Equipment

Short Range Mobility Vehicles

FIGURE 3.2 Classification of EVs.

TABLE 3.1
Types of EVs and Charging Time
EV Battery Type Charger Power Charging Time
Two-Wheeler/ E-rikshaw/ Intra Logistics SLI – 48 V 0.5–1 kW 6–8 Hrs
Equipment
Trio/Golf Carts Li-Ion / AGM 1–3 kW 3–4 Hrs
48 V
Short Range Mobility Vehicle Li-Ion 120 V 3.3–7 kW 4 Hrs
Passenger cars/ Buses Li-Ion 400–600 V 62–500 kW 30 mins

designed to transfer higher kilowatts of power and requires a more sophisticated

battery management system (BMS) on plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and
EVs. A high-power off-board charger (>100 kW) can charge the EV battery within
30 minutes. In addition, it removes significant weight from the PHEVs and EVs,
which can increase the vehicle’s overall efficiency. On the contrary, an onboard
charger is generally designed for lower kilowatts of power transfer usually 3.3 kW,
and is further classified into isolated and non-isolated chargers. The non-isolated
topologies do not implement galvanic isolation as the output voltage is low.
Therefore, the non-isolated topologies are more compact in weight and have high
efficiency [7]. On the other hand, the isolated topologies end up bulky in overall
weight since it uses galvanic isolation (usually achieved using an isolation trans­
former) and possesses a complex control structure which reduces the overall reli­
ability of On‐Board Charger [8]. The isolated topologies are again further classified
44 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Plug-in Chargers

On-Board Off-Board
(Slow Charging) (Fast Charging)

· 600 VDC/ 450 VAC, 400 Amp/ 200 Amp, 3-phase

· Generally higher KW transfer (62.5 -240 kW)
Non-Isolated Isolated
Chargers Chargers · Charge under 30 Mins
· Include more sophisticated BMS systems
· Manage battery heating
· 120 VAC/ 240 VAC, 20 Amp/ 80 Amp, 1-phase
· Communications to home/grid energy management
· Generally lower KW transfer (1.0 -7.7 kW) systems
· Charge time – 4 to 12 hrs. · Removes weight from vehicle
· BMS is managed by on board rectifier · The higher the energy transfer rate
· Less concern about battery heating
· Adds weight to vehicle

FIGURE 3.3 Classification of plug-in chargers.

into two types namely single-stage and two-stage topologies. Based on the on-board
charger power level, they charge the battery in 4 to 7 hours [9]. Due to low current
charging, it supports the specified lifetime of the battery and demands reduced
maintenance. The most common E-Rickshaw battery is the lead-acid, SLI type as it
is cheap to manufacture. Also, it can provide high currents (100–400 A) for turning
the starter motor for short periods.

3.1.2 CONVENTIONAL OBC ARCHITECTURE

Figure 3.4(a) and (b) show the block diagram of the conventional isolated single-
stage converter topologies. These isolated topologies consist of a diode bridge
rectifier followed by an isolated flyback converter [10] or a half-bridge isolated DC/
DC resonant converter [11]. The isolated flyback converter is a very simple and
effective solution for battery charging applications. It has a low component count
making it an inexpensive solution to provide a DC voltage from an AC source. This
converter also does not require a complex control. The isolated flyback converter
topologies suffer from the effect of leakage inductance resulting in high stress on
switch voltage [11]. It is observed that when the switch is turn-off the leakage
inductance of the transformer is discharged and a huge voltage spike across the
switch appears. To clamp this voltage spike across the switch external RCD
snubbers are connected [12]. In addition, the hard-switching operation of the switch
also leads to high power losses in the converter. Moreover, connecting the diode at
the secondary for the low-voltage battery charging application induces high con­
duction and turn-on losses for the diode leading to reduced efficiency. Though the
topology is simple and easy to implement, it lacks the basic requirement of
Basic PFC Converters 45

Diode Bridge
Rectifier Rectifier
Flyback Circuit

EMI
Filter
Vgrid

Transformer
Gate
Driver

Controller
Vout Iout
Vin Iin

(a)
Diode Bridge Rectifier
Switching
Rectifier Resonant Tank
Network

EMI
Filter
Vgrid

Transformer
Gate
Driver

Controller
Vout Iout
Vin Iin

(b)

FIGURE 3.4 Single Stage (a) Isolated flyback converter; (b) half-bridge isolated DC/DC
resonate converter.

achieving unity power factor (UPF) for various line voltages. Such topology
presents poor power factor and THD as no active current wave shaping unit is
present. An improved version of a low-voltage battery charger available in the
market is shown in Figure 3.4(b). It is seen that though losses due to leakage
inductance do not occur because of soft switching operation due to resonant tank,
poor efficiency due to the output diode bridge rectifier losses is one of the main
issues. Also, such battery charger configuration lacks PFC unit, which induces odd
harmonics in the grid leading to poor power quality. The presence of an LC filter at
the transformer secondary induces duty cycle loss on the transformer primary
voltage. As the output of the inductor does not allow a sudden change in current,
secondary diodes are shorted which leads to duty cycle loss and rectifier snubber
losses [7]. It is observed that such a PFC unit becomes essential for chargers to
improve power quality at the input and enhance converter performance.
The above-mentioned charger configurations come in the category of float
chargers [11]. Such chargers are easy to implement in terms of control with one
control loop to control the charging battery. Float chargers require current limiting
46 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

resistors at the output and use a single sensor, making them a less complicated
solution for battery charging.

3.2 CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE (CCM) BASED PFC EV

CHARGERS
3.2.1 NEED OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION (PFC)
AC-DC converters are an essential part of the battery chargers in order to convert
AC voltage to stiff DC. Diode rectification is one of the most common ways which
is implemented in current chargers but draws discontinuous peaky current. Input
current waveform and FFT analysis with diode rectification-based chargers are
shown in Figure 3.5(a) and (b). It is seen that odd harmonics are injected into the
grid leading to poor input current THD and reduced power quality. Such battery
chargers require a bulky passive filter to filter out these harmonics leading to
increased weight and size. As per IEC-6000-3-2 [13], the input current THD limit
should be below 5% for automobile battery chargers.
The PFC control objectives can be defined as follows:

1. Sinusoidal input current is in-phase with the input voltage over a range of
frequencies.
2. Low input current THD over the entire range of power.
3. Stiff Regulated DC output voltage.

Thus, an active PFC becomes an essential need for battery charging applications
in order to meet the abovementioned control objectives. In order to reduce the
cost and the weight single-stage, isolated, and non-isolated charger configurations
have been developed [14]. Such chargers don’t require a dedicated second stage
for charging, which reduces cost and improves efficiency. Isolated single-stage
topologies present poor efficiencies because of losses due to leakage inductance.
Huge voltage spikes at turn-off reduce reliability and require an RCD snubber
which reduces the efficiency drastically [15–27]. Secondary converters and
control schemes are developed in order to improve the efficiencies of such
topologies [28]. On the other hand, non-isolated topologies possess no such
problems owing to the absence of high-frequency transformer, thus presenting
higher efficiencies. But tackling the problem of an increased number of semi­
conductor count and sensors increases the cost greatly. Semiconductor devices
need to be over-rated to consider line voltage variations and guarantee safe
operation. Moreover, non-isolated chargers have common ground with AC line.
This leads to safety concerns in high-line voltage countries like India and China.
Thus, isolation becomes necessary as per standards set by governments. Two-
stage battery charging topologies have been popular in industries and have
one stage dedicated to PFC regulation and the second stage for battery charging
control [29]. As shown in Figure 3.6 such battery charger can have two
configurations:
Basic PFC Converters 47

Voltage

Current

(a)

80

70
% of Fundamental Magnitude

60

50

40

30

20

10

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Harmonic Order
(b)

FIGURE 3.5 (a) Diode bridge voltage and current waveform. (b) Input current THD.

1. Post-regulator type
2. Pre-Regulator type

In a post-regulator configuration, an isolated converter is used to provide isolation

from AC mains and a non-isolated converter to shape the input current and control
the battery charging process. Such a battery charging configuration has been re­
ported in [30] but presents comparatively less efficiency as the primary side
switches have high conduction losses. Moreover, such a topology is not suited for
charging low-voltage battery packs as the current wave-shaping unit has high
48 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

L D
IL
Lf
SW Co Vout
Cf
AC

Vin Vout IL

- Iref -
Vref ∑ PI X ∑ PI + SW
+ + -

FIGURE 3.6 Boost converter as pre-regulator in CCM.

conduction and switching losses. On the other hand, a pre-regulator configuration

[31–35] has a non-isolated converter used to shape the input current to achieve UPF
and an isolated converter to control the battery charging process. This configuration
is more reliable and is used in current battery chargers.
The most commonly used pre-regulator topology for such an implementation
is the use of a boost converter because of its simple structure and grounded FET
as shown in Figure 3.6 [35]. Boost inductors are operated in CCM and control is
designed in order to shape this inductor current sinusoidal. Inductor current can
be shaped in three ways mainly peak current control, average current control, and
hysteresis control. These control techniques require sensing of input current for
wave shaping and input voltage in order to synchronize with the grid. Figure 3.7
shows the circuit and control of a boost converter for active PFC. Implementing
such control, it requires two control loops; the outer loop to regulate the output
voltage and the inner loop to shape input current by maintaining UPF. Such
control strategies have been extended to various topologies like SEPIC converter
but deal with issues like increased component count leading to higher losses.
This pre-regulator control scheme can also be applied to bridgeless topologies
that are often used in the industry.

3.2.2 BRIDGELESS BOOST

Figure 3.7 shows the schematic of the bridgeless boost PFC converter. The
bridgeless boost PFC topology eliminates the requirement of the diode rectifier at
the input side, however, upholds the traditional boost topology features.
Consequently, the loss associated with the diode rectifier bridge is reduced, making
it suitable upto several kW where the need for high power density and efficiency is
a major concern. The converter resolves the issues of heat management at the input
side but raises the concern of high EMI [36]. The floating input line makes it
Basic PFC Converters 49

D1 D2

L1
CDC RL
vin

L2
SW1 SW2

Gp

FIGURE 3.7 Bridgeless boost PFC converter.

impossible to sense the input voltage without a low-frequency transformer or an

optical coupler. In order to sense the input current, a complex circuit is necessary to
sense the current through the MOSFET and diode separately [37,38]. The topology
also generates high common-mode noise than other bridgeless topologies.

3.2.3 SEMI-BRIDGELESS BOOST PFC

Figure 3.8 shows the schematic of the Semi-bridgeless boost PFC converter. The
topology contains two slow diodes namely Da and Db. These diodes address the
EMI issue at the input side as the current does not always return on this path and it
also resolves the issue of floating ground. The conduction losses are very low in the
converter. However, the converter control and current sensing are complex and
expensive as it requires either three current transformers or the use of Hall Effect
sensors and can also be measured by a differential amplifier. The efficiency is
significantly improved at light load as compared to traditional bridgeless boost PFC

D1 D2

L1
CDC RL
vin

L2
SW1 SW2
Db Da

Gp

FIGURE 3.8 Semi-bridgeless boost PFC converter.

50 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

D1 D2 D3 D4

L1

L3
vin CDC RL
L2

L4

SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4

Gp1 Gp2 Gp3 Gp4

FIGURE 3.9 Bridgeless Interleaved Boost PFC converter.

topology. However, this topology does not achieve high full-load efficiency since
there is high power loss in the MOSFETs due to high intrinsic body diode losses
[39,40] and [41].

3.2.4 BRIDGELESS INTERLEAVED BOOST PFC CONVERTER

Figure 3.9 illustrates the schematic of a bridgeless interleaved boost PFC topology.
In comparison to the bridged interleaved boost PFC topology, it introduces two
additional switches and trades bridge diodes with two fast diodes. The gating sig­
nals are 180° out of phase, like the interleaved boost PFC topology. The converter
demonstrates a high input power factor, high efficiency, and low input current
harmonics. The topology requires a small EMI filter at the input side and exhibits a
low capacitor ripple. The converter consists of four diodes, four switches, and four
inductors and is used for power levels above 3.3 kW. Hence, the topology has the
highest number of components count than any other bridgeless PFC topology
making it costly and bulky in size for practical usage with complex control strat­
egies [42,43].

3.2.5 BRIDGELESS SEPIC AND CUK PFC CONVERTER

Figure 3.10(a) and (b) show the schematic of the bridgeless PFC circuits derived
from the SEPIC and CUK topologies respectively. The topologies are formed by
connecting two dc–dc SEPIC or CUK converters, one for each half-line cycle of the
input voltage. The input ac line voltage is always connected to the output ground
through the slow-recovery diodes Dp and Dn. Thus, the topologies do not suffer
from the high common-mode EMI noise emission problem. Each topology utilizes
two power switches (Q1 and Q2), two low-recovery diodes (Dp and Dn), and a fast
diode (Do). Passive components count increases due to the presence of the inter­
mediate capacitor which leads to reduced power density. Also, there is one switch
and two diodes in the current conduction path; hence, the conduction losses as well
Basic PFC Converters 51

Do

C1 C2

L1
L3 Co RL
vin L2

Dp Dn Q1 Q2

(a)

L3

C1 C2

L1
Co RL
vin Do
L2

Dp Dn Q1 Q2

(b)

FIGURE 3.10 Converter configuration (a) Bridgeless SEPIC and (b) Bridgeless CUK.

as the thermal stress on the semiconductor devices are further increased. Moreover,
the structure of the proposed topologies utilizes one additional inductor compared to
the conventional topologies which consequently increases the size and cost of the
converter. The converter operation is limited to low-power applications (<300 W).
The bridgeless SEPIC converter demonstrates high output and input ripple current.
The voltage stress in the switches of both converters is Vin + Vo [44,45].

3.3 DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE (DCM) BASED PFC

EV CHARGERS
In the previous section, the front-end PFC converters discussed are CCM-based
converters. Such converters require a bulky isolated transformer for input voltage
and current sensing to implement phase-locked loop (PLL) for grid synchronization,
which increases the cost and weight of the system significantly. It is observed that a
total of three sensors or in some cases four are used to achieve control goals.
Moreover, sophisticated microcontrollers are required to sample high-frequency
data, leading to reduced reliability and converter robustness. In the prospect of
control and cost, such converters present high complexity as it requires to determine
52 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

the phase angle for implementation of PLL. Failure of PLL can lead to non-
sinusoidal input currents, leading to poor THD and efficiency. As the front-end
converter is operated in CCM, it presents right half plane zero (RHZ) during
transient operations leading to instability. Thus, the controller designed for such
implementation should be robust and reliable in order to meet the control objectives
and maintain stability. This increases the computation burden on the micro­
processor, which indirectly affects the converter performance and start-up.
Reduction in sensors and control complexity has several benefits and can be
listed as follows:

1. System weight reduction.

2. Reduction in cost.
3. Improved system reliability.
4. Reduced control burden on the microcontroller.
5. High-frequency noise robustness.

DCM operation of converters can be used to simplify the control circuit and to
reduce the number of sensors which consequently increases the converter reliability
and robustness. Further, the design and performance of the converter are tested for
input voltage change and load perturbations.
The following objectives can be achieved by operating converters in DCM
mode:

1. Simplified control and easy implementation

2. Reduced number of sensors
3. Higher reliability
4. Improved power quality (THD < 5%)
5. Improved efficiency
6. UPF operation for input voltage variation

3.3.1 INTERLEAVED DCM BUCK-BOOST CHARGER-BASED PFC EV CHARGERS

CCM-based PFC converters have been in implementation, but the concept of DCM
cannot be implemented in all the basic topologies. Boost converter and buck con­
verter cannot be implemented in DCM for power factor correction for the following
reason. The input current for a boost converter can be given as

vin (t )
L
t , 0 < t ton
iin (t ) = (vin (t ) Vo )
(3.1)
L
t , ton < t < Ts

By performing FFT of the (3.1) using (3.2), one can get,

a0
iin (t ) = + h =1
(ah cos(h sw t ) + bh sin(h sw t )) (3.2)
2
Basic PFC Converters 53

V0 1 1
ah = Dsin (2 hD ) + cos(2 hD ) (3.3)
h sw L 2h 2h

V0 sin(2 hD) Vin

bh = 1 Dcos (2 hD ) + (3.4)
h sw L 2 h h sw L

From (3.3) and (3.4), it is observed that lower-order odd harmonics are present,
which leads to poor input current THD. Figure 3.11 shows the input current wa­
veform and FFT analysis for a boost PFC converter operating in DCM. It is seen
that higher amplitude low-order harmonics are injected [(3.3), (3.4)] in input current
leading to poor THD. Such a waveform is obtained due to its boost structure as the
boost inductor is connected to the input throughout the switching cycle. Thus any
non-linearity from the output is transferred to the input leading to a peaky input
current waveform. As a consequence, DCM boost and boost-derived configurations
require a large filter at the input side to filter out lower-order harmonics, which in

Voltage

Current

(a)

25
THD = 23.54%
Mag (% of Fundamental)

20

15

10

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 16
Harmonic Order
(b)

FIGURE 3.11 Boost PFC input current in DCM (a) waveform and (b) THD.
54 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

turn reduces the power density of the system. Several methodologies have been
proposed for improving the current quality of DCM boost converter by reducing the
lower-order harmonic content. However, such approaches are complex in nature
and require extra sensing without having a significant impact on the harmonic
content [46–50]. Therefore, DCM-based boost topologies are not feasible for such
PFC applications. On the other hand, buck or buck-derived topologies cannot be
implemented PFC, which can be understood by performing FFT analysis of input
current expression expressed as

(vin (t ) Vo )
t, 0 < t ton
iin (t ) = L (3.5)
0, ton < t < Ts

Using (3.1),

(vin (t ) Vo ) 1 1
ah = Dsin (2 hD ) + cos(2 hD ) (3.6)
h sw L 2h 2h

(vin (t ) Vo ) sin (2 hD)

bh = Dcos (2 hD ) (3.7)
h sw L 2h

Even though this topology does not present odd harmonics at the input as seen from
(3.6) and (3.7), unlike the boost converter, power transfer doesn’t take place for
vin (t) < Vo, as duty cycle saturates at its maximum limit, leading to poor power
factor as seen from Figure 3.12.
A DCM buck-boost becomes advantageous as the input inductor is either con­
nected to the input or the output, thus harmonics from the output are not reflected
across the input side thus achieving a good THD and UPF operation. Moreover, it
has fewer passive components count as compared to the conventional SEPIC or
CUK converter making it a cost-effective option for charging.

Voltage

Current

FIGURE 3.12 Input current and voltage waveform for buck converter in DCM.
Basic PFC Converters 55

SW1
Lf D1 SW5
Cr1 SW3 Lo

D2
Io

48V Battery
SW2

Vdc,link
- Llk+Lr Co
Cf L1 L2 Lm
+
Cdc,link Vo

Cr2
SW4
SW6

SW3 & SW6 Constant

Battery Duty
Vo CC-CV SW1
Mode Charge PWM &
Io Selector Controller SW2 SW & SW
Constant
4 5
Frequency
Pulse
Generator

FIGURE 3.13 The proposed single-phase interleaved buck-boost derived PFC converter.

Figure 3.13 shows the proposed two-stage isolated charger configuration. First
stage is an interleaved buck-boost DCM PFC converter which ensures UPF oper­
ation at all operating conditions. LC filter is connected to filter out high-frequency
switching harmonics and allow pure sine wave current at the input. The interleaved
PFC consists of two DCM buck-boost converters in parallel which operate at 180°
out of phase. This reduces the input current ripple, resulting in the reduction of size
and input filter. Since the input current is the sum of DCM inductor currents L1 and
L 2 , the inductor peak current is lowered thus reducing the turn-off losses.
Interleaving inherently reduces the conduction losses and by operating the buck-
boot converter in boost mode it cuts down the current stresses on the switch and
diodes. Even though voltage stress is high across semiconductor devices, low
current stress on devices leads to smaller heatsink requirement and lower con­
duction losses, thus leading to an overall reduction of weight. Second stage is an
isolated half-bridge LLC resonant converter with centre-tap transformer along with
synchronous rectification on secondary.
This particular topology is selected because of the following reasons:

1. Less number of semiconductor device count.

2. By splitting the resonant capacitor into two capacitors half-bridge is
formed in order to reduce resonant capacitor size thus reducing the number
of primary turns.
3. LLC resonant tank when reflected to secondary appear as a current source
[51], thus making it suitable for charging applications, along with the
capability to achieve ZVS at light load.
56 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Center-tap transformer and synchronous rectification on the secondary improves the

overall efficiency and reduces the cost of the converter. Generally regulated LLC
resonant converters with a wide operation range possess the problem of increased
output voltage during hold-up time [8]. At the output rather than connecting an LC
filter which induces duty cycle loss [52], a capacitive filter is used along with an output
inductor to reduce the effect of a sudden change in output current during transient
operation. The proposed configuration of the battery charger has easier control than
conventional chargers that require the first stage for active PFC with three sensors and
the second stage purely to control the charging voltage and current [14–28].
The second stage is an unregulated LLC resonant DC-DC converter to provide
electrical isolation and voltage step-down. By operating this stage at constant
duty and frequency, it not only reduces the control burden on the microcontroller
in terms of voltage and current control but also the presence of magnetizing
inductance large enough allows soft switching of half-bridge FETs [8]. Thus,
conduction losses due to circulating currents are minimized. As the charger
configuration is based on the pre-regulator concept and the second stage is a
constant frequency, constant duty operated, the output of the buck-boost con­
verter controls the total power transfer. In the absence of feedback control for
DC-DC converter, it acts just as a voltage amplifier with a fixed gain, thus
operating with minimum switching losses. As the stress on all semiconductor
devices tends to increase or decrease based on dc-link voltage Vdc, link , it needs to
be optimized to achieve a high overall efficiency of the converter. The method for
dc-link voltage selection is explained in the next section. The output-to-input
relationship of the proposed configuration is a product of individual gains of two
stages and can be defined as

Vdc, link V D
× out = ×n
Vin, pk Vdc, link 1 D
2 1
2 2 2
o o
× 1+ 1 + Q
8 o

(3.8)

oL Lr 1
where Q = RL
, = Lm
, o = , = 2 fsw, HB . As the LLC converter switching
L r Cr
frequency fsw, HB is selected the same as the resonant frequency, i.e., = o to
obtain resonant tank gain as unity and to minimize circulating current losses, (3.1)
can be simplified by

Vout Vdc, link V D

= × out = ×n (3.9)
Vin, pk Vin, pk Vdc, link 1 D
Basic PFC Converters 57

[Link] Design of Interleaved DCM Buck-Boost Converter

The steady-state operation of the two-cell buck boost for one high-frequency
switching cycle is shown in Figure 3. With the following assumptions [53,54] and
the same analysis can be done for the single-cell converter.

a. All the components are ideal and lossless.

b. Within one switching cycle, input and output voltages are constant.
c. The output capacitor is bulky enough to maintain the output voltage
constant.
d. Duty cycle is fixed for one power level.

Mode I. 0 < t < t1

In this mode switch SW1 is turned on with gating pulse Vg1, L1
charges and stores energy whereas capacitor C supplies the load.
No energy is stored in L2. Inductor current iL1 is given by

vin (t )
iL1 (t ) = (3.10)
L1

Mode II. t1 < t < t1

Switch SW1 is turned off and inductor current iL1 freewheels
through diode D1. Capacitor C filters out the ripple current and
supplies pure DC current to the battery. Inductor current iL1 for this
stage is given by

Vo
iL1 (t ) = iL1, pk t1 (3.11)
L1

Mode III. t1 < t < Ts /2

This is the DCM condition where energy stored in L1 becomes
zero and the capacitor supplies the load. At the end of this interval,
half of the high-frequency cycle is over. This time duration is
given by

Ts
tz1 = ton1 tf1 (3.12)
2

Mode IV. Ts /2 < t < t2

Switch SW2 is turned ON in this mode, inductor L2 charges, and
stores energy. Capacitor C supplies the load and whereas energy
stored in L1 is zero. Inductor current iL2 (t ) is given by

vin (t )
iL 2 (t ) = (3.13)
L2
58 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Mode V. t2 < t < t2

Gating pulse from switch SW2 is removed. Inductor L2 discharges
through the load and diode D2, thus supplies power to the load
iL2 (t ) is given by

Vo
iL 2 (t ) = iL 2, pk (3.14)
L2

Mode VI. t2 < t < Ts

This is the same as Mode III, and the DCM period is given

tz 2 = Ts ton2 tf 2 (3.15)

The average load current in one switching cycle io, avg is nothing but the average
current of both diodes D1 and D2 i.e., the sum of area under the iL1 curve and iL2
curve during interval t f 1 and t f 2 respectively. Substituting t = t f 1 and t = t f 2 we get,

1 1
io, avg = t f 1 iL1, pk + t f 2 iL 2, pk (3.16)
2 2

where,

iL1, pk
tf1 = L1 (3.17)
Vo

iL 2, pk
tf 2 = L2 (3.18)
Vo

vin (t )
iL1, pk = D1, on Ts (3.19)
L1

vin (t )
iL 2, pk = D2, on Ts (3.20)
L2

Thus the average output over one switching cycle can be given as

2
1 iL1, pk iL22, pk
io, avg = L1 + L2 (3.21)
2 Vo Vo
Basic PFC Converters 59

vin2 (t ) Ts D1,2on L 2 + D2,2 on L1

= (3.22)
Vo L1 L 2

The average output current Io, avg over a line period is calculated by the integration
of the switching cycle average output current and can be given as

1 2
Io, avg = io, avg d t (3.23)
2 0

Vin2 , pk Ts D1,2on L 2 + D2,2 on L1

Io, avg = (3.24)
4Vo L1 L 2

where D1, on = D2, on = D , D = duty cycle.

Assuming the lossless circuit, i.e., 100% efficiency, the input power is equal to
the output power

vin iin = vo io, avg (3.25)

Substituting (3.20) in (3.23)

vin2 (t ) Ts D1,2on L 2 + D2,2 on L1

vin iin = (3.26)
2 L1 L 2

2 2
vin (t ) Ts D1, on L 2 + D2, on L1 Vin, pk Ts D1,2on L 2 + D2,2 on L1
iin = = sin( t )
2 L1 L 2 2 L1 L 2
(3.27)

iin = Iin, pk sin( t ) (3.28)

where,

Vin, pk Ts D1,2on L 2 + D2,2 on L1

Iin, pk = (3.29)
2 L1 L 2

Since the duty cycle of the converter is constant in DCM, the relation given by
(3.26) indicates the UPF operation of the converter and the input current is sinus­
oidal with peak current Iin, pk given by (3.29). The higher switching order harmonics
present in the input currents will be filtered out by the input inductors and result in
low input current THD.
60 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Following inequalities must hold for DCM operation Figure 2.4

Io < iL1 + iL 2 (3.30)

Vin . pk Ts D1, on L 2 + D2, on L1

Io < (3.31)
2Vo L1 L 2

where,

DVin, pk
Io = (3.32)
(1 D) R

4L1 L 2
Kcrit > (3.33)
RTs (L1 + L 2)

To maintain DCM for all cases, the critical conduction parameter is given as Kcrit

Kcrit (D ) = 1 D (3.34)

This can also be expressed in terms of critical load resistance Rcrit . Thus, equation
can be expressed as

4L1 L 2
Rcrit > (3.35)
Dcrit Ts (L1 + L 2)

Critical duty cycle Dcrit is calculated to maintain DCM for all cases. To maintain
DCM at all times

ton1 + t f 1 + ton2 + t f 2 < Ts (3.36)

1
D 1+ sin( t ) < 1 (3.37)
M

where M = Vo / Vin, pk
Average output current is given by

Vo
Io, avg = (3.36)
R

D = M Kcond (3.37)
Basic PFC Converters 61

where Kcond is the conduction parameter for interleaved buck-boost and is defined in
equation (3.37). The critical value of Kcond to keep the converter in DCM is

1
Kcrit = (3.38)
2(M + 1)2

To ensure PFC, the inductor needs to be in DCM for worst-case input voltage as
input current will be maximum for that case. The inductor can be computed as
follows.

Vin2 , pk D 2Ts
L< (3.39)
2Po

A value below this critical inductor value should be selected in order to ensure
DCM operation.
In PFC converters, the output capacitor is designed to filter the harmonic
components occurring at twice the line frequency. Thus, the variation in the power
(input and output) discharges through the output filter capacitor and is expressed as

Pc (t ) = Pac (t ) Po (t ) (3.40)

Vo ic = Vin, pk Iin, pk cos2 t Vo Io (3.41)

Considering efficiency equal to 100%,

Vin, pk Iin, pk
ic (t ) = cos2 t = Io cos 2 t (3.42)
Vo

The output voltage ripple equation is given by,

1
Vo, ripple (t ) ic (t ) dt (3.43)
C

By putting (3.21) into equation (3.22),

1
Vo, ripple (t ) ic (t ) dt (3.44)
C

Io
C= (3.45)
2 Vo, ripple

Input current in an interleaved DCM buck-boost converter is defined as

62 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

vin (t )
, 0<t ton
iin (t ) = L (3.46)
0, ton < t Ts

On performing FFT of input current using (3.2), we get

vin (t ) 2
a0 = D Ts (3.47)
L

vin (t ) 1 1
ah = Dsin (2 hD ) + cos(2 hD ) (3.48)
2 hfsw L 2h 2h

vin (t ) sin (2 hD)

bh = Dcos (2 hD ) (3.49)
2 hfsw L 2h

Equation (3.47) indicates the fundamental component of the input current and
(3.48) and (3.49) indicate the switching order harmonics present, which need to be
filtered out. Upon comparing (3.3) and (3.4) with (3.48) and (3.49), it is noted that,
unlike conventional boost converter, the proposed converter does not inject higher
lower order amplitude harmonics in the input and thus requires a small filter. By
designing a low-pass LC filter with a cutoff frequency much lower than the
switching frequency, the harmonic currents can be filtered out.
The criteria to design a low-pass LC Filter are as follows:

1. Selection of cut-off frequency fc given by

1 1
fc = (3.50)
2 L f Cf

2. Minimization of filter reactive power consumption for 60 Hz at 1.0 kW.

The reactive power is minimum when the filter characteristic impedance is
equal to the converter impedance i.e.,

Lf
Zch = = Z in (3.51)
Cf

where Zch is the characteristic impedance and Z in is the input impedance at

rated load and is given by

2L
Z in = (3.52)
D 2Ts
Basic PFC Converters 63

Using (3.51) and (3.52), the low-pass filter parameters L f and Cf can be obtained as

Zch
Lf = (3.53)
2 fc

1
Cf = (3.54)
2 Zch fc

In order to select an optimal dc-link voltage, it is important to derive a relation

between all semiconductor devices and dc-link voltage Vdc, link to minimize losses.
Detailed loss analysis needs to be performed to run the battery charger at maximum
efficiency. Table 3.2 summarizes the loss equations for the proposed charger. The
proposed converter is designed as per the specifications listed in Table 3.3. Based on
the loss analysis equations derived from the above sections, and using the components
and parameters listed in Table 3.4, optimal DC-Link is selected as shown in
Figure 3.10. At a dc-link voltage of 402.7 V the total losses are 43.7 W. It is observed
that the interleaved buck-boost losses tend to increase significantly from the obtained
optimal point due to high voltage stresses on semiconductor devices even though
other losses reduce drastically. A dc-link voltage of 400 V is selected to design the
proposed charger and the passive components are designed accordingly.
To design the converter with the proper voltage and current limits, it is important
to understand the battery dynamics. As a practical battery was not available for
experimentation, it is important to understand the feasibility of the proposed charger
for battery charging applications. The proposed battery charger is for a low-voltage
battery charging application that uses 850 W motor powered by four 12 V series-
connected, 120 Ah VRLA lead-acid battery packs [55]. By observing the C/7
discharge rate for 120 Ah battery [55], the allowable depth-of-discharge (DOD) is
20% for VRLA battery, as below this point the battery voltage drops sharply i.e.,
below 11 V point. Moreover, lead-acid battery packs when discharged, have higher
internal resistance as lead sulfate is accumulated over the electrodes. With a rise in
battery voltage, the concentration of sulphuric acid increases thus decreasing the
effective internal resistance. So in general it can be said that for any battery, internal
resistance is a function of the state-of-charge (SOC) of the battery [60]. Battery
resistance of a lead-acid battery pack decreases exponentially to SOC [56]. With
only 20% DOD allowed, internal resistance remains relatively constant for higher
SOC and temperatures [57]. The battery equivalent model when connected to a
battery charger is shown in Figure 3.11.
The battery equivalent circuit is represented by a parallel combination of self-
discharge resistance Rp and storage capacitor Cp which describes the total energy
stored in the battery. Equivalent internal resistance Rint is connected in series with a
dc voltage source representing the battery voltage. Value of Cp can be calculated by

kWh 3600 1000

Cp = 2 2
(3.55)
0.5(Vbatt , max Vbatt , min )
64 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 3.2
Equations for Loss Analysis
Vin, pk D 2
Buck-Boost ISWBB, rms = D PSW1 = ISW R
1, rms DS , on
FET Conduction Losses LfSW , BB 6 2
PSW2 = ISW R
2, rms DS , on

Buck-Boost QGD, BB QGS , BB

FET Switching Losses PSWBB, off = Vsw, avg ISWBB, rms fSW , BB Ig1, off
+ Ig2, off
1 2 2
Pcoss, BB = 2
× Coss, BB fSW , BB 0
Coss, BB vsw ( t)

DCM inductor Losses Vin, pk D D

IL , rms = LfSW , BB 18 Vdc, link
(3 (Vdc, link 1) + 8Vin, pk )
PL, losses = 2[Pc, limit × Ve + IL2, rms × RDCR]

Buck-Boost Diode losses Pdiodeloss, BB = 2[(Id , rms )2 × Rd + (Id , avg × Vf )]

Id , rms =
Vin, pk DTsw, BB
L
D
3 Vdc, link ( 4Vin, pk
3 2 )
2 D 2T
Vin , pk sw, BB
Id , avg = 4LVo

DC-Link Capacitor
Losses ICdc, link, rms =
Vin, pk DTsw, BB
L
Vin, pk D
Vdc, link ( 9
8 Vin, pk D
4Vdc, link ) D
3Vdc, link

PCdc, link = Ic2, rms × RCdc,link ESR

Unregulated LLC FET 2

nVo 2RL2 2
Conduction Losses PHB, cond = 2f2 +8 × RDS, HB
8RL n4L m sw, HB

Unregulated LLC FET

Switching Losses Vo Coss . HB Vdc, link
PSWHB, off = 0.1667 × fsw, HB × Vdc, link 4nL m fsw QGS, HB QGD, HB
+
Ig , off Ig , off
3 4

QGS , HB QGD, HB
× Ig3, off , HB
+ Ig4, off , HB

Synchronous 2
3 Vo (5 2 48) RL2 TSW
2
, HB
Rectification Pcond , SR = ISR, rms = 12 4 + × RDS, SR + (2
24 RL 2
n 4L m
Conduction Losses

× Tdelay × ISR, rms × fSW , HB × Vf , SR

In the above expression by substituting Vbatt , max and Vbatt , min with 56 V and 44 V,
respectively, which are the charged/discharged voltages of a 48 V, 120 Ah VRLA
battery pack [4], Cp can be obtained as 3.456 × 10 4F . Self-discharge resistance is
taken to be 10 kΩ [4], thus the effective impedance of the parallel network is very
low, and hence the voltage drop is neglected across that network. By applying
Kirchoff voltage law (KVL) and neglecting the voltage drop across the series re­
sistance R Lo, int of the inductor Lo , we get

Io Rint + Vbatt = Vo (3.56)

Basic PFC Converters 65

TABLE 3.3
Design Specifications
Parameters Value
Po 1.0 kW
Vin, rms 110 V
fSW , BB 50 kHz
Vo 65 V
fSW , HB 50 kHz

TABLE 3.4
Actual Parameters for Loss Analysis
Parameter Value Parameter Value Parameter Value
Rg, switch 9Ω Vf 0.8 V Vf , SR 1.6 V
QGD, BB 18 nC RDS, HB 80 mΩ Lm 150 µH
QGS, BB 17 nC QGD, HB 11 nC RCo, ESR 31.8/18 mΩ
RDS, on, BB 75 mΩ QGS, HB 19 nC RL 4.225 Ω
RDCR 15 mΩ Coss, HB 77 pF Vmiller 8V
RCdc, link ESR 34.7/12 mΩ Coss, SR 640 pF Rg, driver 7.5 Ω
RD 98 mΩ RDS, SR 28 mΩ Pe, limit 500 mW/cm3
L para 4 nH Ve 0.559 cm 3

Output voltage for the converter needs to be designed with the worst case which
occurs when the converter operates with maximum power where the battery is fully
charged and the charging current is high as shown in Figure 3.12. Considering a
total internal resistance Rint of 0.16 for a battery voltage of 56 V [57], with a
charging current of 15 A [55], the required output voltage can be computed to be
58.4 V. The entire process of battery charging is controlled by a battery manage­
ment system (BMS) in sophisticated battery chargers in order to maintain battery
health. Such BMS system controls the CC-CV mode of charging by ensuring
battery cell voltage balancing, thus providing protection against overheating and
overvoltage. Even though such systems are present, battery aging is one such issue
that is more prominent in a lead-acid battery. Due to low DOD and repetitive
charging of VRLA batteries, the battery gets heated up often, leading to increased
internal resistance Rint with time. Due to an increase in Rint voltage drop across the
resistance; thus higher charging voltage is required in order to charge the battery
pack. An output voltage of 65 V is selected assuming these voltage margins and
physical constraints such as temperature and wire resistance. It should be noted that
66 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

any battery charger should be efficient over a range of power and should exhibit
high efficiency from 80% of the rated power to 10%. High efficiency at light load
becomes a crucial aspect of designing a battery charger.
Figure 3.13 shows the battery charging profile for a 48 V, 120 Ah battery.
Charging starts when the output capacitor senses a voltage of 44 V or below.
Current control is initiated by sensing the battery voltage (CC mode) which en­
sures a constant current flow of 15 A into the battery. CC mode is enabled until
the battery voltage reaches up to 56.4 V with 14.1 V for each battery [58]. The
converter operates with maximum power at this point as indicated in Figure 3.13.
From [58] it is noted that the temperature rise is not significant for a battery
voltage of 14.1 V as compared to other charging voltage levels where temperature
increases significantly for every 10% rise in SOC. This voltage is known as the
boost voltage of the battery and the charge mode is shifted to constant voltage
(CV) mode where it holds the same battery voltage of 56.4 V. As the battery gets
charged, its opposition to charge current is high in the absence of the current
controller. Thus the charging current starts tailing off when a constant voltage is
applied across the battery terminals. As the current reaches a value equal to 20%
of the initial charging current, the charging process is terminated. At this point,
the battery is 95% charged.
The small-signal model of the proposed converter is less complex as the second
stage acts as a voltage amplifier with a gain proportional to the turns ratio, n,
neglecting the dynamics offered by L r and Cr . Thus, the secondary side state
variables can be referred to as the primary as shown in Figure 3.14. The current
injected equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) [59–61] is used to model the charger
dynamic model. This modeling approach is simpler with respect to the state-space
average model as it only accounts for the transfer characteristics of the converter.
By considering the battery equal to RL , and applying perturbations to (3.31) and
neglecting the second order terms, we get

Vin2 , pk DTsw, BB Vin, pk D 2Tsw, BB

iˆo, BB = dˆ + vˆin, pk (3.57)
LVdc, link LVdc, ink

From Figure 3.14 we know that

n2
ˆo, BB = s (Cdc, link + n2Co ) + vˆo (3.58)
sL o + RL

On equating (3.57) and (3.58) and substituting v̂in, pk = 0, CV mode transfer function
to control the output voltage of the converter is given by

vˆo Vin2 , pk DTsw, BB (sLo + RL )

= (3.59)
dˆ LVdc, link (s 2Lo (Cdc, link + n2Co ) + sRL (Cdc, link + n2Co ) + n2 )
Basic PFC Converters 67

Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode

1 2 3 4 5 6

Vg1

t (sec)
Ts
Ts/2
Vg2

iL1,pk

iL1(t)
ton1 tf1 tz1
iL2,pk

iL2(t)
ton2 tf2 tz2
Vin

VL1
t (sec)
-Vo

Vin
t (sec)
VL2

-Vo

iLmax
Iin

t0 t'1 t1 Ts/2 t'2 t2 ts t (sec)

FIGURE 3.14 Steady-state waveforms of two-cell converter.

In order to control the charging current of the converter, Lo current is controlled.

From Figure 3.14 the charging current expression can be given as

n2vˆo
iˆo = (3.60)
sLo + RL

On substituting v̂o from (3.59), CC mode transfer function to control the charging
current is given as
68 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

iˆo n2Vin2 , pk DTsw, BB

= (3.61)
dˆ LVdc, link (s 2L o (Cdc, link + n2Co ) + sRL (Cdc, link + n2Co ) + n2 )

Figure 3.15 shows the control scheme for the proposed battery charger. Charging is
initiated and follows the charge control algorithm as per Figure 3.16. As primary
switches are directly controlling the charging voltage and current along with
drawing sinusoidal input current, the bandwidth of the controller is selected to be
less than 120 Hz. PI controllers are used to control the charging current and voltage
with a phase margin of 60° and 70°, respectively.
This section presents the simulation results of the proposed battery charger using
PSIM 11.1 software. The converter is designed with the specifications mentioned in
Table 3.3, and the designed parameters are given in Table 3.4. The input LC low-
pass filter is designed for a cut-off frequency of 10 kHz. The control-to-output

Buck-Boost FET Losses

80 Buck-Boost Passive Losses
Half-Bridge FET Losses
Buck-Boost Diode Losses
70 SR FET Losses
HB passive Losses
Total Losses
60
Losses (W)

Minimum Losses of 43.7W

50 at Vdc,link = 402.8 V

40
30
20

10

0 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Vdc,link(V)

FIGURE 3.15 Calculated losses according to various DC-Link voltages.

Io
Lo RLo ,int
Rp Cp

Co Vo
Rint

Vbatt

FIGURE 3.16 Battery equivalent circuit when connected to battery charger.

Basic PFC Converters 69

current and control-to-output voltage transfer function is obtained by and is given as

(3.59) and (3.61)

iˆo 8.96
I (s ) = = (3.62)
dˆ 9.64e 7s 2 + 0.0109s + 1

vˆo 0.0305s + 343.74

V (s ) = = (3.63)
d ˆ 9.64 e 7s 2 + 0.0109s + 1

For a double pole system, a simple PI controller is sufficient to get the desired
response. The controller transfer function is designed at a phase margin 60°, and
gain crossover frequency 80 Hz. Figures 3.17 and 3.18 shows the frequency
response of plant transfer function I(s) and G(s), controller transfer function H(s),
and the open-loop transfer function I(s) ∗ H(s). Both open-loop transfer function has

900
800 50
700 Maximum Power Operation 40

Voltage (V)
Power (W)

600
500 30
Converter Power
400
Battery Voltage 20
300
200
10
100
0
75 80 85 90 95
SOC (%)

FIGURE 3.17 Variation of converter power and battery voltage with respect to SOC.

CC mode CV mode
20 67.5
Charging Current
Charging Voltage
Battery Voltage
15 62.5
Current (A)

Voltage (V)

10 55

5 47.5

40
70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95%
State of Charge (%)

FIGURE 3.18 Charging profile of lead acid battery pack.

70 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

vo

FIGURE 3.19 CIECA equivalent model.

an infinity dc gain which indicates the system reference tracking with zero steady-
state error, and the system robustness for the input and load disturbances.
With the designed controller, a closed-loop simulation for the proposed con­
verter is done using PSIM11 software, and the results are depicted in Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.19(a) shows the input current and input voltage waveform during the CC
mode of operation. It is observed that the input current and the voltage are
sinusoidal and in-phase with each other confirming the UPF operation of the
charger. Figure 3.19(b) shows the converter output voltage, and charging current
waveforms at rated output power. The output current is constant and settled at a
reference current of 15 A. Figure 3.19(c) and (d) shows the current controller
response during input voltage variation from 110 V to 80 V and 110 V to 130 V.
Output current is maintained at constant 15 A and the input current is closely
tracking the input voltage both being in-phase and shape. The output current is
stable and tracks the reference current with a settling time of 15 ms, which
confirms the robustness of the designed current controller. Figure 3.19(e) shows
the input inductor current waveforms at rated output power, the inductor currents
are discontinuous thus validating the design. Figure 3.19(f) shows the converter
response for 10% load perturbation from 1 kW to 100 W which is the turning
point for the battery charger controller (CC mode to CV mode). The output
voltage is stable and tracks the reference voltage with a settling time of 10 ms,
which confirms the robustness of the voltage controller. Figure 3.19(g) shows the
ZVS turn-on operation of the back-end DC-DC converter. The switch turns on
with zero voltage, thus confirming the soft switching of the primary side half-
bridge switches. Figure 3.19(h) shows dc-link voltage variation during the tran­
sient condition. It is observed that the dc-link voltage remains relatively the same
during load change which verifies the assumption and the gain expression. DC-
link tries to reduce huge load changes as the duty cycle reduces drastically and
dc-link capacitor supplies power to the load. To verify the above-derived
formulas in section 3.3 for dc-link selection, the average and RMS currents for
an output power of 1.0 kW and input voltage of 110 Vrms are calculated and
compared with the simulated values as listed in Table 3.5. The calculated values
are very close to the simulated values, thus validating the dc-link voltage
selection criteria.
Basic PFC Converters 71

TABLE 3.5
Comparison of Analytically Calculated and Simulated Average
and RMS Current Values of Active and Passive Devices at Rated
Condition of 1 kW. Vin = 110 V , D = 0.56, L = 75 µH
Parameters Calculated Simulated
Iin 9.16 A 9.11 A
ISWBB, rms 7.07 A 7.01 A
IL, rms 8.14 A 8.12 A
Id , rms 4.04 A 4.06 A
Id , avg 1.255 A 1.251 A
ICdc, link rms 5.13 A 5.19 A
IswHB, rms 5.70 A 5.88 A
ISR, rms 12.08 A 12.2 A
ICo, rms 8.20 A 8.28 A

3.3.2 BRIDGELESS BUCK BOOST DERIVED FRONT-END PFC CONVERTER

One of the major limitations of the two-stage buck-boost charger proposed in the
previous section is the higher losses of the front-end diode bridge. Thus, the charger
cannot be scaled to high-power charger and thus a bridgeless topology needs to be
derived for such applications.
Figure 3.20 shows the proposed single-phase switched-mode bridgeless AC-DC
buck-boost derived PFC converter. The proposed converter is derived from the
classical buck-boost converter. The diode rectifier is removed from the front end
and integrated on the load side in the form of a voltage doubler configuration. The
converter embodies two back-to-back connected MOSFETs, two diodes, one
inductor, and two electrolytic capacitors. The voltage across the devices is reduced
by the DC-split output configuration in the proposed converter, which reduces the
switching losses. The back-to-back connected MOSFETs are connected to a
common source configuration and as they are controlled by the same gate signal; it
is considered as a single switch S in the analysis. The buck-boost inductor is
designed for DCM operation to realize the inherent PFC at the AC power source. In
the DCM operation of the converter, the value of the input voltage determines the
amount of energy stored in the buck-boost inductor. Therefore, the average input
current inherently trails the input voltage. Figure 3.21 illustrates the control circuit
for the proposed converter. The converter output is controlled by only one control
loop and a single sensor. As the controlled variable is DC output voltage, the
proposed converter duty cycle is constant for rated output power and input voltage.
The proposed converter demonstrates several advantages like the reduced
number of components as compared to the conventional boost and bridgeless boost
converters. Moreover, only one semiconductor device conducts current at a time
which significantly reduces the conduction losses benefiting high power conversion
72 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

CC-CV Vo
Mode
Selector Io
+ SW1
-
Io
0°
CC -
IBat,max ∑ PI + SW2
+ -
CC Controller 180°
+ SW1
-
Vo
0°
CV
-
Vref ∑ PI + SW2
+ -
CV Controller 180°

FIGURE 3.20 CC-CV charge controller.

Start

No No
< 59 V ≥ 59

Yes Yes

CC Mode CV Mode

<= 3

No

Yes

Stop

FIGURE 3.21 CC-CV mode selector algorithm.

efficiency and power density. To validate the performance of the proposed con­
verter, a comparative evaluation with the state-of-the-art AC-DC PFC topologies
converters is provided in Table 3.6. In all the above state-of-the-art converters it is
observed that at a given point of time, more than one semiconductor is in the path of
current conduction.
Basic PFC Converters 73

TABLE 3.6
Comparison of the Proposed Converter with the State-of-the Art Converters
Attributes Bridgeless Semi- Bridgeless Bridgeless Bridgeless Proposed
Boost Bridgeless Buck-Boost SEPIC CUK
Output voltage ‒ve +ve ‒ve +ve +ve +ve
Line diodes – 2 2 2 2 –
requirement
Switching 2sw+2D 1sw+2D 1sw+2D 1SW+1D 1SW+1D 2SW or 1D
Devices in
operation over
one switching
cycle
HF inductors 2 2 2 3 3 1
HF Diode 2 2 2 2 2 2
Intermediate No No No Yes Yes No
capacitor
Conduction High Low Medium High Low Low
Loss
Switch Voltage High Medium High High High Low
Stress

100
I(s)*H(s)
H(s)
I(s)
50
Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100
0
Phase (degrees)

-45

-90

-135

-180
101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (rad/sec)

FIGURE 3.22 Frequency response of plant I(s), controller H(s) and open loop I(s) ∗ H(s).
74 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

The proposed converter also illustrates some additional benefits such as reduced
V
voltage stress of Vpk + 2o across all semiconductor devices compared to a traditional
buck-boost converter. The proposed converter achieves PFC over the range of input
voltage while maintaining a low THD below 5%. It also maintains a stiff regulated
DC voltage. Due to DCM operation, the sensor requirement is reduced to one voltage
sensor and avoids the sensing of input current, input voltage, and output current.

[Link] Design Bridgeless Buck Boost Derived Front-End PFC Converter

The proposed converter only operates in the boost mode in order to reverse bias the
output diodes when the switch S is conducting. The equivalent circuit S of operation
during positive and negative half-line cycles are shown in Figure 3.22(a) and (b),
respectively. It must also be considered that either the switch S or only one diode
(D1 or D2) is in the current flowing path, which consequently reduces the con­
duction losses. The converter is designed to be operated in DCM to achieve natural
PFC at AC input. Figure 3.24 shows equivalent circuits of operation during a
positive half-cycle of input voltage.
The steady-state waveform of the proposed converter for one switching cycle is
shown in Figure 3.23 with the following assumptions. Figure 3.24

a. All components are ideal and the input voltage and the output voltage are
considered constant within one switching cycle.
b. The output side filter capacitor is large enough to maintain the output
voltage constant in one switching cycle.
c. The output capacitors ‘C01’and ‘CO2 ’ share half of the output voltage.

60 V(s)*H(s)
H(s)
V(s)
40
Magnitude (dB)

20

-20

-40
0
Phase (degrees)

-45

-90

-135
101 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5

Frequency (rad/sec)

FIGURE 3.23 Frequency response of plant V(s), controller H(s) and open loop V(s) ∗ H(s).
Basic PFC Converters 75

Mode I. (0 < t < t1 )

In mode I, switch S is turned on with the gate signal Vg .
Inductor L stores the energy and capacitors C01 and CO2 supply
power to the load. The expression for the inductor current iL (t )
is given as

Vin
iL (t ) = ( t) (3.64)
L

where Vin = input voltage.

Mode II. (t1 < t < t1)
In this mode, the gate signal is removed and switch S is turned off.
The inductor L starts demagnetizing by delivering the stored en­
ergy to the load while the capacitor CO2 gets charged. The ex­
pression for the inductor current iL (t ) is given as

Vo
iL (t ) = iL , pk ( t) (3.65)
2L

where iL, pk is the peak inductor current given by

Vin
iL, pk = (DTs ) (3.66)
L

where, DTs = switch on-time.

This mode ends when the current through the diode D2 is
zero, that implies

2Vin
D1 Ts = DTs (3.67)
Vo

where, D1 Ts = diode conduction time.

Mode III. (t1 < t < Ts)

In this mode, all semiconductor devices are in off-state, and capacitors Co1 and Co2
supply power to the load.
The current supplied to the load is nothing but the average diode D1 current
i D2, avg in the positive half-line cycle. Since the current is triangular in shape, its
average can be given as

iL , pk D1 Ts
i D2, avg = (3.68)
2Ts

Substituting (3.66) and (3.67) in (3.68), the average output current for one switching
cycle can be given as
76 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

40 200
60

Volts and Amps

20 100
40
Amps

Volts
0 0 20
-20 -100 0
-40 -200
0.275 0.2875 0.3 0.3125 0.375 0.4 0.425 0.45 0.475
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
40 200 Input voltage change 200

20 100 20 100

Volts
Amps

Amps
0

Volts
0 0 0
-20 -100
-20 -100
-40 Input voltage change -200
-40 -200
0.34 0.355 0.37 0.385 0.4 0.35 0.365 0.38 0.395
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)
40 80
25 1 2
20
20 40
Amps
Amps

15

Volts
10 0 0
5
Load change
0 -20 40
0.3959063 0.3959141 0.3959219 0.3959297 0.3959375 0.3959453 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22

Time (s) Time (s)

(e) (f)

25 , 500
420 ,
20 400
Amps

15 300 410
Volts
Volts

10 200 400
5 100
390
0 0
-5 ZVS Turn-on -100 380
0.1747559 0.1747656 0.1747754 0.1747852 0.1747949 0.1748047 0.1748145 0.1748242
0.46 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54
Time (s) Time (s)
(g) (h)

FIGURE 3.24 Simulation results (a) input voltage and current. (b) output voltage and
current. (c) input voltage change from 110 V to 80 V. (d) input voltage change from 110 V to
130 V. (e) inductor current. (f) load change from 100% to 10%. (g) ZVS turn-on of half-
bridge switch. (h) DC-link voltage variation during load change.

i D2, avg Vin2 D 2Ts

io, avg = = (3.69)
2 2LVo

Where D = duty cycle and Vo = output voltage.

Thus the average diode current ID2, avg for half-line period can be defined as
Basic PFC Converters 77

1
Io, avg = i D2, avg d t (3.70)
2 0

2
Vpk D 2Ts
Io, avg = (3.71)
4LVo

The input current expression of the proposed converter for one switching cycle can
be defined as

Vin
t, 0<t ton
Iin (t ) = L (3.72)
0, ton < t Ts

On performing FFT of (3.82)

Vin 2
a0 = D Ts (3.73)
L

Vin 1 1
ah = Dsin (2 hD ) + cos(2 hD ) (3.74)
L 2h 2h

Vin sin (2 hD)

bh = Dcos (2 hD ) (3.75)
2 hfsw L 2h

On substituting Vin = Vpk sin( t ) in (3.73) the fundamental component of the input
current is obtained (3.72) and (3.73) shows the switching order harmonics, which
needs to be filtered out. From (3.74) and (3.75), it is noted that unlike conventional
boost converter, the proposed converter does not inject harmonics into the input and
thus requires a relatively small filter. By designing a low-pass LC filter with a cut-
off frequency much lower than the switching frequency, the harmonic currents can
be filtered out. Therefore, the resulting input current contains only the fundamental
current component, and it can be obtained by applying the power balance expres­
sion (3.76). The input current can be found by,

Vin Iin = Vo io, avg (3.76)

Substituting (3.71) in (3.76)

Vin2 D 2Ts
Vin Iin = (3.77)
2L
78 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Vin D 2Ts Vpk D 2Ts

Iin = = sin( t ) = Ipk sin( t ) (3.78)
2L 2L

V D 2T
where, Ipk = pk2L s peak input current.
Equation (3.78) shows that the filtered input current is sinusoidal and is in phase
with the input voltage, which proves the UPF operation of the converter.
The following inequalities must hold for DCM operation which is given as

DTs + D1 Ts < Ts (3.79)

On substituting (3.67) in (3.86)

M
D< (3.79)
(M + 2 sin( t))

where, Vin = Vpksin(ωt), M = Vo/Vpk.

In (3.79), the worst case occurs at t = 1, thus by substituting t = 2
in (3.79)
the condition to operate the converter in DCM is given as

M
D< (3.80)
(M + 2)

From (3.80), the critical value of voltage conversion ratio Mcric for a given duty
cycle can be defined and is given as

2D
Mcric < (3.81)
(1 D )

Output current is given as

Vo
Io = (3.82)
R

Substituting (3.71) in (3.82),

D = M 2Kcond (3.83)

where Kcond = conduction parameter of the converter

2L
Kcond = (3.84)
RTs

From (3.80) and (3.83), critical conduction parameter Kcric can be calculated with
Basic PFC Converters 79

1
Kcric = (3.85)
2(M + 2)2

To maintain PFC under all conditions, the inductor current needs to be in DCM for
the worst-case input voltage. The DCM inductor can be computed by using (3.71)
and (3.80) and is given by

2 2
Vpk Vo Ts
L< 2
(3.86)
4Po Vo + 2Vpk

In a single-phase PFC rectifier, the output capacitors are designed to filter out the
second-order supply frequency oscillations present in the output voltage. The output
ripple is caused by the unbalanced instantaneous power between input and output.
Therefore, capacitors are designed to buffer this unbalanced power and filter out
oscillations. Thus, by considering Co1 = Co2 = Co, the low-frequency output voltage
ripple Vo, ripple is given as

1
Vo, ripple = ico1 dt + ico2 dt (3.87)
Co

1 2io
= (iD1 2io ) dt = (3.88)
Co Co

2Io
Co = (3.89)
Vo, ripple

The criteria to design a low-pass LC filter are as follows:

1. Selection of cut-off frequency fc given by

1 1
fc = (3.90)
2 L f Cf

2. Minimization of filter reactive power consumption for 60 Hz at 1.0 kW.

The reactive power is minimum when the filter characteristic impedance is
equal to the converter impedance i.e.,

Lf
Zch = = Z in (3.91)
Cf
80 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

where, Zch is the characteristic impedance and Z in is the input impedance at

rated load and is given by

2L
Z in = (3.92)
D 2Ts

Thus, low-pass filter parameters L f and Cf can be obtained as

Zch
Lf = (3.93)
2 fc

1
Cf = (3.94)
2 Zch fc

Traditional front-end converters of battery chargers use complex control which

requires input voltage and current sensing along with PLL. Such systems pose a
higher burden on microcontrollers as more computation speed is required. The
proposed converter mitigates these problems by eliminating the input sensing and
just using one sensor to control the output as shown in Figure 3.7(b). The small
signal model of the proposed converter is obtained by using the current injected
equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) [59–61]. This approach is better than the
conventional state-space averaging approach as it becomes cumbersome and
complex in DCM. Such complex models are tough to derive even for simple DC-
DC based DCM converters [62]. On the other hand, the CIECA approach is much
easier as it only models the transfer properties of the converter [59]. In CIECA, the
entire circuit can be scaled down as shown in Figure 3.25. The non-linear param­
eters of the circuit are linearized by injecting the average output current produced
by the non- linear part. From Figure 3.25

S = Io
D1 Co1

Lf S L +
vin Cf R Vo
-

D2 Co2

FIGURE 3.25 Proposed single-phase switched-mode bridgeless AC-DC buck-boost

derived PFC converter.
Basic PFC Converters 81

1
iˆo, avg = sC + vˆo (3.95)
R

On applying perturbations in (3.71) we get

2
Vpk DTs Vpk D 2TS io, avg
iˆo, avg = dˆ + vˆpk vˆo (3.96)
2LVo 2LVo Vo

On equating (3.95) and (3.96) and substituting v̂pk = 0

vo (s ) Vpk D
= (3.97)
d o (s ) Kcond M (sRC + 2)

Co1 Co2 Vo
where C = Co1 + Co2
, M= Vpk
, and R = load resistance.
The converter control to output transfer function is obtained by substituting the
design parameters in (3.97). As the transfer function is a single-pole system, a
Ki
simple PI controller Kp + s
is used to control the output voltage as shown in
Figure 3.7(b). As the output capacitor sees a voltage ripple of twice the line fre­
quency, a PI controller with bandwidth lower than 120 Hz is selected with a Phase
Margin (PM) of 60°. The controller is tuned using sisotool in MATLAB and the
controller parameters are computed as Kp = 0.00252 and Ki = 0.21. The output
voltage is sensed using a hall-effect-based LV-25P sensor. The sensed voltage is
compared with the reference voltage and the error is fed into the PI controller. The
PI controller generates the duty cycle to control switch S. A limiter is connected in
order to limit the duty during start-up and overload conditions. The proposed
converter is simulated in PSIM 11.1 software to confirm the converter analysis and
the design. The converter design specifications are given in Table 3.7. The buck-
boost inductance value is calculated from (3.86). The output filter capacitance
values are calculated from (3.89).

TABLE 3.7
Converter Design Specifications
Parameter Value
Line voltage, Vin RMS 110 VRMS nominal
Input frequency, f 60 Hz
Output power, Po 1.0 kW
Output voltage, Vo 400 V
Switching frequency, fsw 50 kHz
Duty cycle, D 0.638
Buck-Boost Inductance, L 24.45 µH
Output capacitance, Co1, Co2 82.4 µF
Output voltage ripple, Vo, ripple 5% of output voltage (Vo)
82 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Vo
-
V_ref ∑ PI + SW
+ -
Limiter +
Controller -

FIGURE 3.26 The control circuit for the proposed converter.

Using the designed parameters, the converter control-to-output transfer function

is obtained from (3.97) and is given in (3.98). A PI-controller transfer function is
designed for Phase Margin of 60° a bandwidth of 628.31 rad/sec. It determines
k p = 0.00252 and time constant = 0.012 controller is designed and implemented.

vo (s ) 1282.584
= (3.98)
d (s ) 1 + 0.032s

With the designed parameters and the designed controller, the circuit is simulated,
and the results have been presented for input frequency f = 60 Hz. The simulated
input voltage and input current waveforms are shown in Figure 3.26(a). The output
voltage and output current are shown in Figure 3.26(b). The output diode ‘D1’
current waveform is shown in Figure 3.26(c), which is discontinuous, and validates
the converter design. The voltages across output capacitors are shown in
Figure 3.26(d). Each output voltage capacitor is sharing half of the output voltage,
which is in good agreement with the analysis. The inductor current waveform is
shown in Figure 3.26(e). The output voltage and input current waveforms when the
converter is subjected to a load disturbance from 50% to 100% of the rated power
are shown in Figure 3.11(f). The controller responds immediately to the load
change, and the output voltage is settled at the reference value 400 V.

3.3.3 EVALUATION OF PFC-BASED EV CHARGERS

In battery charging applications, AC-DC converters play a major role in PFC.
This chapter compares various AC-DC topologies available for battery charger
application with a detailed description comparing trade-offs of AC-DC topolo­
gies. Two AC-DC topologies for Plug-in chargers have been proposed. These
charger topologies eliminate the use of input sensing and PLL which makes them
more robust and reliable. A two-stage charger topology along with a detailed
control design has also been described that enables readers to design DCM-based
two-stage chargers. Proposed configurations have been compared with state-of-art
AC-DC topologies that show various advantages of proposed converters
Figures 3.27, 3.28, 3.29.
Interleaved buck-boost converter discussed in section 3.3.1 is compared with
various CCM and DCM topologies. It is seen that the proposed charger config­
uration has a lower sensor count with very simple control and a high peak effi­
ciency. Charger topologies reported in the literature suffer from issues like
Basic PFC Converters 83

Io Io
Co1 1( ) D1 Co1
L L
S + +
Lf Lf S
( ) R Vo v ( )
vin Cf in Cf R Vo
- -

2( ) D2
Co2 Co2

(a) (b)

FIGURE 3.27 Proposed converter configurations during (a) positive half cycle, (b) negative
half cycle.

Modes
1 2 3

Vg

t (sec)

()

t (sec)
DTs
Vpk
VL
t (sec)
Vo/2
,

()
2

t (sec)
D1Ts

t0 t'1 t1 Ts t (sec)

FIGURE 3.28 Waveforms for one switching cycle.

complex control, high device count, and lower efficiency. The bridgeless buck-
boost derived converter discussed in section 3.3.2 eliminates the losses due to the
diode bridge rectifier. As compared to other CCM-based bridges topologies that
require isolation transformer or input sensing, the proposed topology eliminates
84 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

+
D1 Co1
-
+ -
Lf S L +
Cf R
vin -

+
D2 Co2
(a) -

+
D1 Co1
-
- +
Lf S L +
Cf R
vin -

+
D2 Co2
-
(b)

+
D1 Co1
-

Lf S L +
Cf R
vin -

+
D2 Co2
(c) -

FIGURE 3.29 Equivalent circuits during positive half-cycle; (a) Mode-a; (b) Mode-b;
(c) Mode-c.

sensing by operating in DCM operation. Moreover, by using split capacitors at

V
the output, switch stress is reduced to Vpk + 2o (Figures 3.30, 3.31, 3.32).
The proposed topology in section 3.3.2 can be extended to two-stage charger as
shown in Figure 3.32. The front-end converter is a bridgeless converter analyzed in
the previous section. It is derived from the traditional buck-boost converter. The
converter is operating in DCM mode to achieve natural PFC at AC mains. The
front-end converter consists of one bidirectional switch, two diodes, one inductor,
Basic PFC Converters 85

S =
D1 Co1 ic io

io,avg
Lf S L
Co R
Cf R

D2 Co2

FIGURE 3.30 Equivalent circuit for small signal modeling.

100 Vin 400 6.5

Iin 300 5.5
50
200 Vout Iout 4.5
Volts

Amps
0 100 3.5
-50 0 2.5
-100 1.5
-100
1.7 1.72 1.69 1.7 1.706 1.712 1.718
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)

35 240 VoC2
30 220
25
20 iD1 200
15 180
10 D1
5 160 VoC1
0
1.74257 1.74259 1.742621.74263 1.67 1.68 1.71 1.72
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)
60 iL 500 5
50 400 4
40
300 3
30
Amps

Vout
Volts

20 200 2
10 100 Iout Iout 1
0 0 0
0.3212 0.3213 0.3214 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s) Time (s)
(e) (f)

FIGURE 3.31 Simulation results (a) input voltage and input current; (b) output voltage and
output current; (c) output diode Do1 current; (d) output capacitors voltages; (e) inductor
current; (f) converter response for load change 50 % to 100 %.
86 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

SW1= Cr1
SW4
D1 CDC1 SW2
Llk + Lres
+
Lf L Co R
SW1 Lm -
vin Cf

1:n
SW3
D2 CDC2 Cr2

SW5

FIGURE 3.32 Proposed two-stage isolated EV charger configuration.

and two capacitors (voltage doubler). At the input mains, an LC filter is connected
to filter out high-frequency switching harmonics and draw pure sine wave current
from the source. As the diode bridge rectifier is eliminated and only one semi­
conductor device is in the current flowing path for one switching cycle, the overall
conduction losses are reduced significantly. The diode has zero reverse recovery
losses along with reduced voltage stress. This reduced voltage stress and conduction
losses help in the reduction of the overall weight of the proposed charger The
second stage is a half-bridge unregulated LLC resonant DC-DC converter to obtain
the desired DC voltage of 65 V while offering isolation. Synchronous rectification
on the secondary side is implemented to improve the overall efficiency of the
converter. Merits of this topology over the conventional system. Additional merits
(Table 3.8):

1. Less number of semiconductor devices count as the application requires

unidirectional flow of high current and low output voltage.
2. LLC resonant tank when reflected to secondary appear as a current source,
thus making it suitable for charging applications, along with the capability
to achieve ZVS at low loads.

The converter utilizes a center tap transformer along with synchronous rectifi­
cation on the transformer secondary to enhance the overall efficiency and
decrease the cost of the charger. The operation of the second stage with a fixed
duty cycle and switching frequency helps in the reduction of the control burden
on the microcontroller. Moreover, soft switching of half-bridge MOSFETs is
observed due to the resonant tank. The optimal design of the resonant tank
resulted in reduced peak and circulating current in the back-end converter. In
addition, owing to the sinusoidal current through the transformer results in im­
proved transformer utilization.
TABLE 3.8
Comparative Analysis of Proposed Configuration with Other Topologies
Basic PFC Converters

Attributes BL-BB [ 14] [ 17] [ 16] [ 8] [ 33] IL-BB

No. of Components DBR – – – Yes Yes Yes Yes
Isolation – Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Sw 2 3 3 3 6 6 6
D 2 3 5 3 8 6 2
L 1 2 4 4 4 2 3
Int C – 2 2 2 – – –
Mode of Operation DCM DCM DCM DCM DCM CCM DCM
Switches with SS 2 3 3 3 6 4 6
Diode with Reverse Losses 0 0 0 0 4 6 0
Semiconductor Current Stress High High High Moderately high Moderately Low Low Moderately Low
Semiconductor Voltage Stress Moderate High High High Moderate Moderate High
Control and Modelling Approach Very Simple Complex Complex Complex Very Complex Very Complex Very Simple
Efficiency at 100 % load 96% 90.8% 92% 91% 93.7% 95.3% 96.06%
Sensors 1 3 3 2 4 5 2
PLL requirement No No No No Yes Yes No

*DBR – diode bridge rectifier, Int C- intermediate capacitor

87
88 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

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 4 A Comprehensive
Overview of Wide Band-
Gap (WBG)-Based DC-
DC Converters for Fast
Plug-in EV Charging
Nil Patel, Luiz A. C. Lopes, and
Akshay Kumar Rathore

CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................91
4.2 Review of Topologies .................................................................................... 94
4.3 Control Strategies ...........................................................................................98
4.4 Critical Assessment ......................................................................................100
4.5 Commercialized Chargers ............................................................................101
4.6 Future Trends ............................................................................................... 104
4.6.1 Power Converter Topology.............................................................. 104
4.6.2 Soft-Switching Techniques for WBG-Based Power Converters ....104
4.6.3 Advanced Control Techniques.........................................................105
4.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 105
References.............................................................................................................. 106

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The utilization of fossil fuels extensively has led to an increase in pollution, and
global warming effects and not only ending with that but has also led to the
depletion of fossil fuel resources hence in an attempt to find an alternative source of
energy with extensive research toward the electric vehicles as a medium for
transportation [1]. EVs have thrived in recent decades because of their benefits in
energy efficiency, environmental protection, and acceleration capability compared
to regular internal combustion engine-based (ICE) vehicles. Aside from the finan­
cial issue, the distance-range concern is a significant factor for pure EV consumers
[2]. Economical, effective, and convenient charging is the cardinal factor for further
usage of electric vehicles. An on-board charger (OBC) is commonly seen in EVs.
When the charger is plugged into a suitable 120-V socket in the USA, the

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-4 91
92 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

recharging capacity is restricted to Level-1 power, as stated by SAE standard J1772

[3]. According to the Level 1 profile, the maximum charging power is 1.08 kW. The
output power of the OBC may be raised to Level-2 for relatively fast charging when
there is a design for a 208-V/240-V outlet, with the permissible limit charging
power up to 14.4 kW. The size, space, and weight limits of a vehicle reduce the
power density and efficiency of an OBC. The OBC range for light-duty vehicles
(LDVs) is less than 14.4 kW. The Nissan Leaf EV includes a 7.7-kW OBC [4].
Tesla Model X and Model 3 OBC has a power range of 7.7 to 11.7 kW [5]. An EV’s
distance range may be recovered at a pace of 30–60 km/h with a level 2 OBC,
which means it will take around 12 hours to get a driving range comparable to that
of an ICE-based automobile. There is a pressing demand for charging power in the
tens to hundreds of kilowatts range to replace a significant driving range in minutes,
alleviating distance-range concerns. To fulfill the need, rapid-fast dc charging
equipment has been created, which can deliver a DC straight to the battery pack. DC
charging is classified as Level 1 and Level 2, with their power levels defined by
SAE J1772. The peak power level of DC Level-1 is 36 kW whereas DC Level 2 has
a peak power of 90 kW, whereas DC Level 3 has a peak power of 240 kW.
CHAdeMO, Tesla supercharger, and GB/T 20234.3 are some of the other com­
peting dc fast-charging standards. Tesla established 145-kW battery charger in 2019
and recently it developed 250 kW supercharger.
The recent number of EVs and charging stations is depicted in Figure 4.1. Plug-
in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have
increased dramatically. By 2025, it is expected that the number of electric vehicles
will have risen to 60–85 million, followed by it will further rise to 145–240 million
by 2030, which is more than 21 times its current level [6,7]. The ever-increasing
number of electric vehicles has created a tremendous need for advancements in
recharging technologies. The efficiency is critical regardless of whether the
charging unit is on the ground or on the EV, wired or wireless. Even a minor
enhancement in converter efficiency can save substantial energy for the enormous
number of vehicles on the ground. Hence, higher conversion efficiency and power
density in power electronics applications lead to decreased volume and price of
passive elements and cooling equipment [8]. The price and power capability are
crucial factors on the roadside, while on the EV side, power density, efficiency,

FIGURE 4.1 Development of EVs and charging technologies (a) PHEVs and BEV
(b) Commercially chargers for public usage.
Overview of WBG-Based DC-DC Converters 93

FIGURE 4.2 Comparison between Si, SiC, and GaN.

reliability, and price are paramount factors. The EV charging infrastructure and
advanced technologies are continually changing to enhance efficiency, power
capability, power density, and lowering prices. Power converters are fundamental to
the aforesaid technologies, determining and influencing the progress of all other
technologies. The power density and efficiency of EV recharging infrastructure are
determined mainly by their operations and properties. After decades of progress,
conventional silicon-based (Si) power devices have exceeded their limitations [9].
The WBG material, especially SiC and GaN, which has a more significant energy
gap between the valence and conduction bands, is thought to be a new generation of
materials that can significantly enhance the performance of power devices, as
shown in Figure 4.2. The early research power device of SiC MOSFET and its
capability has been beyond the hindrance of silicon devices [10,11]. WBG material-
based devices have previously been used to produce a high-power-density battery
charger with more than 98% efficiency [12]. WBG devices are being employed and
launched in many research activities and large manufacturing.
In the recent decade, isolated dc-dc converters have received a lot of attention due
to a reduction in the conduction losses, size, and cost by increasing the voltage gain
and efficiency [13]. Most of the power converters can be unidirectional to transmit
power to different applications such as UPS systems, advanced electric motor drives,
on-board battery chargers, and renewable energy applications [14]. Nonetheless,
bidirectional power conversion capabilities have become a requirement for fast-
charging EVs [15]. One possibility is categorizing WBG DC-DC converter config­
urations into discrete and integrated stages. The usage of novel WBG designs and a
topological overview of WBG semiconductor technology-based DC-DC converters
for EV charging applications are discussed in the next section 4.2. High-frequency
(HF) with high-efficiency-based SiC and GaN DC-DC converters for battery re­
charging of EVs are examined and analyzed. This chapter is organized as follows.
Section 4.3 demonstrates the control strategies with tabular comparison incuding
modeling approaches and stability issues. The critical assessment is presented in
94 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

section 4.4. Section 4.5 discusses the commercialized WBG chargers which are
available in the market. Future trends in EV industry are reported in section 4.6.
Finally, the last section concludes this chapter.

4.2 REVIEW OF TOPOLOGIES

Wide band-gap (WBG) semiconductor devices are becoming more popular due to
their unique characteristics, such as greater breakdown voltages, higher temperature
handling capabilities, high-frequency operation, and higher switching transients
sustain capability than silicon (Si) devices. The WBG-based DC-DC converters are
categorized into SiC and GaN-based, as shown in Figure 4.3. In [16], B. Whitaker
et al. introduced the SiC-based DC-DC converter with phase-shifted full-bridge
(PSFB) circuit topology, as shown in Figure 4.4(a). This scheme has a high volu­
metric power density and gravimetric power density. However, Due to the forward
voltage drop of the diodes, the diode bridge in this scheme is the lossiest in terms of
conversion efficiency. Isolated Quasi-Switched Capacitor SiC-based DC-DC
Converter is presented in [17] and shown in Figure 4.4(b). This converter
decreases the voltage tension across the HV‐side switches and the transformer
voltage to two‐third of the HV‐dc‐bus voltage, and also offer bidirectional power
flow and easy control. However, the configuration can operate within the limited
duty-ratio range and will suffer severe current stresses at the components level.
GaN-based dual active bridge (DAB) DC-DC converter is exhibited in
Figure 4.4(c), and it is good in performance and simple in circuit formation [18].
Nonetheless, to achieve a high instantaneous power balance between the mains and
the batteries, the sinusoidal charging of the batteries needs a control strategy with
bandwidth as high as possible, which reduces the reliability of the charger. In [19],
Huang et al. proposed a GaN-based interleaved bidirectional buck-boost converter

FIGURE 4.3 Generalized classification of WBG-based DC-DC converters.

Overview of WBG-Based DC-DC Converters 95

L0 S1 S2 L0

V battery
S1 S2 S5 S6 C1 C2 TR S4 C0 S1 S2 S5 S6
Vin L1
Llk TR Llk TR

V battery

V battery
VDC Lm C0 L2 S5 VDC C0

S3
S3 S4 S7 S8 S3 S4 S7 S8

(a) (b) (c)

L0 L0

S1 C1 S5 S6 S1 S2 D1 D2
L1
S1 S3 Llk TR Llk Cr TR

V battery

V battery
Vin L2 Lm C0 Lm C0
VDC VDC
V battery

S2 S4
S3 C2 S7 S8 S3 S4 D3 D4

(d) (e) (f)

L0 L0

S1 S2 S5 S6 S1 S2 D1 D2 S1 S2 S5 S6

Llk Cr TR Llk TR Llk TR

V battery

V battery
V battery

C0 VDC Lm C0 VDC C0
VDC
Cr

S3 S4 S7 S8 S3 S4 D3 D4 S3 S4 S7 S8

(g) (h) (i)

FIGURE 4.4 Configurations of WBG-based DC-DC converters: (a) Phase-shifted full-

bridge isolated converter [ 16], (b) Isolated quasi-switched capacitor converter [ 17], (C) Dual
active bridge converter [ 18], (d) Interleaved bi-directional buck-boost converter [ 19], (e) Bi-
directional isolated LLC resonant converter [ 20], (f) Full-bridge LLC resonant converter
[ 21], (g) Series resonant converter [ 22] (h) Full-bridge LLC resonant converter [ 23], and
(i) Dual active bridge (DAB) converter [ 24].

with 98.5% efficiency as shown in Figure 4.4(d). In this configuration for an inverse
coupled inductor, the resonant time in CRM is less than with a non-coupled
inductor, which is advantageous for high-frequency operation, and both the soft-
switching range and the circulating energy are increased utilizing an inverse cou­
pled inductor in CRM. The demerit of this topology is the negative charge of the
inductor current in the CRM operation, which does not move power to the output, is
constant no matter its CRM operation, which does not move power to the output, is
constant no matter its switching frequency. In [20], Half-bridge CLCL resonant
converter is discussed with power-loss analysis as shown in Figure 4.4(e). The
steady-state analysis of the bidirectional LLC resonant converter is processed and
provides more detailed results regarding power loss and efficiency than others with
this configuration. However, the design is complex and tricky. In Figure 4.4(f), the
full-bridge (FB) LLC resonant-based converter achieves 97% efficiency and is
explained in detail in [21]. This topology adopts the modulation of symmetric space
vector pulse width, which, compared with other algorithms, essentially reduces the
electrical stress of switches. However, in the complex resonant converter design, the
transformer size is bulky, and the gate drive circuit loss is much higher, leading to
lower power conversion efficiency. In [22], GaN-based series resonant topology, as
shown in Figure 4.4(g), has more than 98% efficiency with higher reliability. This
topology provides enhanced efficiency for series-resonant converters operating with
96 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

an essential input and output voltage spectrum by significantly minimizing their

switching frequency range. Nonetheless, the system is much more complex, and the
cost is higher than other converters. The FB-LLC-based SiC converter is showcased
in Figure 4.4(h) with a simple mode of operation [23]. The efficiency is higher, and
the control algorithm is simplified. Power loss is slightly higher than other con­
verters, and the design is tricky and complex. GaN-based DAB converter as shown
in Figure 4.4(i) with effective modulation technique, is explained in [24]. Closed-
loop control was carried out for the converter to decrease the output current ripple
and align the power between three single-phase modules, which increases the power
factor and improves THD. However, the transformer current is circulating, leading
to conduction losses and efficiency will decrease.
In [25], Li et al. proposed a GaN-based CLLC resonant converter as shown in
Figure 4.5(a) which has a higher operating temperature range. The converter has a
high volumetric power density and efficiency as it adopts a two-stage control
strategy. Due to the restriction of the helical structure and insensitive ac winding
loss, magnetic integration is more difficult for PCB winding transformers. GaN-
based DAB converter, as shown in Figure 4.5(b), is explained in [26]. The converter
is much smaller, cheaper, and more efficient with improved thermal performance.
The closed-loop control and design of parasitic components are tricky. In [27], SiC-
based bidirectional LLC resonant converter is discussed, which is shown in
Figure 4.5(c). The converter is under pulse frequency modulation power, and
instead of a dc transformer with a set switching frequency, it has to remove the
double-line frequency ripple in a low switching frequency range. However, the

L0

S1 S2 D1 D2 S1 S2 S5 S6 S1 S2 S5 S6
Llk Cr TR Cs Llk Cr TR Llk TR
Vbattery

Vbattery

C1 Lm C0 C0 Lr C0
VDC VDC
Cr
S3 S4 D3 D4 S3 S4 S7 S8 S3 S4 S7 S8
Vbattery

VDC
L0' (b) (c)
L D1
S1' S2' D1' D2' S1
SA S1' S2 S5 S6 S1 S2 S5 S6
Llk’ Cr’ TR’ Cs’
C2 Lm’ C0' Llk TR Llk TR Llk’
Vbattery

C1
Vbattery

VDC C0 VDC C0

S3' S4' C r Lr Lr’ Cr’

D3' D4'
SA’ C 2 S3 S4 S7 S8 S3 S4 S7 S8
(a) S3'
D2 (e) (f)
L0
TR
D1 D2 L D1 S1 S2
S1
Llk Cr SA S1' D1 D2
Vbattery

D1'
C0 Llk TR C1
C1
Vbattery

VDC S9 S10
C0
S1 S2 D3 D4 S3 S4
Vbattery

SA’ D3 VDC
C 2 S3 D2' D4
VDC Lm S3'
TR S5 S6 D2 (g) S5 S6 S11 S12

S3 S4
Vbattery’

C0' C2

S7 S8 S7 S8

(d) (h)

FIGURE 4.5 Configurations of WBG-based DC-DC converters: (a) CLLC resonant con­
verter [ 25], (b) Dual active bridge (DAB) converter [ 26], (C) Bi-directional LLC resonant
converter [ 27], (d) Isolated three-port converter [ 28], (e) Dual active bridge (DAB) converter
[ 29], (f) Isolated bi-directional converter [ 30], (g) Multi-cell boost (MCB) with input-series
output-parellel (ISOP) connected converter [ 31], and (h) Isolated three-port converter [ 32].
Overview of WBG-Based DC-DC Converters 97

converter design is complex when the voltage gain is in a lower switching fre­
quency range. Figure 4.5(d) represents the isolated three-port converter with a
higher operational thermal and temperature range [28]. The dynamic performance
and efficiency are much higher than other converters. At lower output voltages due
to higher current operation, the efficiency deteriorates. SiC-based DAB converter as
shown in Figure 4.5(e) is presented in [29]. This topology gives a considerable
decrease in device footprint, which achieves higher efficiency. Nonetheless, this
scheme increases the size of the converter and, due to the increased part count,
significantly affects the reliability of fast chargers. A GaN-based isolated
bidirectional converter is illustrated in Figure 4.5(f) [30]. It provides reliable high
performance, with higher efficiency and rated capacity over a broad battery voltage
range. Operation and design are complex, with limited information on the thermal
insulation of this topology. In [31], Multi-Cell Boost (MCB) with Input-Series
Output-Parellel (ISOP) Connected converter as shown in Figure 4.5(g) is discussed.
This topology reduced the switching loss and magnetic loss with higher reliability.
However, the transformer leakage inductance needs to be thoroughly balanced to
ensure a soft switching of the switches for the desired load current set. In [32], Su
et al. proposed a GaN-based isolated three-port converter, as shown in
Figure 4.5(h). It has higher reliability and low cooling requirements. This converter
is very compact, lightweight, and highly efficient. The improvement in the
switching commutation loop, which increases the parasitic inductance in the loop
and increases voltage ringing through the switches, is one potential disadvantage of
putting the flying capacitors on the top side. Table 4.1 demonstrates the comparison

TABLE 4.1
Comparison Between SiC and GaN-Based DC-DC Converters
Parameters GaN-based converter topologies SiC-based converter topologies
Power loss High Low
Converter Size Small Medium
Switching Frequency High Low
Power Density High Medium
Operating Temperature High High
Switching Speed High Low
Voltage Stress Low Medium
Control Mechanism Complex Easy
Voltage-drop on devices Low Medium
Filter Component Light Reasonable
Discharge High Low
Control Variable High High
Necessity switching device Low Less
Complexity High Less
Efficiency High Low
98 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

analysis including size, power density, voltage stress, power loss, switching fre­
quency, switching speed, control variables, efficiency, control complexity, and
operating temperature for SiC and GaN-based DC-DC converters for EV chargers.

4.3 CONTROL STRATEGIES

B. Whitaker et al. introduced two converters in the cascaded form with a closed-
loop system, but a detailed control system analysis is not reported [16]. In [17], the
proposed control system can be implemented at a low cost. L. Xue et al. proposed
closed-loop control is to directly control the dc-link voltage-ripple to compensate
for the imbalance completely and at two times the line frequency, frequency while
attaining zero steady-state error. However, closed-loop control is complex due to
the more state variables in [18], as shown in Figure 4.6(a). In [19], a closed-loop
control system is not revealed. In [20], the converter is operated in either the
continuous current mode (CCM) or the discontinuous current mode (DCM),

i0 L0 ib L0

S1 S2 S5 S6 S1 S2 S5 S6
Llk TR Llk Cr TR

Vbattery
Vbattery

VDC C0 VDC C0
ir

S3 S4 S7 S8 S3 S4 S7 S8

PS Primary ZCD Secondary

LPF Driver Driver
Modulator
fs
Delay Time V0(SCLD)
VCO
HiP(S) -+ ib_ref VEA
Control Vin(SCLD)
+ VDC
Vd_ripple Amplifier w/ VE V0(SCLD)
- Sensing & Scaling - Sensing & Scaling
+ R(S) Compensation +
+ + ib_ref(ripple) VDC(SCLD) V0(REF)
Vd_ref 0
(b)
(a)

L D1 S1
i0 L0 SA S1' D1 D2
D1'
Llk TR
C1
Vbattery

S1 S2 S5 S6 i0 VDC C0
Llk TR
Vbattery

VDC Lm C0
SA’ C2 S3 D2' D3 D4
Cr S3'
S3 S4 S7 S8 D2

SR
PFM VDC_ref
+ PI + GSA
Soft Start - -
i
- 0_fdb VDC
Gc4(S)
+ i0_ref
VDC1
+ PI + GSA’
Vd_ripple Gc5(S) - +
-
+ n1/n2 VDC2
V0_ref GS1’
GS1
+ PI GS2’
Vd_ref - GS2
(c)
V0 (d)

FIGURE 4.6 Control diagrams of WBG-based DC-DC converters: (a) Control diagram of
DAB converter [ 18], (b) Control diagram of Series resonant converter [ 22], (c) Control
diagram of bidirectional LLC converter [ 27], and (d) Control diagram of multi-cell boost
(MCB) with input-series output-parallel (ISOP) connected converter [ 31].
 Overview of WBG-Based DC-DC Converters 99

depending on the load condition, the closed-loop control is much more effective
with an easily calculated transfer function, and the stability issue is not present. In
[21], the converter has an easy closed-loop control algorithm. Nevertheless, the
system is not stable. G. Liu et al. proposed a control system in which the reduction
within the switching frequency spectrum is accomplished by managing the output
voltage with a combination of closed-loop frequency control of front-end switches
and secondary-side turn delay-time monitoring. However, the system’s power is
complex because the number of PI loops is more in [22], as shown in Figure 4.6(b).
The proposed converter is worked in continuous conduction mode (CCM), and the
detailed small-signal modeling and transfer function are presented with the outer
voltage loop and inner current loop in [23]. Besides, the closed-loop system’s
transfer function is very simple and the system is much more stable with two PI
digital controllers used to stabilize the voltage and current control loop. In [24], the
proposed closed-loop is mitigated the output current ripple while the grid is
imbalanced. However, the system is complex because of the number of state
variables and no stability issues. The configuration of control is simple, but the
concept is novel. The dc-link voltage follows the battery voltage so that the gain of
the stage stays unity, whereas the current loop of the dc-dc ensures that the no-
second-order line frequency ripple is going through the filter from the dc-link to the
battery [25]. The system is not stable and convincing, but the details analysis is not
presented in [26].
In [27], the proposed control scheme is in stable condition and easy to
implement, which is shown in Figure 4.6(c). Also, two PI control loop is present,
making it a small and simple mathematical model matrix. In [28], the novel
control strategy is used, and it is much helpful due to the simple transfer function
of the closed-loop system, including voltage and current. Table 4.2 depicts the

TABLE 4.2
Comparative Analysis of Dontrol Strategies for WBG-based DC-DC Converters
Attributes State No. of Stability Sensor Control complexity PI controllers
variables loops level count and modeling
approach
[ 18] High 3 High 3 Complex 2
[ 20] Low 2 Low 2 Simple 2
[ 21] Moderate 2 High 2 Effective 2
[ 22] High 4 Low 2 Complex 3
[ 23] Moderate 2 Moderate 4 Simple 2
[ 24] Moderate 2 Moderate 1 Effective 2
[ 25] Low 2 High 2 Easy 2
[ 27] Low 2 High 2 Easy 2
[ 28] Moderate 3 Low 3 Simple 1
[ 29] High 3 Moderate 3 Complex 3
[ 31] High 3 Low 3 Complex 3
100 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

comparative evaluation of control techniques for WBG-based DC-DC converters.

The triple-phase shift control method is used to get voltage control with soft-
switching, but the control scheme is very complex [29]. As shown in
Figure 4.6(d), the PI controller has three control loops, and the control strategy is
very complex [31]. In [32], the effectuation and design of the proposed control
system are much more tricky and complex. The design and analysis of a closed-
loop control system are tricky and challenging to implement [33]. In [34], the
average current control technique is used, but the control complexity is higher
due to a higher number of variables. Besides, this approach alone does not era­
dicate sensor noise, which may be a concern at low currents. The pragmatic
approach to closed-loop is much more complex and costly [35]. In [36], the
higher junction capacitance of diodes may damage the voltage gain of LLC
converters in a higher frequency range, making the control system unstable. The
closed-loop system is stable compared to the phase shift control mode and var­
iable frequency control mode in [37]. The control system is bulky and very
complex to analyze [38]. In [39], the cost of the prototype closed-loop control
system is much higher than that of the conventional one.

4.4 CRITICAL ASSESSMENT

B. Whitaker et al. proposed a new DC-DC converter with higher efficiency and
volumetric power density than the 2010 Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid battery
charger [16]. In [17], the quasi-switched-capacitor dc-dc converter is introduced
and has a tremendous advantage, like voltage stress is decreased by around one-
third of the input voltage and transformer turns ratio is decreased. However, the
converter is operated within its limited duty ratio range. In [18], the converter
efficiency optimization can be possible through a novel developed GaN-based dc-
dc converter via a small dc-link voltage ripple, but the closed-loop control is
tricky. The critical current mode (CRM) method is used, and it is a simple and
effective route to acquire the ZVS in the interleaved buck-boost converter, but it
introduces a large ripple current [19]. The LLC DC-DC resonant converter is
proposed, and a double pulse test (DPT) platform is used to give an accurate
power-loss model [20]. Nevertheless, it is not examined thoroughly for bi-
directional power flow. Table 4.3 presents the comparison of the State of Art
Wide Band-Gap (WBG)-Based DC-DC Converters for Fast Plug-in EV Charging.
In [21], the DC/DC converter requires to operate at a high switching frequency so
that the iron loss of the transformer and switching loss is very high. G. Liu et al.
proposed a control method that provides a better efficiency of series resonant
converters that work with a wide input and output voltage range to minimize the
switching frequency range [22]. In [23], the converter has the best-implemented
control algorithm than others. The DC-DC converter achieved the utmost effi­
ciency with compact size and reduced heat-sink requirement. In [24], the novel
triple-phase shift control is employed to enhance the power factor and mitigate
the output current ripple. The CLLC resonant dc/dc converter operates around the
resonant frequency and removes the secondary order line-frequency ripple, but
the intricate resonant tank design [25]. The DC-DC converter is cheaper and
Overview of WBG-Based DC-DC Converters 101

lighter, but the thermal performance is not better than others [26]. The proposed
dc/dc converter has a compact size, more efficiency, and power density than
wolfspeed converter [27]. Three-port dc/dc converter is one of the most reliable
with lighter weight and more robust as per performance-wise, and it requires
fewer switches and gate drivers [28,32]. In [29], the number of semiconductor
devices and passive components is higher with difficult control complexity in the
SiC-based DC-DC converter. F. Qi et al. proposed the converter, which gives
consistently high efficiency at rated power over a wide battery voltage range,
making the dual active bridge topology more capable [30]. J. Guo et al. proposed
the optimization method for inductor design and maximized the efficiency of the
converter, but the control complexity is higher among the others [34]. In [35], the
introduced converter is safe, arc-free, and isolated in dynamic content with a
novel solution for high-power electric vehicle fast charging. The proposed syn­
chronous rectification technique is achieved to get reliable operation and higher
efficiency at high frequency [36]. Compared to the converters, the SiC base DC-
DC LLC resonant converter has a better and simple control system [37]. The
converter has better power quality and less footprint size-wise [38].

4.5 COMMERCIALIZED CHARGERS

Many manufacturers are composed of WBG-based commercial battery chargers
for commercial in the automotive market. Table 4.4 represents the WBG-based
commercialized chargers in the market for fast EV charging. Wolfspeed devel­
oped a 22 kW SiC-based battery charger with more than 98% efficiency and a
140–250 kHz switching frequency range [40]. This topology has a flexible control
scheme that enables high efficiency with bidirectional operation capability.
France-based industry Brightloop Converters provides a GaN-based DC-DC-LP
model with a higher operating temperature range [41]. SiC-based 22 kW OBC
offered by Fraunhofer has a higher power density with a high input and output
voltage range [42]. VisIC Technologies gives 6.6 kW OBC, simplifying the
cooling systems, reducing the charging, and restricting size and cost [43]. Hella
developed a GaN-based 22 kW fast EV charger with higher reliability and
decreased vehicle weight, giving more excellent driving range and opening up
new diversity in structure [44]. Continental-composed GaN-based OBC, which
has a higher frequency operating range, leads to compact size, great air-cooled,
and design flexibility for OBC incorporation [45]. US-based Canoo provides 7.2
kW OBC and has lower switching loss with efficient thermal management,
leading to higher efficiency, higher power density, and lower weight [46]. On
Semiconductor offers SiC-based 10 kW TND6318/D, which operates at 400 kHz
switching frequency with controllable power components temperature [47]. ABB
Terra54 gives a 50 kW SiC-based fast charger with higher efficiency and lower
acoustic noise emissions [48]. Ingeteam RAPID50 developed a SiC-based battery
charger that has dynamic power management [49]. SiC-based 50 kW Tritium
chargers produced VEEFIL-RT model 50-kW fast chargers with higher effi­
ciency, durability, and reliability.
 102

TABLE 4.3
A Comparison of the State of Art Wide Band-Gap (WBG)-Based DC-DC Converters for Fast Plug-in EV Charging
Topology Rated Output Switching No. of devices (Active Control Cooling Volumetric Efficiency at
power voltage frequency switches/diodes/ complexity requirements power density, P0 (%)
(P0), kW (V0), V (fsw), kHz transformers/inductors/ kW
dm3
capacitors)
Ref. [ 16] 6.1 400 500 SiC/4/4/1/3/5 --- Low 5 96
Ref. [ 17] 1.016 300 500 SiC/5/0/1/2/4 --- Low 0.973 96
Ref. [ 18] 1 250 500 GaN/8/0/1/1/2 Complex Moderate --- 95
Ref. [ 19] 1.2 150 1000 GaN/4/0/0/2/4 --- Low --- 98.5
Ref. [ 20] 10 400 120 SiC/6/2/1/0/1/3 Simple High --- 96
Ref. [ 21] 10 350 185 SiC/4/4/1/2/2 Effective Low --- 97
Ref. [ 22] 3.3 430 187 GaN/8/0/1/1/2 Complex Moderate 0.97 98.1
Ref. [ 23] 1 420 200 SiC/12/12/3/6/6 Simple Low --- 97.1
Ref. [ 24] 7.2 450 500 GaN/8/0/1/1/1 Effective Moderate 3.3 >97
Ref. [ 25] 6.6 450 500 GaN/12/0/3/4/5 Easy High 2.26 >96
Ref. [ 26] 7.2 400 500 GaN/8/0/1/1/2 --- Moderate 3.3 >97
Ref. [ 27] 6.6 350 300 SiC/8/0/1/2/2 Easy High 1.93 96
Ref. [ 28] 5 400 220 SiC/8/4/1/2/4 Simple High 2.74 98.2
Ref. [ 29] 350 850.6 25 SiC/12/0/1/3/4 Complex High 1.6 98.1
Ref. [ 30] 3.3 300 100 GaN/8/0/1/4/4 --- Low 28.30 >97
Ref. [ 31] 50 400 25 SiC/6/8/1/2/2 Complex High 0.81 96.6
Ref. [ 32] 6.6 400 100 GaN/8/0/1/0/2 --- High 10.5 96.6
Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles
TABLE 4.4
Wide Band Gap (WBG)-Based Commercialized Chargers in the Market for Fast EV Charging
Manufacturer Semiconductor Output Weight (kg) Power Operating temperature Switching frequency Efficiency (%)
device power (kW) kW
range (°C) range (kHz)
density
dm3

Wolfspeed [ 40] SiC 22 2.75 8 --- 140–250 >98.5%

Brightloop GaN 9.6 3.5 2.74 Up to 80 --- >94%
Converters [ 41]
Fraunhofer [ 42] SiC 22 2.8 13.8 Up to 85 100 >97%
VisIC GaN 6.6 4.5 3 --- --- >96%
Overview of WBG-Based DC-DC Converters

Technologies [ 43]
Hella [ 44] GaN 22 --- 4 --- --- >96%
Continental [ 45] GaN 3 --- --- --- 900 >94%
Canoo [ 46] GaN 7.2 --- --- --- --- >96%
ON SiC 10 --- --- --- 400 >95%
Semiconductor [ 47]
ABB [ 48] SiC 50 --- --- Up to 55 --- >95.5%
Ingeteam [ 49] SiC 50 --- --- Up to 60 --- >94%
Tritium [ 50] SiC 50 3 --- Up to 50 --- >92%
103
104 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

4.6 FUTURE TRENDS

This section covers futuristic research approaches in WBG-based power converter
technology, soft-switching methods, and advanced control techniques for EVs. The
subsequent sections discuss the outline some of the significant research developments.

4.6.1 POWER CONVERTER TOPOLOGY

Most plug-in EV chargers are projected to maintain two-stage structures within the
next decade. More development is planned on resonant DAB, LLC, and CLLC
converters for the DC-DC stage because of their simple constructions, control
strategy, compact size, lower conduction losses, and higher power density. A three-
phase system is necessary when the power level demand rises, and modular single-
phase converters are a viable alternative for achieving 22 kW OBC. Because of its
superior efficiency, a three-phase full-bridge DC-DC is also a good choice for
bidirectional battery charging applications, particularly the three-level T-type
converter, despite its higher device count and control complexity. Furthermore,
bidirectional DC-DC converters would be chosen at higher power levels because
they can attain high efficiency, high power density, and reduction in size, although
posing specific hardware design and efficiency problems [51]. An enhanced control
system and better devices might help to enhance the power conversion efficiency
and dependability.

4.6.2 SOFT-SWITCHING TECHNIQUES FOR WBG-BASED POWER CONVERTERS

For EV applications, novel soft-switching approaches are being developed using
unique power circuit topologies and digital control methodologies. The key

FIGURE 4.7 Generalized classification of WBG-based DC-DC converters.

Overview of WBG-Based DC-DC Converters 105

performance indicators for the DC-DC converter are shown in Figure 4.7. This
graph depicts the present DC-DC power converter’s performance measurements
and the performance goals that academics are aiming for in the near future within
the next ten years. Therefore, soft-switching techniques play a cardinal role in
reducing conduction losses. The goal of novel soft-switching approaches for EV
power converters is to accomplish soft switching with minimum changes in power
circuitry and to employ more complex modulation and control systems [52]. The
study will primarily focus on employing easy and simple modulation and control
techniques to improve the performance of power circuits utilizing power
configuration.

4.6.3 ADVANCED CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Advanced control techniques can be applied to WBG-based DC-DC converters
such as Model Predictive Control (MPC) which has a higher optimized performance
level and precise tracking prediction with fast dynamics [53]. The backstepping
control method has a higher signal and control stability [54]. Passivity-based control
technique has more play and plug stability with accurate estimation without chat­
tering problems [55]. The sliding mode control technique is simple in terms of
implementation and higher robustness [56]. The observer technique has a precise
tracking system against uncertainties and disturbances [57]. The intelligent control
system has fast dynamic control and is less complicated in any system [58].
Artificial Intelligence (AI) control-based technique has higher accuracy and im­
proves system performance [59]. Deep Learning (DL) and Machine Learning (ML)-
based control methods reduce the control complexity [60].
Distance-range concerns, long-duration charging times, and significant financial
pressure from off-board chargers will all be addressed in the future by increasing
the size of the EV battery. The automotive industry’s next step is to build a fast
charger that enables high efficiency, power levels, and power density.

4.7 CONCLUSION
The WBG-based DC-DC converter topologies are proliferated in automotive and
industrial usage, especially in EV charging applications. This chapter reviews
WBG-based DC-DC converter topologies, control methodologies, and critical
evaluation. WBG semiconductor devices are gaining popularity owing to their
distinct advantages over silicon (Si) devices, such as larger breakdown voltages,
greater temperature handling capabilities, high-frequency operation, and higher
switching transients sustainability. SiC and GaN power devices also have
greater switching frequencies, resulting in reduced switching losses, higher
efficiency, cheaper costs, smaller size, and higher power density. As a result,
WBG-based power converters might be a viable option for the future generation
of rapid EV charging applications. All chargers are discussed for their ad­
vantages and disadvantages, and a thorough examination and comparison of
commercially available chargers are depicted in this chapter. It can be concluded
106 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

that advancement in WBG chargers is a promising solution for achieving higher

power density, lower conduction losses, compact size, higher efficiency, and less
cost.

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 5 Advance Current-Fed
DC/DC Converters
Pan Xuewei and Akshay Kumar Rathore

CONTENTS
5.1 General Introduction.....................................................................................111
5.2 Traditional Current-Fed Converters............................................................. 112
5.2.1 Traditional Unidirectional Current-Fed Converters ........................ 112
5.2.2 Traditional Bidirectional Current-Fed Converters...........................117
[Link] Current-Fed Converters with Snubbers ............................117
[Link] Current-Fed Converters with Active Clamp Circuit ........118
[Link] Dual Half-Bridge Current-Fed Converter.........................122
5.3 Advance Current-Fed Converters ................................................................ 125
5.3.1 L-L Type Dual Active Bridge Current-Fed Converter ...................125
5.3.2 Resonant Type Current-Fed Converter............................................ 132
5.3.3 Naturally Clamped Current-Fed Converter .....................................136
5.4 Comparison and Evaluation ......................................................................... 138
5.4.1 Comparison with Voltage-Fed Converters ......................................138
5.4.2 Comprehensive Comparative Evaluation of Current-Fed Bidirectional
DC/DC Converter.............................................................................139
5.4.3 Future Trend ..................................................................................... 143
References.............................................................................................................. 144

5.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Current-fed isolated converters are generally derived from the non-isolated boost
converters by inserting one or several high-frequency transformers into specific
places. Current-fed converters have been justified to be suitable for low voltage high
current applications. Renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic and fuel
cells generate low voltage and high current output, thus current-fed converters are
good candidates to interface them with high voltage dc bus. In distributed gener­
ation system, the energy storage devices such as battery and supercapacitor are key
elements that are able to absorb the reverse power flow and also output power as
auxiliary sources. Therefore, current-fed converters with bidirectional power
transfer capability are required. Current-fed converters have drawn a lot of research
attention over the past decades due to the following merits:

1. Smaller input current ripple, which is beneficial to extract maximum power

from renewable systems stably and extend lifespan. In addition, the

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-5 111

112 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

inductor at the input side of the current-fed converter is more reliable and
has a longer lifetime compared with the electrolytic capacitor employed in
the voltage-fed converter.
2. Lower transformer turns-ratio: Current-fed converters are boost-derived
converters and have built-in boost function. Therefore current-fed con­
verter results into lower transformer turns ratio, which can simplify the
design and reduce losses.
3. Negligible diode ringing and free from duty cycle loss due to purely
capacitive output filter.
4. Easier current control ability. The input current can be directly and pre­
cisely controlled.
5. Inherent short circuit protection. Current limiting through the components
and short circuit protection become significant for high current
applications.
6. No flux-imbalance problem.

Current-fed converters have inherent defects as well. The main drawbacks of

current-fed converters are the issue of charging the inductor at start-up and the
voltage spike across the turning-off switches caused by current mismatch between
the input boost inductor and the leakage inductance of the HF transformer. Lots of
literature have been focusing on overcoming these problems through the innovation
and modification of topologies with new modulation and control methods and soft-
switching techniques. Novel modulation and auxiliary components or circuits are
often investigated to solve the intrinsical problems associated with the topologies
and enhance the converter performance for specific applications.

5.2 TRADITIONAL CURRENT-FED CONVERTERS

5.2.1 TRADITIONAL UNIDIRECTIONAL CURRENT-FED CONVERTERS
Different topologies of unidirectional current-fed DC/DC converters have been
researched. As illustrated in Figure 5.1, full-bridge, half-bridge, and push-pull
topologies have been proposed for the low-voltage side inverter stage. For the high-
voltage side rectifier stage, there exist some popular topologies like full-bridge
diodes rectifier, half-bridge voltage doubler, and center-tapped rectifier. However,
the major drawback of current-fed converter is high voltage spike across the device
at turn-off owing to the energy stored in the leakage inductance [1]. Snubbers are
generally required to limit the voltage spike to prevent the switching device from a
permanent breakdown. Different snubber circuits such as dissipative snubbers,
regenerative snubbers, active snubbers, etc. have been proposed as shown in
Figure 5.2. These snubbers are employed to accommodate the whole boost inductor
current until the HF transformer current is fully built up to the level of the boost
inductor current [1].
Figure 5.3 illustrates current-fed full-bridge converters using conventional
dissipative snubbers like RC or RCD snubbers. Dissipative snubbers lead to low
efficiency owing to the energy dissipated in the snubber resistor. To improve the
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 113

L
S1 S3 D1 D3
Cin
Llk Co

S2 S4 D2 D4

Full-bridge Full-bridge Rectifier

L
D1 Co1
Llk HF
Cin Transformer

D2 Co2
S1 S2

Push-pull Half-bridge Voltage Doubler

L1 L2 D1 D2
Co
C in
L lk

S1 S2

Half-bridge Center-tapped Rectifier

FIGURE 5.1 Conventional unidirectional current-fed DC/DC converter topologies.

efficiency, energy recovery LC snubbers have been proposed as shown in

Figure 5.4. The LC snubber stores the surge energy in the capacitor during device
turn-off. Once the switch is turned on, the capacitor is reset and energy stored in
the inductor is fed back to the input instead of being dissipated. However, the
conventional LC snubber has several problems like complex structure and diffi­
cult optimal design and does not assist in soft-switching. In [2], an auxiliary
flyback snubber including a capacitor, a diode, and a flyback converter was
introduced to recycle the absorbed energy as illustrated in Figure 5.5. The flyback
snubber alleviates the voltage spike and transfers the trapped energy to the load.
The circuit operates with hard switching. A similar auxiliary snubber was pro­
posed in [3] to clamp the voltage across primary switches, recycle the absorbed
energy to the load, and assist in achieving the ZVS of the primary switches.
However, both of those two auxiliary snubbers are too complex.
114 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

R S
D C D
D
R R D
C C D
C C C
R L

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

FIGURE 5.2 Snubbers for suppressing the voltage spike: (a) Dissipative RC snubber,
(b–d) Dissipative RCD snubber, (e) Non-dissipative energy recovery LC snubber, and (f)
Active-clamping snubber.

Vin Ds
Rs S1 S3 D1 D3
HF Tr RL +
Cin
Fuel
Cell Co Vo
Cs
Dissipative -
Snubber S2 S4 D2 D4

FIGURE 5.3 Current-fed full-bridge DC/DC converter employing dissipative snubbers.

L
Vin Cs
Ds1 S1 S3 D1 D3
HF Tr RL +
Cin
Fuel
Cell Ds2 Co Vo

LC -
Snubber Ls
S2 S4 D2 D4

FIGURE 5.4 Current-fed full-bridge DC/DC converter employing non-dissipative

snubbers.
Active-clamping snubber circuit [4], which consists of a switch and a capacitor,
is proposed to clamp the device voltage. The energy stored in the leakage inductor
can be recycled, thus solving the energy loss problem. With a proper parametric
design, ZVS of primary switches can be achieved. Several examples of typical
current-fed L-type half-bridge topologies employing active-clamping techniques are
displayed in Figure 5.6 [4]. The active-clamping circuit proposed in Figure 5.6(a)
can achieve ZVS both at turn-on and turn-off, but the voltages across the auxiliary
switches are twice as those of the main switches. The active-clamping snubber
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 115

Vin Ds2 S1 S3 D1 D3
Ds1 HF Tr RL +
Cin
Fuel
Cell Ls Flyback Co Vo
Snubber
-
Ss
Cs S2 S4 D2 D4

FIGURE 5.5 Current-fed full-bridge DC/DC converter with an auxiliary flyback snubber.

L1 Active L2 D1 D3
Clamp Llk HF Tr RL +
Vin

Ca2 S Co Vo
Fuel Cin a2
Cell -
Ca1 D2 D4
Sa1

S1 S2

(a)

Vin
L1 Active L2 D1 D3
HF Tr RL +
Cin Clamp Llk
Fuel
Cell Co Vo
Sa1 Sa2
-
Ca+ S2 D2 D4
S1
-

(b)

Vin Ca+
L1 L2 D1 D3
HF Tr RL +
Llk
Cin
Fuel
Cell Co Vo
Sa1
Sa2 -
Active D2 D4
S1 Clamp S2

(c)

FIGURE 5.6 Current-fed L-type half-bridge DC/DC converters with three different types of
active-clamping circuits.
116 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

L
Dau2
Vin
Lau Sau S1 S3 D1 D3
HF Tr RL +
Cin
Fuel
Cell Auxiliary Co Vo
Cau
Dau1 Circuit -
S2 S4 D2 D4

FIGURE 5.7 Current-fed ZCS full-bridge DC/DC converter with parallel auxiliary circuit.

Vin
Lau S1 S3 D1 D3
HF Tr RL +
Cin
Fuel
Cell Auxiliary Co Vo
Cau Circuit
Sau -
S2 S4 D2 D4

FIGURE 5.8 Current-fed ZCS full-bridge DC/DC converter with current-blocking diodes.
circuits need a floating active device(s) and a high-value of HF clamp capacitor for
accurate and effective clamping.
Another approach is to apply ZCS to divert the current away from the switches
before turning them off. External auxiliary circuits are utilized to achieve ZCS and
reduce the circulating current for current-fed full-bridge topology as illustrated in
Figure 5.7 [5]. For the topology shown in Figure 5.8, the transformer leakage
inductance and device output capacitance are used to create a quasi-resonant path to
facilitate ZCS [6]. The shortcoming is that four extra diodes are connected in series
with the main switches to reduce the circulating loss. This brings more conduction
losses and increases the cost and circuit footprints. For the topology proposed in [7]
as shown in Figure 5.9, an external circuit consisting of two uni-directional switches
and a resonant capacitor is employed to obtain ZCS turn-on/off of the switches. The
ringing due to the interaction of the transformer leakage inductance and switch
capacitance is the major limitation of this technique. Higher voltage rating devices
or dissipative snubbers are needed. An external boost converter is added to provide
a path for the boost inductor current and send the trapped energy to the load as
shown in Figure 5.10 [8]. A small inductor is needed to achieve ZCS turn-on/off.
Although the trapped energy can be recycled, the auxiliary circuits still contribute to
a significant amount of loss. The higher cost and circuit complexity are two major
concerns.
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 117

L
Auxiliary
Vin S1 Circuit S3 D1 D3
RL +
Cin HF Tr
Sau1
Fuel
Cell Co Vo
Cau
-
Sau2 S D2 D4
S2 4

FIGURE 5.9 Current-fed ZCS full-bridge DC/DC converter with snubber energy.

L
Dau2
Vin Dau1 S3
S1 D1 D3
Dau3 HF Tr RL +
Fuel Cin
Cell Lau Auxiliary Co Vo
Circuit
Cau -
Sau S2 S4 D2 D4

FIGURE 5.10 Current-fed ZCS full-bridge DC/DC converter with an external boost
converter.

5.2.2 TRADITIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL CURRENT-FED CONVERTERS

[Link] Current-Fed Converters with Snubbers
In bidirectional current-fed circuits, hard commutation is also a major issue as it
results in device voltage overshoot, which is caused by the current mismatch
between the input boost inductor and the leakage inductance of HF transformer.
Snubbers are generally required to limit the voltage spike to prevent the switching
device from a permanent breakdown. Similar to the unidirectional current-fed
converter, different snubber circuits such as dissipative snubbers and regenerative
snubbers have been utilized as shown in Figure 5.2. These snubbers are employed to
accommodate the whole boost inductor current until the HF transformer current is
fully built up to the level of the boost inductor current.
Some work utilizes the auxiliary circuits to clamp the voltage spike during the
switching transition. The flyback snubber was used to recycle the absorbed energy in
the clamping capacitor [9]. The topology of the current-fed converter with a flyback
snubber is shown in Figure 5.11 [9]. Since the flyback snubber can be operated
independently, it can be freely controlled according to the requirements of the con­
verter. Therefore, it can clamp the voltage of low-voltage switches to a level slightly
higher than the voltage across the primary side of the transformer. Due to the
118 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

L
flyback snubber
Dau1 S1 S3 S5 S7
Ts L1 HF Tr L2 +
VLV Cin
A Co VHV
Dau2 + iL1 iL2
B
Sau - Cau N p : Ns -
S2 S4 S6 S8
+V -
HV

(a)

GS1, S4 GS5

GS2, S3 GS6
GSau GS7

vAB GS8

vAB
vCau

iL1 vCD

iSau

vS1 iL2

iS1
Boost mode Buck mode
(b)

FIGURE 5.11 (a) Topology with flyback snubber. (b) Key operating waveforms.

existence of the clamping branch (Dau1 and Cau) and the flyback circuit, the circu­
lating current does not flow through the main switches, and the voltage spike is
avoided during switching commutation, consequently improving the reliability of the
converter. The clamping branch and the flyback snubber are activated in the start-up
process and regular boost mode operation. The circuit can be feasible by pre-charging
the high voltage side capacitor through the flyback snubber at start-up thus realizing
soft start and suppressing inrush current. In boost mode, low-voltage side switches are
controlled and the high-voltage side is synchronous rectifying. While in buck mode,
the low-voltage side is operated as a rectifier and the topology is a phase-shift full-
bridge converter without the participation of the flyback snubber. In [10], external
auxiliary buck circuits are utilized to achieve ZCS and reduce the circulating current
for current-fed full-bridge topology as illustrated in Figure 5.12.

[Link] Current-Fed Converters with Active Clamp Circuit

A simple way to suppress the voltage spike inherited in current-fed converter is to
utilize power semiconductor devices and a large HF film capacitor to provide an
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 119

L
Dau2 S1 S3 S5 S7
Lau Sau
HF Tr RL +
Vin Cin
Co Vo
Cau
Dau1 S2 S4 S6 S8 -

Auxiliary Circuit

FIGURE 5.12 Topology with auxiliary circuit.

additional commutation path. It allows the current flowing through the leakage
inductance to rise to the input inductor current in a controllable manner. The voltage
spike can be considered to be clamped by the HF film capacitor. Thus this is called
active clamp technique.
Active clamp has been implemented in many fundamental topologies, such as
full-bridge current-fed topology as shown in Figure 5.13(a) [11]. A path consisting
of a capacitor Ca and switch Sa in series is used to clamp the voltage spike when the
main switches turn off and store the energy in auxiliary clamp capacitor Ca through
the antiparallel body diodes Dax of the auxiliary switch Sa. The corresponding
operating waveforms are shown in Figure 5.13(b). In boost mode, the duty cycle of
the main switches is larger than 0.5 and the gating signals of switches in the same
leg are phase shifted by 180° with an overlap. The auxiliary switch Sa is on state
during the non-conduction interval of the main switches. Sa will achieve ZVS if it is
turned on before the clamp capacitor current iCa decreases to zero. When the current
iCa is reversed, the energy stored in the capacitor will be released back to the main
circuit. Similarly, the main switches can also be gated for ZVS turn on. Thus ZVS
soft switching operation is achieved for all switches and high efficiency can be
achieved. In buck mode, synchronous rectification is implemented in the current-fed
side to reduce the conduction loss. While the phase shift control strategy is applied
in the voltage-fed side. The free-wheeling current is reset by activating the auxiliary
switch Sa and at the same time, ZCS of S7 and S8 is realized. But current-fed side
switches are turned on twice in one switching cycle along with different duty ratios,
increasing the control complexity. The problem of this fundamental active clamped
topology is that the soft-switching can’t be maintained for light load conditions.
A L-L type active-clamped current-fed converter is proposed as shown in
Figure 5.14 with wide/extended ZVS range design [12]. As shown in Figure 5.14,
the active clamp circuit is composed of two switches and a capacitor, and the
switches provide access for the clamping capacitor Ca to absorb and release the
energy from the current mismatch during commutation. Similar operating process to
the aforementioned topology in Figure 5.13 is seen in this converter. The difference
is that two auxiliary switches are gated on once in turns during one switching cycle
while the auxiliary switch in Figure 5.13 is gated on twice in one cycle. Compared
with active clamped full-bridge topology, L-L type half-bridge has less number of
120 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

L
Iin
Dax S1 S3 S5 S7
HF Tr
RL +
Cin A
Vin Sa Llk Co Vo
Active iLlk
Clamp + B -
Ca 1:n
- S4
ica S2 S6 S8

(a)

DTs DTs
GS5, S6 S5 S6 S5
GS1, S4
GS2, S3 GS7, S8 S8 S7

GSa GS1, S4
GS2, S4
Iin
iLlk
GSa
iCa Iin -iLlk

iCa
iS1 Iin/2

vAB -iS1

Ts Ts
Boost Mode Buck Mode
(b)

FIGURE 5.13 (a) Topology with the simplest active clamp. (b) Key operating waveforms.

L1 - L2 S3 S5
Ca Llk HF Tr
+ RL +
Cin Co
Vin Vo
Sa1
-
1:n
Sa2 S4 S6
S1 S2
Active Clamp

FIGURE 5.14 Active clamped current-fed topology with wide/extended ZVS range.

active switches and potentially lower input current ripple with interleaving effect.
The clamping capacitor Ca can also be connected to the ground of the primary side
[13]. It is intensively researched in the literature. The L-L type active-clamped
converter can achieve a higher boost ratio on account of equivalent dual boost
converters on the primary side. Moreover, the magnetizing inductance of HF
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 121

transformer has been used to extend the soft-switching range. It maintains soft-
switching over a wide voltage range and wide load range. All the switches realize
soft switching even at light load conditions. It is worthy of mentioning that a tra­
deoff should be considered between the conduction loss and the range of soft
switching for the primary switches.
Another novel active clamp circuit as given in Figure 5.15 can achieve ZVS both
at turn-on and turn-off, but the voltages across the auxiliary switches are twice as
those of the main switches [14]. The active clamp circuits need floating active
device(s) and high value of HF clamp capacitor for accurate and effective clamping.
In addition to the above converters, clamp circuit have also been introduced in other
current-fed topologies [15,16]. A new topology with active clamped push-pull
current-fed circuit at the low-voltage side and LC resonant hybrid full bridge circuit
at high-voltage side is proposed in [15], as shown in Figure 5.16. Two novel control
methods are presented to achieve the ZVS soft-switching and higher power hand­
ling capacity in both power transferring directions. In buck mode, commutation
overlap period is reduced to expand the max duty cycle. In boost mode, active
commutation is accelerated by utilizing the reflected voltage from the high-voltage
side. The power transferring capacity is increased 1.5 times in buck mode operation

L1 S3 S5
HF Tr
RL +
Cin Ca2 Sa2 Co Vo
Vin
Active -
Sa1 Ca1
Clamp S4 S6

S1 S2

FIGURE 5.15 Current-fed topology with floating active clamp circuit.

S1

Ca Sa1 S3 S5
HF Tr
L RL +
N1 Co
N3 Lr Cr Vo
N2
-
Vin Sa2
S4 S6
Active Clamp
S2

FIGURE 5.16 Active clamped push-pull current-fed converter.

122 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 5.1
Comparison of Three Active Clamped Topologies
Topologies Full-bridge L-L type half-bridge Push-pull
Numbers of low voltage switch 5 4 4
Voltage stress of low voltage switch Vin Vin Vin
2(1 D) (1 D ) 2(1 D)

Current stress of low voltage switch Iin Iin Iin

Transformer windows utilization Good Good Poor
Input current ripple Moderate Good Moderate

and 3.6 times in boost mode operation. In [16,17], similar control method has been
studied for active-clamped current-fed full-bridge topology at low voltage side. At the
high-voltage side, a fast recovery DC-link diode with a parallel switch is introduced to
allow the use of high-voltage MOSFETs and achieve low switching loss. In boost
mode, the added parallel switch is off-state and the DC-link diode reduces large
reverse current from the high voltage terminal. In buck mode, the parallel switch is
turned on and the high-voltage side full bridge works as an inverter.
In summary, the active clamp technique can be applied to three basic double-
ended topologies namely push-pull, L-L type half-bridge, and L-L type full-bridge.
All of them can achieve ZVS soft-switching in bidirectional energy transferring and
have higher efficiency compared to dissipative/passive snubbers. They all suffer
from the demerits of additional floating devices, drivers, and large HF capacitors
adding to the volume. The main features of these three topologies are compared in
Table 5.1, and they all have advantages and disadvantages.

[Link] Dual Half-Bridge Current-Fed Converter

F. Z. Peng et al. proposed a novel type of current-fed converter with boost half-
bridge as shown in Figure 5.17(a) [18]. The converter is configured with dual half-
bridge structure placed at both sides of the HF transformer and an inductor at the
input of the low-voltage side. This topology is a boost-type circuit and minimizes
the devices count for the same power rating compared to full-bridge topology,
which allows a compact packaging. Each switch and corresponding capacitor will
serve as the active clamp for the complementary one. In addition, the start-up
problem of voltage-fed converter is inexistent, which eliminates the need for
additional devices and reduces the complexity of the converter.
Figure 5.17(b) shows the idealized operating waveforms of the converter under
different cases according to the phase shift Φ1 and voltage relationships of V1 & V3
and V2 & V4. The optimum case happens when the duty cycle D = 0.5, V1 = V3 and
V2 = V4, which minimizes the peak value of the leakage inductor current. S1 and S3 are
controlled with the same duty cycle, which is named as symmetrical duty cycle (SDC)
control. The duty cycle D can be regulated to match the voltages across both sides of
the transformer. The power transfer and its direction are decided by the phase shift Φ1
between two voltages across the transformer primary and secondary. When Vr1 is
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 123

+
S1 +
C1 V1 S3 C V3
3
Iin - HF Tr - +
iLlk Llk vr1 Co
L vr2 Vo

Vin
+ + -
S2 C2 V2 1:n C4 V4
S4 -
-

(a)

2π 2π

S1 S2 S1 S1 S2 S1
GS1, S2 GS1, S2

GS3, S4 S3 S4 S3 S3 S4 S3
GS3, S4
V1 Φ1 V1
vr1 vr1
D
-V2 -V2
Φ1 V3 V3
vr2 vr2
D
-V4 -V4
V1<V3, V2<V4
V1=V3, V2=V4
Iin
iLlk iLlk
V1>V3, V2>V4 -Iin

Boost mode Buck mode

(b)

FIGURE 5.17 (a) Conventional current-fed dual half-bridge topology. (b) Key operating
waveforms.

leading Vr2, the converter is working at boost mode. Otherwise, the converter is
working in buck mode. The current stresses of switches are also related with Φ1.
Decreased value of Φ1 brings less current stress. ZVS of all switches is achieved in
either direction of power flow. However, the current stresses of low-voltage side
switches are asymmetric (shown in Figure 5.18) and it is difficult to accommodate a
wide range of voltage boost ratios as well. Practically, the ZVS soft-switching can’t be
maintained through the full range of load. Another drawback of half-bridge topology
is the requirement of split capacitors which have to deal with the full load current.
The secondary side of the above topology in Figure 5.17 has been modified in
[19] as given in Figure 5.19(a). The converter is bilaterally symmetrical and is also
a variant of the boost circuit. In boost mode, the low voltage side can be considered
as a combination of a boost converter and a half-bridge converter as shown in
Figure 5.19(b). And for the high voltage side, the working principle of the converter
can be regarded as a hybrid of a buck converter and a half-bridge converter as
shown in Figure 5.19(c). Similarly, S4 is the key switch. In order to avoid the
unbalance voltage of C1 and C2 and the unsymmetrical voltage of the primary
124 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

350

S2 (Ipeak)

Current (A)
250

S3,4 (Ipeak)
150

S1 (Ipeak)
50

0 0.8 1.6
Po (kW)

FIGURE 5.18 Current stresses of switches versus output power.

S1 S3
C1 C3
L1 HF Tr L2

Llk1 Llk2 +
Vin
Cin Co Vo
S2 C2 1:n
S4
C4 -

(a)
L1
A A

S1 C1
C1
Vin Cin
S2 Llk1

C2 C2
S2
B B
(b)

C C
L2
S3 S3
C3
Co Vo
Llk2 S4

C4 S4
D D
(c)

FIGURE 5.19 (a) Bilaterally symmetrical current-fed dual half-bridge topology. (b) and (c)
Equivalent circuits.
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 125

winding, the duty cycle of all switches is fixed at 50%. Similar to [18], this topology
is operating at phase shift control mode. Power flow, the output voltage and current,
and soft-switching are all controlled by the phase-shift angle between the trans­
former’s primary and secondary voltages with a fixed 50% duty cycle. Compared to
the half-bridge topology in Figure 5.17, this modified topology achieves ZVS for all
switches and zero current commutation for the rectifier diode over a wide load
range. The control method, i.e., using a fixed duty cycle with phase shift to control
power flow, is simple and easy to implement. But the fixed duty cycle (FDC)
control method is not suitable for wide input applications. The current stress of
switches stays asymmetric like topology in [18].
Based on the conventional dual half bridge current-fed converter [18,20] adds
one more identical secondary-side configuration and combines the two capacitor
legs into one as shown in Figure 5.20(a). The immediate effect of this change is that
the secondary-side output voltage becomes three level from two level, and thus the
converter can be optimized for low conduction loss design. PWM plus hybrid
phase-shift modulation (PSM) is applied to this converter. As shown in
Figure 5.20(b), there are three control variables, namely the duty cycle D of S1, S3,
and S5, the phase-shift angle φps between the primary and secondary switching units
and the secondary side internal phase shift angle φs. Three different operating
modes of the converter are identified depending on the control of these variables.
Boost operation occurs in modes I and II, and buck operation exists in modes II and III.
The direction of power flow is controlled by φps instead of φs. In order to minimize the
RMS current, the duty cycles of the three half bridges are the same (SDC control). The
duty cycle D can be regulated to match the voltages across both sides of the trans­
former. In addition, the current stresses, RMS current, and conduction losses of the
converter are reduced with PWM control. Single phase-shift (SPS) modulation
(modulation of φps) and dual phase-shift (DPS) modulation (modulation of φs and φps)
are combined to form a hybrid PSM. The adoption of hybrid PSM can achieve
practical ZVS operation of high voltage side switches within wide input voltage
and full power range, resulting in lower switching losses and higher efficiency.
Compared with the topologies and control scheme in [18,19], the proposed control
strategy performs better under all modalities than SPS control and can better match
the output voltage. However, this converter is more complex in terms of structure
and control.

5.3 ADVANCE CURRENT-FED CONVERTERS

5.3.1 L-L TYPE DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE CURRENT-FED CONVERTER
A novel type of current-fed converter has been introduced in [22] based on
F. Z. Peng’s single half-bridge topology, as shown in Figure 5.21. It can also be
considered as one special type of active clamped L-L type current-fed converter.
This L-L type dual active bridge current-fed converter has drawn a lot of research
efforts. In [22], the converter is controlled by phase-shift plus low voltage side
PWM scheme and the high voltage side pulse width is fixed at 0.5. ZVS soft-
switching over a wide range of loads under a wide input voltage variation condition
126 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

S3 S5 C3 +
L S1 C1 L1 HF Tr L2
u2
N2 us
u1 N1 N3 Vo
Vin u3
C2 L3S C4
S2 4 S6
n=N1:N2:N1:N2 -

(a)

GS1, S2 S1 S2 S1
GS3, S4 S4 S3 S4
GS5, S6 S6 S5 S6 S5
u1 (1-D)Vin/D
2πD -Vin
u2 φps (1-D)Vo
φs 2πD -DVo

u3 (1-D)Vo
2πD -DVo

us Vo
-Vo
Mode I

φps
u1 u1
2πD 2πD
φps
u2 u2
φs 2πD φs 2πD

u3 u3
2πD 2πD
Mode II Mode III
(b)

FIGURE 5.20 (a) Topology proposed in [ 20]. (b) Three operating modes.

S1 S3 S5 Ca
L1 HF Tr
RL +
Llk
L2 Vo
1:n -
+
Vin S6 Cb
S2 S4 - VCc
Cc

FIGURE 5.21 L-L type dual active bridge current-fed converter with voltage doubler.
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 127

S1 S3 S5 S7
iL1 L1 HF Tr +
C
iL2 L2 A iLlk L Cd Vo
lk
D -
B 1:n
V +
in S2 S4 - VCc S6 S8
Cc

FIGURE 5.22 L-L type dual active bridge current-fed converter with full-bridge at high
voltage side.

is achieved. The circulating current is also reduced considerably. However, the

circulating energy is still relatively large with fixed high voltage side pulse width in
boost mode and the realization of the wide range of output voltage changing in buck
mode is difficult. [23] modifies Figure 5.21 into three-level topology (full-bridge at
high voltage side), as shown in Figure 5.22. Therefore the pulse width of the high-
voltage side can be modulated to obtain more operation modes. PWM plus SPS
is adopted, and the duty cycle of both the low-voltage side and high-voltage side
is kept the same (SDC). Voltage mismatching control is employed, where the
voltage across clamp capacitor is not controlled to be equal to reflected high voltage
(VCc ≠ Vo/n). The studied converter minimizes the RMS value of the transformer
current. But soft-switching through a full range of loads can’t be achieved, and the
current stress is still relatively high.
D. Sha et al. [23] studied the control of this converter further. Voltage matching
control is implemented to avoid the high current stress caused by unmatched
voltage control. All the possible and practical switching patterns on the premise of
wide ZVS range, power controllability, and voltage matching control have been
analyzed and compared with respect to three degrees of control freedom, i.e., the
low-voltage side duty cycle Dp, the high-voltage side duty cycle Ds, and the phase
shift angle φE. The practical operating patterns are depicted in Figure 5.23. To
achieve ZVS for a wide load range, Dp > Ds should be maintained. A new control
strategy is proposed so that Dp is always larger than Ds by a fixed value and the
bidirectional power is monotonously controlled by φE in the range of –π/2 to ~π/2.
The fixed value is designed as small as possible on the premise of ZVS achievement
in order to reduce the circulation loss. Therefore, the independent control variables
have been reduced from three to two. The converter is optimally operating at dif­
ferent modes according to the load conditions and low voltage variations. The
closed-loop control is simple while maintaining the advantages of minimized cir­
culating current. The proposed control strategy allows the converter to achieve soft
switching over the full load range including no load condition.
Based on the operating modes shown in Figure 5.23, corresponding modified
modes are presented in Figure 5.24 with the same three control freedoms Dp, Ds,
and φE [24]. It is clearly demonstrated that the modified modes in Figure 5.24 are
the boundary modes of that in Figure 5.23 which reduces the peak current and RMS
current in the transformer. Compared to the previous control methods, lower
128 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Boost Mode Buck Mode

φE -φE
vAB vAB
Dp Dp
Light vCD vCD
load Ds Ds

iLlk iLlk

Mode IA Mode IVA

φE -φE
vAB vAB
Dp Dp
Medium v vCD
CD
load Ds Ds

iLlk iLlk

Mode IIA Mode VA

φE -φE
vAB vAB
Dp Dp
Heavy v vCD
CD
load Ds Ds

iLlk iLlk

Mode IIIA Mode VIA

FIGURE 5.23 Operating patterns for L-L type dual active bridge current-fed converter with
full-bridge at high voltage side.

conduction loss and core loss occur with this modified modulation strategy.
However, the requirement of control precision is greatly increased.
[25] replaces the two input inductors in Figure 5.22 with magnetic-integrated
inductors, thus improving the power density and the power conversion efficiency at
light-load conditions. The duty cycle of low-voltage side bottom switches is con­
trolled to be lower than 50% to reduce the conduction loss. Meanwhile, the voltage
mismatching control with adaptive clamp voltage regulation helps achieve ZVS for
all switches throughout the full load range. However, proper dead time to achieve
ZVS has to be designed precisely which brings difficulty in control. To obtain both
low conduction losses and circulating current, [26] proposed a new control method
with double PWM plus double phase-shift (DPDPS). The gating signal of both sides
of HF transformer is controlled with double phase-shift to achieve ZVS of low
voltage side switches and ZVS/ZCS of high voltage side switches. Voltage
matching control is also implemented. The advantage of this control method is that
the soft-switching is maintained for a wide variation of low input voltage. Thus the
conversion efficiency is higher than the PWM plus SPS control. A similar DPDPS
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 129

Boost Mode Buck Mode

φE -φE
vAB vAB
Dp Dp
Very vCD vCD
light load Ds Ds
iL1
iL2
iLlk iLlk iL1
iL2
Mode IA Mode IVA
φE -φE

vAB Dp vAB Dp
Light/
Medium vCD Ds vCD Ds
load iL1
iL2
iLlk iLlk iL1
iL2
Modified Mode IA&IIA Modified Mode IVA&VA
φE -φE

vAB Dp vAB Dp
Medium/
Heavy vCD Ds vCD Ds
iL1
load iL2
iLlk iLlk iL1
iL2
Modified Mode IIIA Modified Mode VIA

FIGURE 5.24 Modified operating modes for L-L type dual active bridge current-fed
converter with full-bridge at high voltage side.

Cu+ S5
S1 S3 Du
L1 HF Tr S6
+
A C V + Cc2
L2 Llk
Cc2 Vo
D -
Iin B 1:n -
Dd S7
V + Cd+
in S2 S4 - VCc1
Cc1 S8

FIGURE 5.25 L-L type dual active bridge current-fed converter with a three-level neutral
point clamped circuit.

technique has been implemented for the topology with a three-level neutral point
clamped circuit at the high voltage side, as shown in Figure 5.25.
A novel L-L type hybrid dual active bridge converter is proposed in [27], as shown
in Figure 5.26(a). The high-voltage side is a full bridge with an auxiliary half-bridge
130 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

circuit, which allows five-level high-voltage operation at most. The theoretical

operating waveforms are shown in Figure 5.26(b). The low voltage switches are
conducted complementarily with 50% fixed duty cycles regardless of the input
voltage and load variation. Therefore, the current ripples of L1 and L2 offset each other
and the input current ripple can be reduced to zero theoretically. For high-voltage
switches, the duty cycle of S7 and S8 is D and complementary to that of the auxiliary
switches. The selection of D is related to the ZVS range for all switches, which is
determined by the voltage conversion ratio and the phase shift angle φ. To achieve
zero current ripple, this converter suffers from the issue of the high number of active
switches and high current stress with voltage mismatching control.
A multiport topology suitable for hybrid battery and supercapacitor applications is
presented in [28]. The converter is symmetrical on both sides of the transformer,
shown in Figure 5.27(a). As indicated in Figure 5.27(b), the duty cycle D1 controls the

S3 S5 S7
L1 HF Tr
+
L2 iL1 A C
iLlk Llk Sa1 Sa1 Vo
B D -
iL2 1:n
+ Cd
Vin S2 S4 S6 S8
- VCc
Cc
(a)

G S1, S4 S2, S3

S6 S5 S6

Sa1 S7 Sa1

Sa2 S8 Sa2

vAB

φTs DTs
vCD

iL1
iLlk iL2

Ts
(b)

FIGURE 5.26 (a) L-L type dual active bridge current-fed converter with hybrid high
voltage side topology. (b) Key operating waveforms.
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 131

S3 S5 S7
iL1 L1 HF Tr L3 +
iL2 L2 A iLlk Llk C Vdc
L4
B -
1:n D
+
S2 S4 - VCc S6 S8
Vbattery Vsc
Cc
(a)

D1

S1 S2 S1
G

S4 S3 S4

S7 S8

S6 S5

VCc
vAB
φ
-VCc
Vdc
vCD
D2
-Vdc

iLlk

Ts
(b)

FIGURE 5.27 (a) L-L type dual active bridge current-fed converter with multiport inter­
face. (b) Key operating waveforms.
voltage across the clamp capacitor Cc, and D2 adjusts the voltage of dc-bus. Similarly,
the phase angle φ controls the power flow between the battery and dc bus. For ZVS
achievement of switches on the battery side in full load range, D1 is set less than 0.5,
while for switches on the dc-bus side, the inductors L3 and L4 should be designed
properly to achieve the whole range of ZVS operation. Compared to the topologies
without multiport, lower reactive power and circulating current are realized in this
topology and it has the potential to attain the port extension. The operating patterns of
the above research work in boost mode and buck mode are symmetrical and the
power-transferring magnitude and direction can be generally controlled by the phase
shift angle since they are piecewise related.
132 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

5.3.2 RESONANT TYPE CURRENT-FED CONVERTER

Resonant type current-fed converters make use of the transformer parasites (leakage
inductor, parasitic capacitor) as resonant circuit elements and solve the problem of
voltage/current spikes and high switching losses. Resonant converters are the ear­
liest soft-switched converters. According to different types of resonances, resonant
converters can be divided into series-resonant, parallel-resonant, and series-parallel
resonant converters. Dozens of research works have applied these resonant tech­
niques over current-fed converters. Many types of resonating current-fed converters
such as LC-type, CLC-type, LLC-type, LCC-type, CLLC-type, etc. have been re­
ported, which were distinguished based on the components of the resonant circuit.
Normally the output voltage is regulated through varying frequency control, and
switches can be soft-switched.
A new current-fed resonant topology for bidirectional wireless power transmission
power electronics system is presented in [29]. A series-parallel CLC resonant tank is
formed by connecting a designed capacitor in series with the transmitter coil. The
topology is shown in Figure 5.28. Compared to the conventional current-fed topology
with LC resonant tank, the voltage stress on the converter is much smaller. Variable
frequency modulation is used to control the power flow. Regardless of the load
current, the devices can obtain soft switching. The receiver-side voltage doubler acts
as an uncontrolled rectifier in the forward direction. To compensate for the reactive
power consumed by the receiver coil, a capacitor is connected to it in series. In the
backward direction, the voltage doubler circuit operates as voltage-fed inverter with a
fixed duty cycle 0.5. Varying frequency control brings difficulty to the optimized
control and design of the converter.
To solve the issue of varying frequency control of resonating converters, some
scholars focus on the study of fixed-frequency or limited-range frequency control.
Figure 5.29 shows a novel fixed-frequency PWM-controlled LC series-resonant tank-
based current-fed converter [30]. The primary side is an L-L type active bridge
topology, while the secondary side is an active full-bridge circuit. The resonant tank,
which is composed of a series inductor Lr, a capacitor Cr, and an HF transformer, is

id
io
Transmitter Receiver
Cs S5
Ld1 Ld2 L1 i i2 L2
1

ii Co1
Vd vs C2 Vo +
vi v1 v1 vr
Cp
-
Co2
S1 S2
jωMi2 jωMi1 S6

S3 S4

FIGURE 5.28 Current-fed converter with CLC resonant tank.

Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 133

Boost mode

S1 S3 S5 S7
L1 iLr
Va HF Tr
C Lr iLm c
a a iLa
vab La vcd VH
b V Lm d
- Cr+
L2
Cr 1:n
S2 S4 S6 S8
VL

Buck mode

(a)
DTs

G S2 S1 S2 S1

S3 S4 S3 S4

S6 S5 S6 S5

S7 S8 S7 S8

vab

vcd

iLr

Boost iLa
mode

iLm

vCr

iLr

Buck iLa
mode

iLm

vCr

(b)

FIGURE 5.29 (a) Current-fed converter with LC series-resonant tank. (b) Key operating
waveforms.

used to produce a nearly sinusoidal current at both sides of the transformer. This
results in a lower switching loss of the switching devices. The auxiliary inductor La
and magnetizing inductor Lm are employed to achieve ZVS for all the switches.
Figure 5.29(b) shows the operating waveforms in boost and buck modes. It can be seen
134 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

that the gating signals of switches in boost and buck modes are exactly the same, as
well as the inductor currents iLa and iLm. The only difference is the direction of iLr and
vCr. The most attractive feature of this proposed series-resonant converter is that the
voltage gain characteristic is very similar to the well-known PWM converters, whose
voltage gain is only determined by the duty cycle D of switches S1 and S3. D is the only
control variable and varies around 0.5 to accommodate the wide voltage applications.
The amplitude and direction of the transferred power are regulated easily and
smoothly through simple PWM control.
Figure 5.30 shows a traditional LLC resonant converter with optimal modulation
strategy analyzed in [31]. Compared to the conventional pulse-frequency modula­
tion (PFM) which is not suitable for bidirectional operation within a wide voltage
range due to the requirement of a wide frequency regulation range, this new control
method employs a narrow operation frequency range which is beneficial for the
design of magnetic components and achieves high efficiency. In boost mode, PWM
control is employed. The duty cycle D of S1 and S3 is changed to regulate the
voltage of capacitor Ca and the high voltage side switches are synchronous rectified.

S1 S3 S5 S7
iLb1 L1 Lr
HF Tr
+ Ca + + Cbus
Va iLr Vbus
vp iLm vs
- iLb2 L2 Lm
Vb - -
n:1
Cr
CL S2 S4 S6 S8

(a)

DTs φ1 DTs

G S2 S1 S2 S1 G S2 S1 S2 S1

S3 S4 S3 S4 S3 S4 S3 S4

vp S5 S6 S5 S6
φ2
S8 S7 S8 S7

vs vp

iLr
vs

iLm iLr

Boost mode Buck mode

(b)

FIGURE 5.30 (a) Current-fed converter with LLC resonant tank. (b) Key operating
waveforms.
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 135

The dc-bus voltage is controlled by PFM. While in buck mode, PWM plus PSM is
adopted. The phase shift angle φ1 between S5 and S1 and duty cycle D regulate Vb
and Va respectively. And the constant phase shift φ2 between S5 and S8 helps to
realize ZVS of all the switches. It should be noted that the converter parameters and
control strategy need to be well-designed and tradeoffs must be made to ensure ZVS
over a full operating range and better efficiency performance.
The disadvantages of the resonant type current-fed converter are that the reso­
nant tanks need extra inductors and capacitors, and the resonating voltage and
current stress of these passive components are relatively large.
In addition to the aforementioned converters with resonance in the whole cycle,
there exist other types of resonant converters of which the resonance happens only
for a part of the switching period. Instead of full resonance, partial resonance may
obtain the advantages of soft commutation, limited device voltage, and current
stress. Some of them are named as quasi-resonant converter [32,33]. The resonant
components are the leakage inductor of HF transformer and the parasitic capacitor
of the switches. The topology is shown in Figure 5.31 and its corresponding boost
mode operating waveforms are shown in Figure 5.33. The resonance frequency
should be selected several times the maximum switching frequency. The voltage
gain is mainly affected by the resonant components and switching frequency,
instead of the high-voltage side duty cycle. In buck mode operation, low-voltage
side switches are operated the same as that in boost mode. Although the proposed
converter is operated under ZVS at both power directions, the voltage stress of low-
voltage side switches is still too high.
Similar techniques called impulse commutated converters have been reported
recently [34]. Impulse commutation utilizes transformer leakage inductance and
inter-turn winding capacitance as the resonance tank, which allows the device
voltage to rise gradually and therefore solves the issue of device turn-off voltage
spike without increasing complexity and degrading the performance of converters.
The resonance happens only for a short period of time depending upon the overlap
time and produces a resonance impulse. ZCS turn-off operation of low voltage
switches and reduced peak current compared to full resonant converters are
achieved and the voltage gain is immune to load variation. However, frequency
modulation is still required to regulate the load voltage. The impulse commutation

Iin
iS3 Io
D3 D5
L1 L2 S5
S3 · · +
C3 C5
Lr HF Tr
Vin Cin RL
Co Vo
iLr

iS1 -
D2 1:n D6
D1 D4
S1 C1 S2 C2 S4 S6
C4 C6

FIGURE 5.31 Topology proposed in [ 32].

136 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Iin Io
Lb D3 D5
S3 S5
C3 C5
iLlk1 HF Tr +
Vin Llk1 - RL
C
iLlk2 + p Co Vo
A Llk2 1:1:n
B
-
D1 D2 D4 D6
S1 C 1 S2 S4
C2 C4 S6 C6

FIGURE 5.32 Topology proposed in [ 34].

GS1 GS1

GS2 GS2
Iin
G S4, S5 S3, S6 S4, S5 Iin/2
iLlk1
resonance (iS1) resonance
iLr
Iin
iLlk2
(iS2)
vS1
io
iS1
vAB 2Vo/n
vS3 -2Vo/n

iS3 vCp Vo
-Vo

Quasi-resonance Impulse commutation

FIGURE 5.33 Waveforms of quasi-resonant converter [ 32] and impulse commutated

converter [ 34].

technique can be applied to three basic double-ended topologies push-pull, L-L type
half-bridge and L-L type full-bridge. Figure 5.32 shows an impulse commutated
push-pull topology (the operating waveforms are shown in Figure 5.33). Reduced
peak and circulating currents compared to resonant converters with identical LC
tank are achieved for impulse commutated current-fed converter.

5.3.3 NATURALLY CLAMPED CURRENT-FED CONVERTER

For current-fed bidirectional converter, the voltage-fed (high voltage) side switches
provide the flexibility to preset the current flowing through leakage inductance to
the boost inductor current before the commutation of current-fed side switches thus
reducing or eliminating the need of snubber circuits. This is referred as active
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 137

commutation technique or natural clamping technique [35,36]. For the soft-

commutation method proposed by [35], the energy consumption of the passive
snubber can be reduced but can’t be completely eliminated. In [36], the commu­
tation time has to be precisely controlled which limits the practical applications.
Akshay K. Rathore et al. have contributed a lot to the development of a new
family of current-fed converters: active commutated or naturally clamped current-
fed converters [21,37–39]. The main principle of the secondary-modulation-based
naturally clamping technique is to utilize the reflected output voltage across the
primary winding of the HF transformer. The reflected output voltage diverts the
input boost inductor current from one switch (or switch pair) to the other switch (or
switch pair) through the HF transformer. A minor circulating current allows body
diode conduction to ensure ZCS and natural turn-off. Low voltage side switches are
naturally voltage clamped by reflected output voltage and achieve ZCS turn-off and
nearly ZVS turn-on, while the high voltage side switches realize ZVS turn-on. Soft
switching and voltage clamping are inherent and maintained independent of the
load and voltage variations. Owing to the low clamped voltage of low-voltage side
devices, low-voltage-rating devices with low on-state resistance can be used,
resulting in low conduction losses and higher efficiency.
Two types of secondary-modulation have been implemented over current-fed L-L
type half bridge topology and full bridge topology as shown in Figure 5.34 [37] and
Figure 5.35 [38]. The key operating waveforms of these two secondary-modulation
techniques have been displayed in Figure 5.36(a) and (b). Low voltage side switches
are controlled by identical gating signals (greater than 0.5) phase-shifted by 180° with
an overlap. Both of them can achieve natural voltage clamping while for [37] the
current flowing through HF transformer is discontinuous unlike [38]. The continuity
of leakage inductance current is determined by the gating signal of high-voltage side
switches. The turn-off moment of high-voltage switches is synchronous with the turn-
off of corresponding low-voltage switches. While for [37], the duty cycle is neces­
sarily less than φ/2 at full load and for [38], the duty cycle should be large enough
even up to 0.5. Thus the control method proposed in [37] suffers from oscillation due
to the resonance between the leakage inductance of HF transformer and device
capacitances when the current in the transformer reaches zero.

I
in

D5 Io
D3
L1 L2 S5
S3 +
Llk HF Tr RL
V Cin A C
in Vo
Co
iLlk
B D -
1:n
D1 D2 D4 D6
S1 S2 S4 S6

FIGURE 5.34 Naturally clamped current-fed L-L type half bridge topology.
138 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

I
in

L D1 D3 Io
D5 D6
S1 S3 S5 S7
HF Tr +
iLlk RL
V Cin
in A C Co Vo
+ Llk -
B D -
1:n
D2 D4 D7 D8
S2 S4 S6 S8

FIGURE 5.35 Naturally clamped current-fed full bridge topology.

For both of these two techniques [37,38], at light loads conditions, the peak
current through the leakage inductance of HF transformer and the low voltage side
switches is much higher than the input current, i.e., the excess current or circulating
current is relatively larger, compared to that at rated load. The value of this peak
current is constant and fixed for a given operating condition, irrespective of any
power level or load change. Such peculiarity leads to a higher current available for
soft-switching than that required, a high circulating current, and high conduction
and reverse recovery losses of primary switches’ body diode at light loads. As a
result, the performance of the converter is reduced at light loads.
The modulation methods implemented in [21,37,38] can be seen as a single
phase-shift (SPS) modulation as discussed in [39]. The control variable φ is the
phase shift between the gating signals of the low-voltage switches and the corre­
sponding high-voltage switches as shown in Figure 5.36(b) and (c). The deficiency
of the single variable control is the unregulated peak current especially at light load
conditions as discussed above. [39] proposes dual phase shift (DPS) modulation
implemented over the same topology in Figure 5.35. In addition to φ, the phase
difference αs between the diagonal switches on the high-voltage side is also con­
trolled as shown in Figure 5.36(c). With this modified modulation strategy, the
value of the aforementioned peak current is greatly reduced and thus the per­
formance of the converter is improved at light load conditions. For DPS modula­
tion, the voltage across the secondary winding of the transformer is three level
which is beneficial to reduce the circulating current and the power transfer is
controlled by φ and αs simultaneously.
In summary, the merits of naturally clamping are no need for auxiliary circuits,
ZVZCS for low voltage side devices and ZVS for high voltage devices for wide
operating range, inherent natural voltage clamping, and higher efficiency and power
density of the converter.

5.4 COMPARISON AND EVALUATION

5.4.1 COMPARISON WITH VOLTAGE-FED CONVERTERS
The voltage-fed converters have low switch voltage ratings enabling the use of
switches with low on-state resistance. This can significantly reduce the conduction
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 139

loss of primary side switches. However, voltage-fed converters suffer from several
limitations, i.e., high pulsating current at the input, limited soft-switching range,
rectifier diode ringing, duty cycle loss (inductive output filter), high circulating
current through devices and magnetics, and relatively low efficiency for high
voltage amplification and high input current specifications. Voltage-fed topologies
employ considerably large electrolytic capacitor to suppress the large input current
ripple resulting in large size, high cost, and shortened lifetime. Compared to con­
ventional voltage-fed isolated DC/DC converters, current-fed converters are meri­
torious owing to lower input current ripples, inherent short circuit protection, lower
high-frequency (HF) transformer turns ratio, high step-up ratio, no duty cycle loss,
and easier current controllability.

5.4.2 COMPREHENSIVE COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF CURRENT-FED

BIDIRECTIONAL DC/DC CONVERTER
For the performance evaluation of a power electronic converter, five significant
aspects of converters are considered: cost, volume, weight, losses, and power
density. The cost models and loss models are presented in the references [40]. The
component cost models for MOSFET, transformer, inductor, capacitor, heatsink,
and gate driver ICs of the converters are included. Different loss models, including
switching and conduction losses of MOSFET, inductor losses, and transformer
losses, are presented as well.
A quantitative and comprehensive performance comparison is conducted for
the seven typical converters (single-phase active clamped circuit in Figure 5.13
[11], dual half-bridge circuit in Figure 5.17 [18], L-L type dual active bridge
circuit in Figure 5.25 [26], resonant type circuit in Figure 5.30 [31], L-L
type naturally clamped circuit in Figure 5.34 [37], naturally clamped full-bridge
circuit in Figure 5.35 [39], and three-phase active clamped circuit in [41]),
which are selected from each type of all reviewed current-fed topologies. In order
to have a fair comparison of these topologies, a virtual prototype of each
topology has been designed for the same specification: 20–40 V low voltage
input, 400 V high voltage output, 2 kW power rating, 100 kHz switching fre­
quency, 10 A input current ripple, and 4V output voltage ripple. To verify the
design parameters of each virtual prototype and assure that they coincide closely
with the original papers, simulations have been performed on PSIM 9.1 as
well [40].
Current-fed converter would be a smart choice for applications with low voltage
high current. Typical applications include auxiliary DC/DC converter to interface
low voltage energy storage (12/24/48 V) and high voltage dc bus in the range of
200–900 V for transportation electrification, renewable energy generation such as
solar photovoltaic and fuel cells with low voltage energy storage, and hybrid dc
microgrid with multiple voltage level, etc. Different application scenario has dif­
ferent electrical specifications and performance requirements in terms of cost,
efficiency, weight, volume, and reliability, which results in different selections of
reviewed current-fed converter.
140 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

As illustrated by Figure 5.34, naturally clamped and L-L type dual active bridge
current-fed converters provide low-cost solutions. However, if efficiency and lifetime
can be compromised, dual half-bridge current-fed converter has the potential of
lowest cost. For the selected dual half-bridge current-fed converter, capacitor,
inductor, and transformer contribute to a large proportion of the total cost. If elec­
trolytic capacitor is allowed to be employed to mitigate input current ripple and
achieve voltage clamping, the cost of capacitor and inductor can be reduced en­
ormously. Compared with dual half-bridge current-fed converter in Figure 5.17, the
cost of devices and transformer can be much reduced. With the considerable reduction
of capacitors, inductors, transformers, and devices, the dual half-bridge current-fed
converter is capable to achieve the lowest cost. Dual half-bridge current-fed converter
is suitable for applications like small urban city driving or residential driving (driving
range of 100 km) where cost is valued more than efficiency and lifetime.
The naturally clamped current-fed converter represents the optimal topologies
amongst the selected options and for the given system specifications and design
constraints as shown in Figures 5.37, 5.38, 5.39, 5.40, 5.41. They can achieve high
efficiency and high power density while saving a large part of costs without the
need of external snubbers. Since voltage clamping is achieved completely through
software control, its reliability under different operating scenarios like extreme
load, wide transient, and failure conditions needs to be researched and evaluated
further. Another issue is that control schemes are different for bidirectional power
transfer, and the seamlessly transfer between boost mode and buck mode has not yet
been reported. Until these issues are solved, it is recommended to apply current-fed
converter to applications like hybrid dc microgrid, where cost and efficiency are
weighted more than reliability.
As the energy demand from low voltage dc source on EVs/More Electric
Aircraft (MEA)/ All Electric Aircraft (AEA) etc. keeps increasing, the need for
bidirectional DC/DC converters capable of handling large currents with high

GS1 GS1, s4 GS1, s4

GS2 φ GS2, s3 GS2, s3
φ
GS3, S6 GS6, s7 GS5
φ αs
GS4, S5 GS5, s8 GS8
Vo/n Vo/n Vo/n
vAB vAB vAB
-Vo/n -Vo/n -Vo/n
Vo Vo Vo
vCD vCD vCD
-Vo -Vo -Vo
Iin/2 Iin Iin
ILlk ILlk ILlk
-Iin/2 -Iin -Iin
0 0.5 0 0.5 0 0.5
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 5.36 Key operating waveforms of three types of secondary-modulation-based

naturally clamping techniques [ 37– 39].
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 141

120
2%
2%
100 14%
23% 3% Heatsink
5%
80 Capacitor
Costs ($)

4% 24%
8%
27% 5% 46% Inductor
60 24% 7% 4% 3%
5% 13%
5% Transformer
10% 31% 26% 11%
40 18% 35%
11% 10% 13% Gate driver ICs
6% 11%
10% 6% 11% 12%
7% MOSFET
20 43% 44%
24% 36% 22% 41% 38%
0
Single-Phase Dual L-L Type Resonant Naturally L-L Type Three-Phase
Active Half-Bridge Dual Type Clamped Naturally Active
Clamped Active Bridge Full-Bridge Clamped Clamped

FIGURE 5.37 Costs distribution and comparison of different types of current-fed converter.

100
7%
4%
80 Inductor
24% Losses
13%
Losses (W)

12% 5% Transformer
60 54% Losses
8% 43% 10% 10%
6% Conduction
20% Losses
7% 30%
40 46% 64% 7%
Switching
72% Losses
34%
61%
20 35% 36%
34%
18% 16%
12% 12%
0
Single-Phase Dual L-L Type Resonant Naturally L-L Type Three-Phase
Active Half-Bridge Dual Type Clamped Naturally Active
Clamped Active Bridge Full-Bridge Clamped Clamped

FIGURE 5.38 Losses distribution and comparison of different types of current-fed

converter.

reliability, high efficiency, high power density, and low cost is growing. Compared
with naturally clamped current-fed converter, control of bidirectional power
transferring of L-L type dual active bridge is symmetrical and easy to be im­
plemented. L-L type dual active bridge can achieve high efficiency over a wide
range of input voltage/output voltage/loads variations, and hardware voltage
clamping is more reliable. This is quite critical for a lot of applications. For ex­
ample, the voltage across the energy storages varies under different operating
conditions, and in many cases, the high voltage dc bus is not fixed. In electrical
vehicles, high voltage dc bus varies in a wide range to achieve the highest “fuel
economy.” For renewable energy generation systems, if the high-voltage bus is
directly connected to solar photovoltaic and fuel cells, its output voltage varies.
Therefore, L-L type dual active bridge is quite advantageous for these applications.
With the exception of naturally clamped topology, L-L type dual active bridge
Current-fed converter provides optimized overall performances as shown in
Figure 5.41, which makes it the best candidate for the transportation electrification
application and renewable energy generation system.
142 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

L-L type dual active bridge is quite flexible and can be easily modified into
multiport structure as well. This feature makes it suitable for the applications like
hybrid energy storage system or the hybrid renewable energy generation system.
For the resonant type current-fed converter, owing to circulating current, peak
(above 2x) and RMS current through the devices and components are high. This
makes the ratings of the components high and their selection difficult for low
voltage high current applications. In addition, its power density is limited by the
passive elements of the resonating bank, especially for low voltage high current
condition. This can be alleviated for high-voltage applications. Therefore, the res­
onant type current-fed converter can be applied to interface high-voltage power
battery in transportation electrification application. Or like wireless charging
application, the heavy and bulky devices are placed off-the-board.
For low voltage high current application, voltage stress of primary switches is
quite critical to achieve high efficiency. As given by the table, voltage stress of half-
bridge derived topology doubles the full-bridge derived topology and push-pull

600

500
28% Heatsink
Volume (cm3)

40%
400 Capacitor
66% 18%
Inductor
300 61% 53%
19%
57% Transformer
49%
200
48% 7%
7% 29% 6% 7% 8%
100 26%
20% 25% 26% 33%
7% 12% 8% 6% 10% 10% 14%
0
Single-Phase Dual L-L Type Resonant Naturally L-L Type Three-Phase
Active Half-Bridge Dual Type Clamped Naturally Active
Clamped Active Bridge Full-Bridge Clamped Clamped

FIGURE 5.39 Volume distribution and comparison of different types of current-fed

converters.

2.5

2.0 18%
Heatsink
28% 5%
Weight (kg)

Capacitor
1.5 6%
50%
43% 36% Inductor
40% 31%
1.0 3% 2% 67% 3% 2%
Transformer
47% 3%
40%
0.5 35% 42% 42% 51%

19% 22%
12% 13% 10% 15% 15%
0
Single-Phase Dual L-L Type Resonant Naturally L-L Type Three-Phase
Active Half-Bridge Dual Type Clamped Naturally Active
Clamped Active Bridge Full-Bridge Clamped Clamped

FIGURE 5.40 Weight distribution and comparison of different types of current-fed

converters.
Advance Current-Fed DC/DC Converters 143

Single-Phase Active Clamped

Three-Phase Active Clamped Resonant Type
Costs ($) Costs ($)
Dual Half-Bridge Naturally Clamped Full-Bridge
120 120
L-L Type Dual Active Bridge L-L Type Naturally Clamped
90 90

Power density 60 Power density 60

100 Losses (W) 100 Losses (W)
(W/cm3) 30 75 (W/cm3) 30 75
6 50 6 50
4.5 25 4.5 25
3 3
1.5 1.5
150 150
0.6 0.6
300 300
1.2 1.2
450 450
1.8 1.8
600 600
2.4 2.4
Weight (kg) Volume (cm3) Weight (kg) Volume (cm3)

FIGURE 5.41 Comparison of different types of current-fed converters regarding costs,

losses, volume, weight, and power density.

topology. Thus, for the low voltage application less than 30 V (like 12/24 V
storage), half-bridge derived topology is competitive. Once the voltage specification
goes higher than 30 V, the choice between half-bridge-derived topology and full-
bridge-derived topology needs to be evaluated comprehensively. Generally, L-L
type dual active bridge is one special type of active clamped topology. Other types
of active clamped current-fed converter have the potential to be applied to trans­
portation electrification application and renewable energy generation system as well
with different design specifications.
As discussed above, three-phase topology is promising for high-power appli­
cations with the advantages of reduced current rating in active components, and
smaller size of reactive components compared with the corresponding single-phase
converter. The three-phase converter is capable of working with partial power even
if one of the phases fails, thus providing higher reliability. Three-phase current-fed
converter plays an important role in the high power application that values more
about reliability, efficiency, and power density more than cost. Three-phase con­
verters can be applied to transportation electrification applications with the need for
heavy power and high reliability.
In practical design, it depends on the engineering design and markets constraints
whether particular topologies are favorable for the specific design specifications.

5.4.3 FUTURE TREND

In view of the discussion and evaluation of state-of-the-art current-fed converters in
previous sections, many researchers have focused on the topology, modulation
strategy, soft-switching solution, and hardware design optimization. In the future,
the improvement of the converter efficiency and power density while lowering the
costs and weight will be the trend. In addition, reliability and modularity are the
other two significant indicators, which are concerned with the development of smart
grid and energy internet. Furthermore, as the mediation module, converter should
achieve wide input voltage variation and output voltage variation range on the
premise of high efficiency. New topologies and corresponding modulation and soft-
switching techniques are expected to be further researched for wide input voltage
and wide output voltage applications. The utilization of SiC/GaN power devices
144 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

will allow the design of higher switching frequency and lower switching loss of
converters, thus contributing to higher power density. But it is worth noting that
presently SiC/GaN-based power semiconductors can’t compete with Si devices in
terms of the current rating, while the conduction loss plays a dominant role in low
voltage high current applications instead of the switching loss. Therefore, a tradeoff
between device selection and usage should be made in practice.

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 6 Wireless Inductive
Power Transfer
Suvendu Samanta and Akshay Kumar Rathore

CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 148
6.2 Types of WPT Technologies .....................................................................149
6.2.1 Inductive WPT .............................................................................149
6.2.2 Capacitive Power Transfer...........................................................149
6.2.3 Resonant Inductive Power Transfer.............................................150
6.2.4 Resonant Antennae Power Transfer ............................................ 151
6.3 Coupled Inductor Model of IPT ................................................................ 151
6.4 IPT Compensation Topologies................................................................... 153
6.4.1 Basic Compensation Topologies.................................................. 153
6.4.2 Combinations of Basic Topologies..............................................154
6.5 IPT Power Converter Topologies .............................................................. 155
6.5.1 VSI Topologies............................................................................. 156
6.5.2 Direct AC-AC Converter Topologies.......................................... 156
6.5.3 Current Source Inverter Topologies ............................................ 157
6.6 IPT Coils..................................................................................................... 158
6.6.1 Bipolar IPT Coils ......................................................................... 160
6.7 Design of Compensation Capacitances ..................................................... 160
6.7.1 S/S Compensation ........................................................................ 160
6.7.2 P/S Compensation ........................................................................ 161
6.7.3 Series-Parallel ...............................................................................162
6.7.4 LCL Compensation ...................................................................... 162
6.7.5 Load Independent Tank Design for P/S and P-S/S .................... 165
[Link] PS/S IPT Circuit ..........................................................166
[Link] P/S IPT Circuit ............................................................ 168
6.8 Design of IPT Circuit Parameters ............................................................. 168
6.8.1 SS IPT Circuit Design ................................................................. 170
6.8.2 PS IPT Circuit Design ................................................................. 170
6.9 IPT Circuit Modeling and Control ............................................................ 171
6.9.1 S/S IPT Topology......................................................................... 172
[Link] Inverter Transfer Function .......................................... 172
[Link] Modeling of H-Bridge Rectifier.................................. 173
6.10 Modeling and Control of PS/P and P/S .................................................... 174
6.10.1 Steady-State Operation with Unipolar PWM.............................. 174
6.10.2 Two-Loop Control for PS/S and P/S IPT Topologies................177

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-6 147

148 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

6.10.3 (LC) Transmitter and (LC) Receiver Tank.................................. 177

[Link] Inner Input Current Loop ............................................ 177
[Link] Outer Current Loop ..................................................... 180
6.11 Single-Stage IPT......................................................................................... 181
6.11.1 Challenges with VSI-Derived Single Stage IPT to
Achieve Unity P.F........................................................................ 181
6.11.2 IPT for Unity P.F. Operation.......................................................181
[Link] Comparisons of Single-Stage IPT Topologies ........... 182
6.11.3 Steady-State Operation................................................................. 182
6.11.4 Voltage and Current Ratings .......................................................188
6.11.5 Soft Switching ..............................................................................188
6.11.6 Two Loop Control........................................................................ 189
6.11.7 Experimental Results....................................................................190
[Link] Experimental Set-Up ................................................... 190
[Link] Balancing Uneven Power Loss of Inverter Devices .. 191
[Link] Gate Pulse Sequence ................................................... 192
[Link] Results with Resistive Load........................................ 192
[Link] Results with Stiff Voltage Load ................................. 195
6.12 Practice Problems .......................................................................................197
References.............................................................................................................. 199

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Research on wireless power transfer (WPT) technology has gained significant popu-
larity in recent years due to the availability of high-power and high-switching fre-
quency semiconductor devices. The advantages of this technology are as follows [1,2]:

1. very convenient, safe, and reliable due to the elimination of direct elec-
trical contact,
2. the power transfer is unaffected in hostile environments such as snow,
water, dirt, wind, and chemicals, and
3. it provides galvanic isolation.

Besides these general advantages, the WPT technology has merits specific to par-
ticular applications. In biomedical implants, e.g., in heart pump battery recharging,
WPT technology is the most practical and convenient [2,3]. Similarly, WPT has
found wide acceptance for recharging batteries of electronic gadgets, lighting,
chemical plants, underwater vehicles, etc., due to its flexible usage and the ability to
prevent damage to the charging port.
Implementation of wireless charging in EV applications provides remarkable
outcomes. Along with the merits mentioned above, it can reduce the battery storage
requirement to 20% through opportunistic charging techniques [1,4]. For EVs,
opportunistic charging is possible by placing wireless chargers in parking areas,
e.g., homes, offices, services, shopping complexes, and other general parking areas.
Also, these chargers can be installed in the traffic signal areas for quick recharging.
WPT chargers can be installed in bus terminals, bus stops, and traffic signals for
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 149

recharging electric buses. These types of chargers are called static WPT chargers.
Intense research is being carried out on dynamic WPT technology, where the EV
battery can recharge while the vehicle is in motion [5,6]. However, there are several
challenges at the technical and infrastructural or initial investment levels.

6.2 TYPES OF WPT TECHNOLOGIES

This section presents a brief overview and qualitative comparison of several possible
WPT technologies. Based on this study, the most effective technology is selected for
medium power (fraction of kW to several kW) and mid-range airgap (about
100–350 mm) applications, which are especially suitable for EV battery charging.

6.2.1 INDUCTIVE WPT

Inductive charging systems generally consist of a primary side power converter, an
inductive interface transformer, and a secondary converter [7]. The interface
transformer is separable along the magnetic circuit so that one of the windings can
be physically removed. This eliminates the need for ohmic, i.e., metal-to-metal
contact of electric wires. In such a transformer, the shape and location of the
magnetic core material and windings are crucial design choices. This technology is
already implemented in EV charging systems such as the GM EV1 [4], as shown in
Figure 6.1. The charging paddle (the primary coil) of the inductively coupled
charger is sealed in epoxy as it is done in the secondary. The paddle inserted into the
center of the secondary coil permitted charging of the EV1 without any contacts or
connectors at either 6.6 kW or 50 kW. As depicted in Figure 6.1, this system is
connector-less but not wireless.

6.2.2 CAPACITIVE POWER TRANSFER

Wireless capacitive power transfer (CPT) technology is also an alternate WPT
solution [8]. Figure 6.2 shows a typical CPT system fed from a half-bridge voltage

FIGURE 6.1 Inductive charger paddle (left) and electric vehicle charging through the
paddle (right) [ 4].
150 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.2 A typical CPT system with LCL compensation on the primary side and LC
compensation on the secondary [ 8].

source inverter, and the primary and secondary side compensation networks are
LCL and LC types, respectively. As shown in Figure 6.2, the CPT interface is
constructed around a pair of coupling capacitors. The operating principle is the
same as usual parallel capacitors, where the dielectric medium is only air. CPT may
compete with inductive coupling at a higher operating frequency. The former can
offer equally good galvanic isolation and does not require a costly, high-frequency-
rated magnetic core. This technology finds suitable applications in low power levels
such as biomedical implants or charging of space-confined systems such as robots
or mobile devices [1,8,9], etc. Its design flexibility and low cost make it ideal for
power delivery in reconfigurable and moving systems, such as robot arms, latches,
and in-track-moving systems [8]. However, owing to lower power density, CPT
technology is not preferred for higher power applications such as EV charging [4].

6.2.3 RESONANT INDUCTIVE POWER TRANSFER

In inductive coupling technology, if a significant air gap is introduced, the power
transfer between the primary and secondary coil becomes ineffective. This fact is
illustrated using a simple two-winding coupled inductor model shown in Figure 6.3.
The mutual inductance, M reduces very fast with an increase in the air gap between
the coils. Therefore, to have a significant amount of induced voltage (=ωMi1) in the
secondary side, the operating frequency (ω) and primary coil current (i1) must be
high. Owing to the wide availability of high voltage, high current, and high
switching frequency semiconductor devices, ω can range from kHz to hundreds of
kHz. However, the high leakage impedance of the primary coil introduces another

L1 L2
i1 i2

v1 -jωMi2 jωMi1 v2

FIGURE 6.3 Two winding coupled inductor model.

Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 151

difficulty in driving a significant amount of current (i1) through the coil. A reactive
power compensation circuit can be placed on the primary side to drive a higher coil
current. Therefore, the primary side converter does not need to feed high voltage to
the coil. Although with these arrangements, it is possible to induce a significant
amount of voltage at the secondary coil, most of it is dropped across the high
secondary leakage impedance. Therefore, another reactive power compensation is
also required on the secondary side to transfer power effectively. Usually, these
compensation elements on both sides resonate with the coil inductances; therefore,
this technology is called resonant inductive power transfer (RIPT). This technology
was pioneered and patented by Nikola Tesla [10]. This technology is most suitable
for transferring power with an airgap from a few mm to hundreds of mm, where the
power level varies from a fraction of a watt to hundreds of kW. Owing to high
power density, high efficiency, wide power range, and acceptable airgap length,
RIPT technology is the most demanding among all other WPT technologies. It finds
applications in EV charging, electronic gadgets, implants, chemical factory, un-
derwater vehicles, lighting, etc. [1–3]. In the literature, this technology is often
called inductive power transfer (IPT), and throughout this chapter, it is named IPT.

6.2.4 RESONANT ANTENNAE POWER TRANSFER

Resonant Antennae Power Transfer (RAPT) was also pioneered and patented by
Nikola Tesla and has recently been studied by MIT [10] and Intel. The fundamental
operating principle of this technology is similar to IPT. RAPT uses two or more
resonant antennae tuned to the same frequency. The resonant capacitances and
inductances are integrated into the antennae. These systems often have large WPT
coils (antennae), often helical with controlled separation between the turns to obtain
a distributed and integrated, resonant capacitance. The airgap length can be much
longer than the IPT system due to the use of high-quality factor coils and the high
frequency of operation. Acceptably, efficient power transfer is possible at distances
up to approximately 10 meters, and the operating frequency is in the MHz range
[11]. However, for several kW power transfers with airgap suitable for EV appli-
cations, this RAPT technology is essentially the same as IPT technology.

6.3 COUPLED INDUCTOR MODEL OF IPT

Considering the advantages of IPT technology, a detailed theory is included. The
basic operating principle is like a two-winding transformer (or a coupled inductor),
where the magnetizing inductance (or coil coupling factor) is much lower than a
conventional iron core transformer (or inductor) [4]. From Figure 6.3 coupled
inductor model, the voltage across primary and secondary terminals is given as

di1 di
v1 = L1 +M 2 (6.1)
dt dt
152 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

di2 di
v2 = L 2 +M 1 (6.2)
dt dt

where M = k L1 L 2 ; k is the coefficient of coupling between TC (primary) and RC

(secondary); L1 and L2 are self-inductances of primary and secondary coils,
respectively. For a given primary coil current, I1, the open-circuit induced voltage,
and short circuit current through L2 are given as

Voc M
Voc = MI1, Isc = = I1 . (6.3)
L1 L2

When the system is tuned at resonance frequency with compensation capacitors, the
available power is derived as [4]

2
Voc M2 2 M2
P= = I1 Q = L1 I1 I2 Q (6.4)
Re L2 L1 L 2

where Q = ωL2/Re and Re is the load resistance.

Several IPT topologies are reported in the literature based on compensation
topologies, power converter topologies, IPT coils, etc. Generally, all these IPT
systems follow a similar power conversion stage, as shown in Figure 6.4.
Generally, the input is line frequency ac, which is rectified by an active rectifier to
draw power at the unity power factor (UPF). Next, the dc-ac inverter injects high-
frequency ac into the primary compensation network. The power is extracted
effectively using another compensation network on the secondary side. Finally,
this ac power is rectified either by active or passive rectifiers. A detailed study of
existing IPT systems is included, and descriptions are reported based on different
classifications.

120/230V Transmitter Receiver Battery

60/50Hz Coil Coil Pack

AC-DC DC-AC Primary Secondary Rectifier/

Active Inverter Compensation Compensation Power
Rectifier Regulator

Off-Board On-Board

FIGURE 6.4 A typical electric vehicle wireless charging system.

Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 153

6.4 IPT COMPENSATION TOPOLOGIES

The existing IPT topologies can be broadly classified based on basic series and
parallel compensations or combinations of these basic compensations.

6.4.1 BASIC COMPENSATION TOPOLOGIES

With an airgap ranging from 150 mm to 300 mm for EV battery charging appli-
cations, the TC to RC coupling is generally very low (typically below 0.3), and
compensation on the TC and RC side is mandatory. By adding one capacitor to each
side of the coils, four basic types of compensation networks are formed, as shown in
Figure 6.5. Several research papers provide a detailed study of these networks,
especially for the series-series (S/S) and series-parallel (S/P). From Figure 6.5, the
selection of inverter type is dependent on the TC tank network. When the TC side
compensation is series type, the inverter is VSI, whereas the inverter is CSI when
TC side compensation is parallel type.
The S/S topology is the simplest design, where compensation is load and cou-
pling independent. However, the series RC tank network provides almost zero
reflected impedance to the TC coil during no load or light load. Therefore, the VSI
output current surges when RC is uncoupled from TC, and the system becomes
unstable [12]. This issue is generally taken care of with a fast closed-loop control.
The parallel LC tank at the RC side in S/P compensation always reflects some
impedance to the TC coil; hence, the current surge does not arise. However, surge
current will also appear at VSI output for this case if the RC coil is moved out. As
per the study, the S/S topology provides higher efficiency than the S/P topology in a
wide range of load resistance [13–15]. Moreover, a parallel-compensated system
has a large reactive current in the receiver coil, and the reactive power is reflected
on the primary side [16]. Considering all these issues, most IPT topologies use S/S
compensation for EV charging applications.

FIGURE 6.5 Basic compensation topologies for IPT circuit (a) Series-Series (S/S);
(b) Series- Parallel (S/P); (c) Parallel- Series (P/S); (d) Parallel- Parallel (P/P).
154 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

The P/S and P/P compensation networks are realized with the current source inverter
(CSI). Generally, a dc link inductor is required to function CSI [2,17–20]. Because the
previous stage PFC output is generally stiff voltage; hence, this dc link inductor is an
extra bulky component. Research on P/S and P/P compensation networks was quite
limited to only lower power. However, in applications where the stiff current is readily
available, P/S and P/P topologies are comparatively more suitable than the S/S and S/P
topologies. The major advantages of these topologies are as follows:

1. High magnitude TC current circulates through the parallel capacitor

without flowing through the devices [2]. In parallel compensation, the
effective magnetizing impedance becomes very high, and therefore, the
current stress on inverter devices is lower;
2. The coil current corresponding to a parallel tank is very close to sinusoidal
because higher-order harmonic currents predominantly flow through the
lower impedance offered by the capacitor;
3. Unlike S/S and S/P compensations, in P/S and P/P compensation, the
inverter output never gets shorted during coil uncoupled conditions;
4. The CSI dc link inductor provides natural short-circuit protection.

6.4.2 COMBINATIONS OF BASIC TOPOLOGIES

Considering the merits and demerits of the basic compensation techniques, several
complex combinations of these four topologies are reported to improve performance.
Figure 6.6 shows the most frequently reported compensation networks for their added
advantages. Figure 6.6 shows three general compensation network diagrams. Any of
them could be selected to form either TC or RC compensation networks. Often, one
side tank network is selected from one of these three topologies, and the other side is
selected as a basic series or parallel compensation network. It is clear from here that

FIGURE 6.6 Combination of basic compensation topologies. (a) LCL tank; (b) LCLC; (c)
Series; (d) parallel (SP) tank.
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 155

several IPT topologies are possible based on the combinations of these compensation
networks. In fact, as per the existing research on IPT topologies is concerned, almost
all these possible networks are already studied or are being studied.
Figure 6.6a LCL tank network is very common for its simple yet comparatively
improved performances over simple parallel or series tank [12,21–25]. It includes
the advantages of parallel LC tank networks while eliminating the limitations of the
series tank. Unlike parallel tanks, this topology is fed from VSI; hence, the bulky dc
link inductor is eliminated. However, a lightweight inductor, Lf, in the high-
frequency tank network is required. Unlike the dc inductor used in CSI-fed parallel
tank, Lf carries AC and is highly sensitive to effective power transfer; therefore, Lf
requires high precision, which incurs additional cost. When the LCL tank is used on
the TC side, it does not create instability issues like the series tank during no-load
conditions [12]. This tank is well used for bi-directional IPT applications [21,22].
Y. Yao et al. [23] report that the VSI output current with T type compensation
topology contains a significant amount of lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th, and 7th,
etc.), and they have 90° phase differences from their respective harmonic voltages
for e.g., 3rd harmonic current and voltage has 90° phase difference. Therefore,
although the fundamental component voltage and current are in the same phase,
significant harmonic content in the current deviates significantly from the UPF
operation of the inverter. Although this fact is very well visible in several reported
works, [23] reports the details of impedance analysis to justify this fact. Therefore,
UPF operation with an LCL tank is not as significant as the parallel compensated
primary topology, where the inverter output voltage is very close to sinusoidal.
From [2,17,18], it is evident that the parallel tanks are mostly attempted to operate
at the ZPA point.
In LCL topology, adding one extra capacitor in series with the coil makes the
LCCL tank, as shown in Figure 6.6b [26,27]. Even though the analysis of this
topology is like an LCL tank, this is an improved version. This extra capacitor
directly reduces the coil leakage impedance on the transmitter side. This improves
power transfer capability [28]. Ts tank is used to achieve a unity power factor
pickup [16].
Figure 6.6c compensation network is suitable on the TC side when the inverter is
a current-fed type. This compensation network is termed a series-parallel–series
(SPS) topology in [29]. However, this converter is tested with a voltage source
inverter where an extra inductor is added in series with the series capacitor, Cp to
make it compatible with VSI. This compensation on the TC side and series LC
compensation on the RC side have the capacity to deliver rated power with wider
coil misalignments [29].

6.5 IPT POWER CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES

The input power of the IPT inverter is usually supplied from a dc source, such as PV
modules or a rectified ac grid, as shown in Figure 6.4. This converter aims to feed
high-frequency ac to the primary resonant tank and maintain load power to the
desired level. Several IPT power converter topologies are reported in the literature,
and these are classified as follows.
156 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.7 (a) Full-bridge, (b) half-bridge, and (c) semi-bridgeless VSI topologies for
IPT systems.

6.5.1 VSI TOPOLOGIES

The voltage-fed H-bridge and half-bridge power converters are shown in
Figure 6.7a and b [30], respectively. The half-bridge converter employs two
capacitors in the second leg to provide the neutral point of input dc voltage.
Compared with an H-bridge converter, a half-bridge converter is simpler to control
and reduces the number of switching devices, which reduces switching losses.
However, the output voltage of the neutral point between two capacitors is normally
unbalanced during the switching process of two switches. Another limitation of the
half-bridge topology is that the converter can only generate ac output with the
amplitude of ±vd/2, which limits its application only in lower power. Therefore, in
practice, H-bridge converters are preferable in most applications.
In IPT systems VSI is compatible with series, LCL, or LCCL compensation
networks. Another power converter can also be used to control the output power on
the secondary side. If another H-bridge converter is employed on the secondary
side, it becomes a bidirectional IPT system. The power level, power flow direction,
and input power factor can be controlled by adjusting the phase shift angle between
two converters [21,22]. Figure 6.7c shows a semi-bridgeless VSI, which is reported
to have very high efficiency (94.4% at1 kW) with phase shift control [31].

6.5.2 DIRECT AC-AC CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES

To improve overall efficiency and reduce the component count of the complete
converter system, direct ac-ac converter is reported to generate switching frequency
ac directly from line-frequency ac [26–37]. Therefore, compared with a two-stage
power conversion, it is single-stage power conversion, as shown in Figure 6.8. Also,
a short-lived bulky dc-link capacitor is removed from the circuit. Usually, the
conductive charging of EV batteries is more efficient and less expensive compared
with the wireless inductive method, mainly due to higher copper loss and expensive
materials used in IPT coils. Successful implementation of the direct ac-ac converter
can compensate for those two demerits of the existing multi-stage IPT power
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 157

FIGURE 6.8 IPT topology with single-stage direct ac-ac converters.

supplies. However, there are some obvious limitations of IPT topology with direct
ac-ac converters, such as

1. The components are required to be rated for peak power, where the rating
of the components in the tank network, including IPT pads, is quite high
due to poor coil coupling, and
2. Since the grid current is not directly controlled; therefore, high-quality
source current is not ensured.

These topologies could be more suitable for low-power applications, electronic

gadgets, body implants, and other low-power industrial applications. This is
because the IPT circuit components can easily handle the peak power of such low
power while keeping the converter cost low due to fewer components.

6.5.3 CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER TOPOLOGIES

Occasionally, current source inverter (CSI) is also used in IPT systems
[2,17–19,38]. Figure 6.9 shows the existing IPT systems fed from a current-fed
push-pull inverter, where the transmitter coil tank network is parallel LC type. The
following merits of these systems are reported in the literature:

1. Suitably designed parallel capacitor supplies the reactive power consumed

by TC without flowing through the inverter devices. Therefore, the inverter
device current is lower;
2. Coil current quality with the presence of a parallel capacitor is almost
sinusoidal because the higher-order harmonics primarily pass through this
capacitor;
3. Achieves soft-switching of all the inverter devices;
4. In CSI topology, the inductor in dc-link limits short circuit current during
fault.
158 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.9 Existing IPT topology using current-fed: (a) push-pull inverters without extra
input inductor and with reverse voltage blocking devices, (b) push-pull inverters with extra
input inductor and without reverse voltage blocking devices, and (c) H-bridge.

However, there are some demerits of these systems, which are listed as follows:

1. Bulky dc link inductor is needed to get stiff DC at the inverter input.

However, in an application where the stiff DC input is readily available
such as solar cell output, there this topology will find a suitable
application.
2. Conventional design of parallel resonant tanks is load-dependent.
Therefore, complex control is required to tune the inverter switching fre-
quency to the tank resonance frequency. This dynamic tuning is usually
carried out either by adopting variable frequency control of the inverter or
by varying tank capacitances dynamically.
3. Due to this inverter control, the dynamic load demand is generally met by
an additional dc-dc chopper connected before the load, increasing power
conversion stages.
4. Variable frequency control experiences converter start-up problems and
frequency bifurcation (i.e., multiple operating frequencies) issues.

6.6 IPT COILS

Magnetic coupling is an important factor in designing a wireless IPT system. The
regular 2-winding transformer or coupled inductors cannot be used here. The IPT
coil geometry widely varies from conventional magnetic structures to achieve high
coupling inductance with a large airgap. Also, additional design challenges include
coil misalignments, especially when one or both coils are in motion. Generally, IPT
pads are made both with and without a ferromagnetic core. Though the IPT pad
with ferrite core is comparatively expensive, it has some advantages. The major
advantage of having a ferrite core is minimizing magnetic field emissions around
the coils by reducing the stray or fringe fields because ferrites keep the magnetic
field between the coils. Various types of flux-guided IPT pads using ferrite blocks
or bar are discussed in [6,13,39–46]. Figure 6.10a and 6.10b show circular IPT
pads, and Figure 8c shows a UU type of IPT pad. Figure 6.10a circular pad is
 Wireless Inductive Power Transfer

FIGURE 6.10 2-D structure and different unipolar IPT pads. (a) Circular with solid ferrite core, (b) circular with ferrite bars, and (c) UU-type IPT pad.
159
160 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.11 A bipolar IPT coil [ 49].

developed with solid ferrite plate where Figure 6.10b is pad is an improved
structure for EV applications. Figure 6.10b structure is extensively used by the
University of Auckland and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) researchers
[13,40,47], whereas Figure 6.10c structure is extensively used both commercially
and in research by Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
(KAIST) [39].

6.6.1 BIPOLAR IPT COILS

Figure 6.10b shows a multi-coil coupler, which is commonly known as a bipolar
coil [41]. Its operation may be visualized by considering two coils lying on the
striated ferrite such that the line of centers is along the direction of the ferrite. Since
this structure has a comparatively more closed path for the magnetic flux; therefore,
the coefficient of coupling is relatively more than the unipolar arrangement.
Although both the loops of the bipolar coil in this diagram carry the same current,
they can be controlled to carry different currents with the help of two power
converters [48]. The bipolar structures have a higher tolerance to coil misalignment
than unipolar coils (Figure 6.11).

6.7 DESIGN OF COMPENSATION CAPACITANCES

The coupling coefficient of a typical IPT system is very low (k<0.3). This system
requires dual-side compensation. The values of compensation circuit parameters for
different IPT topologies are different. The derivation of some of the important IPT
circuits is discussed here.

6.7.1 S/S COMPENSATION

The secondary side compensation for series secondary is L 2 = 1/ o2 C2 . The
reflected impedance is the impedance of the equivalent impedance of the dependent
voltage, and it is derived by dividing the current from the induced voltage
(Figure 6.12).
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 161

C1 L1 L2 C2
I1 I2

vi -jωMI2 jωMI1 vr Re

Zp Zr Zs

FIGURE 6.12 S/S IPT Topology.

2 2
j o MI2 oM
Zr = = . (6.5)
I1 Re

In the above expression, I1/I2 part is replaced with j o M / Re which is derived by

applying KVL in the secondary side circuit. The overall input impedance of the
circuit is

2 2
1 oM
Zp = j o L1 + + . (6.6)
j o C1 Re

With the resonance condition, i.e., by making the complex part of the above ex-
pression equal to 0, the primary compensation is derived as

1 L 2 C2
C1 = 2
= . (6.7)
o L1 L1

6.7.2 P/S COMPENSATION

For the P/S tank, the secondary side compensation, Zs and Zr, is the same as the S/S
tank. Because the primary side is parallel, the admittance analysis makes finding the
resonance condition easier. The input admittance is (Figure 6.13).

1 1
=j o C1 + 2 2
. (6.8)
Zp j + oM
o L1 Re

From this admittance, the primary compensation and the input impedance at res-
onance are derived as

2 4 4 2
L1 ( o L1) + o M / Re
C1 = ; Zp = . (6.9)
( ) 2 2 2 2 2
oM
oM 2
Re
+( o L1) Re
162 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

L1 L2 C2
Ii I1 I2

ic
Vi C1 -jωMI2 jωMI1 Re
Vr

Zp Zr Zs

FIGURE 6.13 Parallel series tank.

6.7.3 SERIES-PARALLEL
1
For the series-parallel tank, the secondary side compensation is chosen as C2 = 2 .
o L2
Therefore, secondary impedance and reflected impedance are

2 2
x2 o M (Re jx )
Zs = , Zr = . (6.10)
Re jx x2

By analyzing the input impedance of this circuit and deriving the resonant condi-
tion, the primary capacitance is derived as (Figure 6.14).

L 22 C2
C1 = . (6.11)
L1 L 2 M2

6.7.4 LCL COMPENSATION

IPT topologies with LCL compensation networks can be subdivided into several
topologies. A few of them are S/LCL, P/LCL, LCL/S, LCL/P, LCL/LCL, etc. The

C1 L1 L2
I1 I2

Vi -jωMI2 jωMI1 C2 Re
Vr

Zp Zr Zs

FIGURE 6.14 Series-parallel tank.

Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 163

La L1 L2 Lb
Ii I1 I2 Ir

ic
Vi C1 -jωMI2 jωMI1 C2 Vr Re

Zp Zr Zs

FIGURE 6.15 IPT Circuit with a dual-side LCL compensation.

determination of the compensation circuit parameters is quite similar to earlier,

except that there is an extra inductor to design in the LCL tank. Figure 6.15 is an
LCL/LCL WPT circuit with two extra inductors, La and Lb. Generally, an
IPT circuit is preferred to have an operating point where the resonance/ compen-
sation is load-independent. However, not all IPT topologies have this feature. The
S/S, LCL/S, S/LCL, and LCL/LCL topologies can be designed to have a load-
independent resonance. The secondary side impedance of the LCL tank is

1
Zs = j o L2 + (j o Lb + Re ) (6.12)
j o C2

This expression can be arranged and written in the following format to determine
the conditions for a load-independent resonant point.

Zs
2 2 2 2
[R + (1 o L b C2 ){ j o L 2 (1 o Lb C2 ) +j o L b} + j o C2 Re ( 1+ o L 2 C2 )]
= 2
2 2 2 2
(1 o Lb C2 ) + o C2 Re
(6.13)

The first condition is,

2 1
1 o L b C2 = 0 i. e. o Lb = . (6.14)
o C2

This condition doesn’t have a load impedance term. Similarly, the second condi-
tion is

2 1
1+ o L 2 C2 = 0 i. e. o L2 = o Lb = (6.15)
o C2

These conditions for resonance provide the required values of the compensation
capacitor and additional inductor values. The secondary impedance and the
reflected impedance for the secondary LCL tank are derived as (Table 6.1).
 164

TABLE 6.1
Circuit Parameters for Various Compensation Networks
Type C2 Zr C1 Zp
vr
vi

SS 1 2 2 1 2 2 Re
oM oM
2 2 oM
o L2 Re o L1 Re

SP 1 M2R M2 o L 22 Cs M2Re L2
2 M
o L2 L 22 L2 L1L2 M2 L 22

PS 1 2 2 L1 2 2 1
oM oM L1 2
2 2 2 2 + Re 2
o L2 Re oM Re M
( ) L1 2 oM
+ ( o L1)2 +
Re M
( ) Re

PP 1 M2R M2 o (L1L2 M2) L12 C2 M2R 2

2 MRe C1 M2Re 2
o L2 L 22 L2 2 M 4Re2 C2 L22
L2
× o
(L1L2 M2 ) +
( (L1L2 M2) )+
L2 2 2
M2R o M2
+ o L1
L22 L2

LCL/LCL 1 M2Re 1 1 ( o L1)2 MRe

2 2 = 2
o Lb L 22 o L1 o La o L1L2
M2 / L 22 Re

LCC/LCC 1 M2Re 1 ( o L a )2 MRe

2 o La = o L1
o Lb Lb2 o Cp o L a Lb
M2 / Lb2 Re
Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 165

1 ( 2 2 M2
o L 2) ( oM)
Zs = 2 2
= ; Zr = = Re (6.16)
o C2 Re Re Zs L 22

The secondary side impedance is resistance, which gets reelected as a resistive

impedance in the primary circuit. Therefore, the primary LCL tank will also have a
similar impedance, and the condition for load-independent resonance will provide
the information for compensation circuit parameter values. The final expressions are
given as

1 ( 2 2
o L1) ( o L1)
o La = = o L1; and Z p = = (6.17)
M2
o C1 Zr R
L 22 e

The LCCL (or LCC) resonant tank is also another popular IPT compensation
network. Here another extra compensation capacitor is used in series with the coil.
Essentially it is an LCL resonant tank only but with improved performance because
this series capacitor directly compensates for part of the reactive coil power. For the
secondary LCCL IPT topology, the condition for load-independent resonance will
provide the design values and these are

1 1
o Lb = = o C2 . (6.18)
o C2 o Cs

Here, the Cp and Cs are the additional capacitors that are connected in series with
the primary and secondary coils, respectively. Similarly, for the primary side, the
design parameters are

1 1
o La = = o L1 . (6.19)
o C1 o Cp

6.7.5 LOAD INDEPENDENT TANK DESIGN FOR P/S AND P-S/S

The relative phase angle of the fundamental component of voltage and current at
inverter output is zero at the tuned resonant frequency. This is commonly known as
zero phase angle (ZPA) operation. ZPA operation with VSI and CSI are shown in
Figure 6.16. The merits of ZPA operations are as follows.

1. Unity displacement PF operation at inverter output ensures the least volt-

amp (VA) loading on the inverter.
2. It ensures the lowest voltage and current ratings and lower power loss of
inverter devices.
3. For CSI topology, ZPA operation facilitates zero voltage switching (ZVS)
of inverter devices, whereas the devices of VSI topology experience zero
current switchings (ZCS).
166 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.16 Ideal inverter output voltage and current profiles at ZPA operating point for
(a) voltage source inverter (VSI) (b) current source inverter (CSI).

Due to this load-dependent compensation for a P/S or PS/S, the inverter switching
frequency has to vary dynamically, or C1 has to change dynamically to operate the
converter at a resonant point. Figure 6.18a shows the magnitude and phase of the
input impedance of a typical PS/S or P/S converter with the conventional design.
Clearly, the resonant point shifts with the change of load power. Therefore, fixed
switching frequency operation fails to operate the system efficiently. This is
especially prominent at light load due to the large power factor angle at inverter
output, as shown in Figure 6.18a. However, Figure 6.18a shows that there exists a
load-independent resonance frequency, which can enable a simple fixed-frequency
operation of the inverter.

[Link] PS/S IPT Circuit

A rigorous mathematical analysis of Figure 6.17 circuit is performed to determine
this particular operation. Since the selection of RC side compensation using (6.9)
leads to load-dependent resonance; therefore, in this new design method,
o L 2 = 1/ o C2 simplification is not done. The input impedance of the Figure 6.17
circuit—i.e., the output impedance of the inverter is derived as

1 1 1
Zp = = j L m // Req + j L 2k +j L1k
Yre + jYim C2 Cs
1
// , (6.20)
j Cp

FIGURE 6.17 Equivalent circuit with respect to the transmitter side.

Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 167

where the equivalent magnetizing and leakage impedances of the coupled coils are
derived as

L1k = L1 nM ,
L m = nM , (6.21)
L 2k = L 2 M / n,

and TC to RC turns ratio is n. From (6.20) the complex (imaginary) part of input
impedance is derived as

1
Yim = Req2 {Xm + (X1k Xs)} {Xm + (X1k Xs )}/X p 1
t 2 + Req2 {Xm + (X1k Xs )}2

t Xm (X2k X2 ) + t / X p

(6.22)

where all ‘X’ represents the impedance of a particular element, e.g., Xm = ωLm,
X2 = 1/ C2 , etc. and

t = Xm (X2k X2 ) + Xm (X1k Xs) + (X1k Xs)(X2k X2 ) (6.23)

From (6.22), it is clear that to make Yim zero, the two parts of the equation have to
be zero individually, i.e.,

Req2 {Xm + (X1k Xs)} {Xm + (X1k Xs )}/ X p 1 = 0, (6.24)

t Xm (X2k X2 ) + t / X p = 0. (6.25)

From (6.24) the first condition for resonance is derived as

{Xm + (X1k Xs )}/ X p 1 (6.26)

This expression directly provides the value of TC side compensation capaci-

tors as

2
Cp // Cs = 1/ s L1 (6.27)
168 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

The second condition of resonance in (6.25) has two parts. Since making the second
part of (6.25) zero leads to C2 = 0; therefore, the first part of it has to be zero, i.e.,
t = 0. Considering t = 0 and using (6.23) and (6.27), the second condition leads to
the appropriate value of the RC side compensation capacitor as

Xm (X1k Xs )
X2 = X2k . (6.28)
Xm + (X1k Xs)

Clearly, both the conditions derived in (6.27) and (6.28) do not contain load
impedance. Therefore, this passive selection of components leads to load-
independent resonance. To verify the performance of this newly designed tank, the
input impedance and phase are plotted in Figure 6.18b. The power factor at inverter
output always remains unity, irrespective of wide load variations. This operation
directly reduces the control effort of the inverter compared with existing dynamic
tuning methods. Therefore, inverter control is fully focused on meeting load
demand, whereas the existing parallel compensated typologies require an extra dc-
dc chopper at the output side to achieve it.

[Link] P/S IPT Circuit

Figure 6.19 shows the transformer equivalent circuit of the (L)(C) transmitter and
(LC) receiver tank network, referred to as the transmitter side. Following the same
design steps, the load-independent compensation circuit parameters are derived.
The final expressions are given as

2
Ct = 1/ s L1 (6.29)

1
Xm X1k
C2 = s X2k (6.30)
Xm + X1k

6.8 DESIGN OF IPT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

This section derives the design of the magnetic circuit parameters such as L1, L2,
and M. Using the expressions derived in the previous section, the compensation
circuit parameters C1 and C2 can be calculated. To find magnetic circuit parameters
for a specific IPT topology, the following parameters have to be given

• Battery (output) voltage = Vo

• Battery (output) current = Io
• Input Voltage = Vd

For a practical EV charger, the battery voltage (Vo), battery current (Io), and input
voltage (Vd) is always given. Furthermore, any IPT topology can be chosen and
designed for any type of battery charging application. However, their circuit
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 169

FIGURE 6.18 ZPA operation with (a) conventional design and (b) new design.

FIGURE 6.19 Equivalent circuit with respect to the transmitter side.

170 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

parameters will be completely different. This section discusses an S/S and a P/S IPT
circuit design.

6.8.1 SS IPT CIRCUIT DESIGN

For a perfectly tuned secondary series IPT circuit, assuming the IPT circuit to be
ideal. Such that the transferred power is completely available at the output then, the
expression for the power transferred from TC to RC can be given as

P= o MI1 I2 = o MI1 × Io = Vo Io (6.31)

2 2

The relation between I2 and Io is derived assuming a full-bridge diode rectifier.

Considering an H-bridge inverter, the fundamental component of Vi will be

4
Vi1 = Vd sin ot (6.32)

The input power will be the same as the output power for the ideal circuit. So, input
power expression will be

2 2
P = Vi1 I1 = (Vd ) I1 (6.33)

Therefore, from (6.31) and (6.33), the value of mutual inductance is derived as

8 Vd
M= 2
(6.34)
o Io

To find the value of L1 and L2, the coupling (k) and the coil-to-coil turn ratio (n)
should be given. If it is not given, then a suitable value can be chosen. The value of
L1 and L2 is derived from the following two expressions.

L1
= n2 ; M = k L1 L 2 (6.35)
L2

6.8.2 PS IPT CIRCUIT DESIGN

Since the secondary side has series compensation; therefore, the transferred power
expression (6.31) is valid for P/S topology too. Applying KVL in the primary side
loop

2 2
V1 = (j o L1 + o M / Re ) I1 (6.36)
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 171

FIGURE 6.20 A typical P/S IPT circuit fed from a full-bridge CSI.

8 Vo
where, Re = 2 I . The next step is to find the relation between V1 and Vd. This
o
relation can be found by applying flux (volt-sec) balance across the inductor, Ld.
Considering the profile of V1 is perfectly sinusoidal and the IPT circuit is perfectly
tuned, the H-bridge side pole voltage of the inductor, Ld, will be the rectified V1.
Therefore, V1 can be defined as

V1 = Vd so, V1 = Vd (6.37)
2 2

2 2 Vo
By deriving values of I1 from (6.31), i.e., I1 = and L1 from (6.35) i.e.,
oM

[L1 = nM / k ] and substituting these in (6.36), the magnitude of V1 is calculated as

2 2 2 2 2 2 Vo
V1 = (n o M /k ) +( o M / Re ) (6.38)
oM

Hence, the value of M can be derived from (6.38) as (Figure 6.20).

2
Re 2
M= 2
V1 o M / Vo (n o/k ) (6.39)
o 2 2

6.9 IPT CIRCUIT MODELING AND CONTROL

Along with the derivation of innovative power converter topologies, dynamic
modeling and closed-loop control are also an integral part of the practical imple-
mentation of the converters. The resonant converts can either be controlled through
the variable switching frequency fixed duty cycle method or the fixed frequency
variable duty cycle method. The frequency modulation technique ensures the ZVS
at turn-on of all the inverter devices. However, the inverter output power factor
172 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

deteriorates when the operating frequency drifts from the tuned resonance fre-
quency. In variable duty cycle modulation, half of the inverter switches lose ZVS at
turn-on, and the inverter output power factor is maintained near to unity power
factor. This section includes small-signal modeling and the closed-loop control of a
S/S and P/S IPT topology. The control input is the inverter duty cycle, and the
output is the output current (in constant current mode) or the voltage (for constant
voltage mode).

6.9.1 S/S IPT TOPOLOGY

The converter circuit shown above is controlled through a single-loop control
method. The controller controls the duty ratio of the switches. The plant transfer
function is given as (Figure 6.21).

V˜o (s )
G (s ) = , (6.40)
d˜ (s )

Vi (s ) Vr (s ) V˜o (s )
G (s ) = . . = G inv Gt Grec. (6.41)
d˜ (s ) Vr (s ) Vr (s )

[Link] Inverter Transfer Function

The input to the loop is the duty cycle of the inverter, and the output is the inverter
voltage. Figure 6.22 shows a typical voltage, and current waveform at the voltage-
source inverter output where the current profile is sinusoidal and voltage is quasi-
square. ‘d’ is the equivalent duty cycle that is created due to phase-shift.
The peak of the fundamental component at the inverter output is given as

4
Vi = Vd sin d . (6.42)

FIGURE 6.21 S/S topology with a full bridge rectifier.

Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 173

vi , ii

ii

vi
2πd

ωt

2πd 2πd

0.5π π 2π

FIGURE 6.22 Inverter output voltage and current waveform.

Introducing small perturbations (˜d , ṽd , d̃ ), around an equilibrium point (Id, Vd, d)
and neglecting second-order terms, we have inverter transfer function as,

Vi (s )
Ginv = = 4Vd cos d . (6.43)
d˜ (s )

Vr (s )
Tank gain at the tuned resonance frequency
Vi (s )

Re
Gt = A = . (6.44)
j oM

[Link] Modeling of H-Bridge Rectifier

The dynamic expressions of the output capacitors for a given inverter switching
cycle are given as

dVo
Co = i2 io, (6.45)
dt

where Co is the output capacitor, Vo is the output voltage, and R is the

load resistance. All these state variables are considered to be average values
over a switching cycle. Since, i2 is switching frequency ac quantity, and its
average value over a switching cycle is zero; therefore, the half-cycle average of
i2 i.e.,

dV˜o Vr V˜o
Co = (6.46)
dt 4 R R

〈i2〉 is considered
174 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

V˜o (s ) 1
Grec = = × (6.47)
Vr (s ) 4 sCo R + 1

Introducing small perturbations and applying Laplace transformation, the above

expression is derived as
Therefore, the overall plant transfer function is derived as

Vd sin D
G (s ) = A (6.48)
sCo R + 1

6.10 MODELING AND CONTROL OF PS/P AND P/S

6.10.1 STEADY-STATE OPERATION WITH UNIPOLAR PWM
Unlike voltage source inverter, in this boost-derived inverter, complementary
switching signals are given between top devices (S1 and S2)and between bottom
devices (S3 and S4) (Figure 6.23). This arrangement enables us to get characteristics
exactly like the boost chopper. A slight overlap between the complementary
switching signals is always maintained to provide a continuous path for the input
inductor current. Figure 6.24 shows equivalent circuits during different switching
intervals, and Figure 6.25 shows important voltage and current waveforms with a
typical unipolar PWM. Because the secondary side voltage doubler converter
simply provides passive rectification; therefore, this part is not elaborated on.
Simply, based on the polarity of RC current, i2, each rectifier diode conducts
accordingly and feeds load.
Interval 1 (t0–t1): During this interval, devices S1 and S4 are ON and S3 and S2
are OFF. In this interval, the source inductor, Ld is directly connected to the TC side
tank network, as shown in Figure 6.24a. This is similar to the turn-off interval of the
conventional boost converter. The inverter output voltage is very close to sinus-
oidal, but the current, ii is quasi-square. Clearly, the voltage and current profiles of

FIGURE 6.23 P/S topology with a full bridge CSI.

Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 175

FIGURE 6.24 Equivalent circuits during steady-state operation.

the remaining tank elements are also sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 6.25. The
voltage and current expressions for this duration are given as

did
Ld = vd vi , (6.49)
dt

ii = id , vx = vi. (6.50)

Interval 2 (t1–t4): The first part of this interval has a slight overlap (t1–t2) between
S1 and S2 as shown in Figure 6.25. At instant t1, the voltage across the incoming
device S2 is positive; therefore, it immediately takes inverter current, commutating
device S1. This transfer of inverter current at t1 leads to a hard turn-on of S2. Gate-
pulse of S1 is withdrawn at instant t2, but the current through S1 is already zero.
Therefore, zero-current-switching (ZCS) turn-off of S1 is achieved. The duration of
overlap (t1–t2) is solely dependent on the turn-on and turn-off delay of the devices.
It should be sufficient enough to allow the turn-on and turn-off of incoming and
outgoing devices but small enough to have an insignificant impact on the overall
performance of the converter.
176 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.25 Steady state operating waveforms.

Referring to Figure 6.25, till time instant t3, devices S2 and S4 carry complete
inverter current and the corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 6.24b.
At the instant t3, switching overlap of bottom devices (S3 and S4) starts. Owing to
the presence of negative voltage, the incoming device S3 does not take the inverter
current immediately at instant t3. Therefore, during overlap time (t3–t4), S2 and S4
keep on conducting and this enables zero voltage switching (ZVS) turn-on of
device S3.
Throughout the interval t1–t4, the input inductor is directly connected across the
source, which is equivalent to the turn-on period of the regular boost chopper. The
voltage and current expressions during this interval are given as

did
Ld = vd , (6.51)
dt

ii = 0, vx = 0. (6.52)

Interval 3 (t4–t5): At the instant t4, overlap period ends when the gate pulse of S4
withdrawn. Device S4 experiences hard turn-off at instant t4, and from this time
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 177

onward, S2 and S3 take the inverter current as shown in the equivalent circuit
Figure 6.24c. Similar to interval 1, the source is directly connected to the inverter
output side network, which is similar to the turn-off interval of a conventional boost
converter. Voltage and current expressions for this duration are given as

did
Ld = vd + vi , (6.53)
dt

ii = id , vx = vi . (6.54)

Interval 3 (t5–t8): At instant t5 S4 is given pulse and it immediately starts con-

ducting commutating device S3, owing to the presence of positive voltage across S4.
This leads to a hard turn-on of S4. But, due to the transfer of the current from S3
before withdrawing its gate pulse leads to ZCS at turn-off. Although at an instant t7,
S1 is triggered, due to the presence of negative voltage, it does not take the inverter
current and the devices S2 and S3 keep on conducting as shown in the equivalent
circuit Figure 6.24d. Therefore, S1 experiences ZVS turn-on at instant t7. At instant
t8 gate pulse of S2 is withdrawn and S1 is forced to take inverter current, and the
corresponding equivalent circuit is the same as Figure 6.24a. The voltage and
current expressions during interval t5–t8 are the same as (6.51) and (6.52).
This completes one complete inverter switching cycle. Steady-state operation of
the IPT topology with (L)(C) transmitter and (LC) receiver tank is exactly similar;
therefore, it is not repeated.

6.10.2 TWO-LOOP CONTROL FOR PS/S AND P/S IPT TOPOLOGIES

The converter circuit is controlled through a two-loop control method, where the
outer output current loop meets the load demand and the inner input current loop
controls the input inductor current. Figure 2.1 shows a complete control loop dia-
gram, and this control scheme is the same for both IPT topologies. This type of two-
loop control for current-fed full-bridge topology in fuel-cell applications has been
reported in [50–52]. The advantage of this two-loop control is that the stability
margin of the system is very high. Also, the power transmission can be reduced
abruptly from full load to very light load using the faster inner current control loop.
This feature is very useful for practical implementation. Furthermore, this control of
source current with a boost-derived inverter can provide a single-stage solution,
where direct source current control using a boost-chopper is required to extract
energy from sources, e.g., solar PV, effectively. The derivation of the open-loop
transfer function and controller design for both topologies are given.

6.10.3 (LC) TRANSMITTER AND (LC) RECEIVER TANK

[Link] Inner Input Current Loop
The input to this loop is the duty cycle of the inverter, and the output is the
inductor current. Figure 6.26 shows a typical voltage and current waveform at the
178 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

vi , ii
α
ii
vi
2πd
ωt

2πd 2πd
0.5π π 2π

FIGURE 6.26 Inverter output voltage and current waveform.

current-source inverter output. The voltage profile is sinusoidal, and the current is
quasi-square. ‘d’ is the duty cycle of the device S1 or S3, ‘α’ represents the phase-lag
of current with respect to voltage. Although the system is designed to achieve unity
power factor at inverter output, parameter variation of tank elements may lead to
slight drift. This practical aspect is considered in the modeling of the converter. The
dynamic expression of the input inductor voltage is given as

did
Ld = vd vx (6.55)
dt

Considering the duty cycle of inverter device S1 as 0 ≤ d ≤ 0.5, the instantaneous

input voltage of the inverter in terms of output RMS voltage is derived as

2 2
vx = Vi × cos × sin d (6.56)

The storage elements (L1, L2, Cs, Cp, C2) in the tank network predominantly carry a
fundamental switching frequency component. Therefore, their dynamics are much
faster compared with the dc side parameters. Considering negligible power losses in
tank network, the power balance expression is given as

Vi Ii × cos = Vr I2 (6.57)

Since the inverter output voltage is very close to sinusoidal, the active power
transfer occurs only with a fundamental component of Ii. Therefore, (6.57) is
modified as

2
Vr2 V Ii A2 2 2
Vi cos = = r × = id × sin d , (6.58)
Ii Req Ii Req Req

where, A = Vr/Ii = gain of the tank network at the operating frequency. Feeding
(6.56) and (6.58) in (6.55), the dynamic expression is modified as
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 179

did 4 A2
Ld = vd 2R
× id (1 cos 2 d ) (6.59)
dt eq

Introducing small perturbations (˜d , ṽd , d̃ ), around an equilibrium point (Id, Vd, d)
and neglecting second-order terms, the small-signal dynamic expression is derived
from (6.59) as

di˜d 4 A2 ˜
Ld = v˜d 2R
[id (1 cos2 d ) + 2 Id d˜ sin 2 d ], (6.60)
dt eq

Applying Laplace transformation, the control to the output transfer function of the
inner loop is derived as

8 A2
i˜ (s ) I sin 2
Req d
d
G i (s ) = d = , (6.61)
d˜ (s ) sL d +
4 A2
2R (1 cos 2 d )
eq

V˜r (s )
Tank gain ( ) at the tuned resonance frequency— Applying KVL in transmitter
Ii (s )
coil (TC),

L1
Vi = Req j oM (6.62)
M

Primary admittance at the resonance frequency,

YP =
( )2 2
oM
Req
4 4
(6.63)
2 2 oM
o L1 + 2
Req

Applying KCL in transmitter coil (TC),

L1
ii = Req j oM ir . YP (6.64)
M

V˜r (s )
Gain ( ) at resonance frequency is,
Ii (s )

Gt = A =
( L1 2 2
M
Req ) +( 2 2
oM )
(6.65)
L1
R
M eq
j oM
180 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

[Link] Outer Current Loop

The input to the outer loop is id, and the output is load current, io. The outer loop
control to output transfer function can be split as

i˜o (s ) I (s ) V (s ) i˜ (s )
Go (s ) = = i . r . o = G inv Gt Grec (6.66)
i˜d (s ) i˜d (s ) I (s ) V (s )
i r

These three transfer functions are the inverter, resonant tank, and rectifier. In (6.66),
the dc side parameters are considered as the average value over an inverter
switching cycle, where the ac side parameters are the amplitude of that switching
cycle. Extracting the fundamental component of the quasi-square shaped current in
Figure 2.2 and introducing small perturbation, the inverter transfer function is
derived as

Ii (s ) 4
Ginv = = sin d (6.67)
˜id (s )

Modeling of H-bridge rectifier—the dynamic expressions of the output capacitors

for a given inverter switching cycle are given as

dVo
Co = i2 io. (6.68)
dt

All these state variables are considered to be average values over a switching cycle.
Since, i2 is switching frequency ac quantity, and its average value over a switching
cycle is zero; therefore, the half-cycle average of i2 i.e., i2 is considered,

d (E + i o r b ) 2 Vr
Co = io , (6.69)
dt Req

where, rb and E are battery internal resistance and e.m.f., respectively. Introducing
small perturbations and applying Laplace transformation, the gain expression is
derived as

i˜o (s ) 2 1/ Req
Grec = = × (6.70)
Vr (s ) sCo r b + 1

Therefore, the overall plant transfer function for the outer loop is derived as

8 A 1
Go (s ) = 2 R
sin d × (6.71)
eq sCo r b + 1
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 181

6.11 SINGLE-STAGE IPT

Generally, in the IPT system, the power is processed through multiple power
transfer stages, leading to lower efficiency and higher cost of the system. Recent
research shows that using a direct ac-ac converter in the IPT system compensates
for these limitations significantly. However, one of the major challenges of an IPT
circuit with a direct ac-ac converter is to achieve multiple control goals through a
single converter. These include load power requirement, maintaining a high-quality
source current, and achieving soft switching of inverter switches.

6.11.1 CHALLENGES WITH VSI-DERIVED SINGLE STAGE IPT TO

ACHIEVE UNITY P.F.
In conventional multi-stage IPT topologies shown in Figure 6.27, the converter
before the resonant tank is generally a voltage source inverter (VSI). VSI imposes
to select primary tank network as series LC, LCL, or LCCL, etc. Generally, these
same tanks are used to realize the IPT topology with a direct ac-ac converter
because their properties are well established in the literature [26,32–34]. However,
when these tanks are used in a single-stage direct ac-ac converter, the input to the
converter is required to be stiff voltage.
Figure 6.27a shows a general direct matrix converter structure with buck-derived
configuration when viewed from the source side. Most of the studies have been
carried out considering the load is resistive, and it is connected either directly with
the RC side tank or at the output of the rectifier [26,33,34]. Therefore, the matrix
converter perceives the load as linear, as shown in Figure 6.27c. These topologies
will fail to control input current when a stiff dc voltage load such as the battery is
connected to the rectifier output. This is because the equivalent load impedance
varies significantly with this type of load, as shown in Figure 6.27c. The practical
interpretation is that the buck-derived ac-ac converter topology does not get suf-
ficient input voltage around zero crossing to feed power to high voltage output dc
bus. This challenge is similar to regular buck-derived PFCs in that near-zero
crossing of source voltage fails to boost the input voltage to the required output
voltage. Like regular buck-derived PFCs, the current source quality with the ex-
isting ac-ac converters is highly compromised. The boost-derived topology will be
suitable for this application to achieve power factor correction, as shown in
Figure 6.27b.

6.11.2 IPT FOR UNITY P.F. OPERATION

Figure 6.28 shows the complete circuit of the selected IPT topology where the TC
side tank is parallel-series (CCL), and the RC side is series LC type. The basic
operation of this converter is like a boost-derived PFC. When the current is passed
through the source inductor, Ls needs to be raised, then the ac-ac converter is
switched such that Ls directly gets connected to source voltage, vac through con-
verter switches. The Ls is connected to the transmitter side tank network through ac-
ac converter switches. Because the input to the ac-ac converter is stiff current;
182 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

(a) (b)
iac Ls is iac Ls is

buck-derived
configuration S1 S2
C2 i2 boost-derived S1 S2
Cp C2 i
ii C1 configuration ii
vac vo Cf
Cf
Rectifier Cs Rectifier

S3 S4 S3 S4
IPT coils and
IPT coils and
compensation
compensation
Input HF filter Voltage-fed ac- network Current-fed ac- network
ac converter ac converter

(c)

FIGURE 6.27 (a) General powertrain of IPT topology with direct ac-ac converter, (b) Required
structure of single-stage IPT topology.

therefore, the transmitter side tank network is required to be parallel. The parallel
tank has several advantages in IPT systems. Compared with the conventional
parallel LC tank, the selected converter has an extra series capacitor connected with
TC to reduce the switch voltage stress and improve TC current quality.
On the receiver side, a capacitor, C2, is connected in series with the receiver coil
(RC) to achieve the required compensation, and this ensures the least number of
components on the RC side. The rectifier on the RC side is selected to be a voltage
doubler to achieve higher voltage gain while reducing the number of rectifier
diodes.

[Link] Comparisons of Single-Stage IPT Topologies

Table 6.2 lists several important aspects of different IPT topologies with direct ac-
ac converter reported in the literature. This gives a clear picture of the contributions
of this research work compared with other reported IPT topologies with matrix
converters. With this understanding, the preferred selection of an ac-ac converter
will be a current-source topology.

6.11.3 STEADY-STATE OPERATION

To explain the operation, consider that S1–S4 are matrix converter switches, i.e.,
two switches connected in the reverse direction to achieve bi-directional voltage
and current controlling facility. Only four switches are given switching frequency
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 183

iac Ls is io
Co1
D1
S1 S2
ii Cs i1 i2 C2
vac vo
Cf vs
Cp

Co2
S3 S4
D2

PWM
generator
* * io
is Is voltage e
current
controller controller *
io
is

synchronization sin ωt

FIGURE 6.28 current-source inverter-based single-stage based IPT topology with two-loop
control.

pulses during the positive half of the input voltage, vac. These switches are named
S1P to S4P, respectively. Similarly, during the negative half of input voltage, the
remaining 4 switches of ac-ac converter are given switching frequency pulses and
these are named S1N to S4N, respectively. This section presents only one switching
cycle of the ac-ac converter during the positive half of source voltage in detail.
Operation of the converter during the negative half of source voltage is exactly
similar where S1N–S4N takes the position of S1P–S4P, respectively. During the
positive half of source voltages, S1N–S4N are kept permanently off, whereas the
negative half cycle of source voltages, S1P–S4P, are kept off permanently. It is
confirmed that operating the inverter at the lagging power factor region ensures
ZVS turn-on of the switches [54,55]. Therefore, in the steady-state operation, ac-ac
converter output voltage, vi is considered to be leading with respect to current, ii. To
achieve the control goals, the unipolar modulation scheme is adopted, i.e., the turn-
on time of S1 and S3 are the same, but the phase-shifted by 180°. Similarly, the turn-
on time of S2 and S4 are the same but phase shifted by 180°. Also, a slight overlap
between complementary switch pairs S1–S2 and S3–S4 is always maintained to
provide a continuous current path to the input inductor, Ls. Compared with a
voltage-fed converter, one difference is that the complementary switching signals
are not given within the leg switches; instead, it is given to two top switches and
two bottom switches. This technique is usually applied to current-fed inverters.
Interval 1 (t0–t1): During this interval, the ac-ac converter switches S1P and S4P
are on. Therefore, the input inductor current is flows through the transmitter coil
(TC) side tank network. Figure 6.29 shows voltage and current waveforms of
different circuit components and Figure 6.30a shows an equivalent circuit of this
switching interval. The voltages and currents of TC side components are given as
 184

TABLE 6.2
Qualitative Comparison of Different IPT Topologies with Direct ac-ac Converter Reported in the Literature
Topology TC and RC tank Control technique fs (kHz) Load demand Dynamic Achieved high- Soft switching Power
configuration fulfilled model quality source level
Reported current
Single-stage TC: LC series Variable fs; 12.3; Yes, using Power No THD 14.3%, Yes, ZCS of all 267 W
3phase [ 33] RC: LC parallel ZCD Regulation P.F. 0.59-0.67 devices
required Control Mode
SiC-based matrix TC: (LC) Fixed fs phase shift 50 Not reported No No Not achieved 300 W
converter [ 34] RC: (LC) modulation
Direct ac–ac TC: (LC) Variable fs; energy- 30; Not reported No Not reported Yes, ZCS of all 10 W
Converter for RC: Not reported injection and free ZCD devices
IPT [ 35] oscillation required
Matrix Converter TC: LCCL Fixed fs and 20; Yes, with phase No Yes, but only for Not reported 1 kW
with LCLC RC: LCCL variable duty cycle ZCD shift control R load
tank [ 26] modulation required
Boost derived TC: parallel-series Fixed fs and 50 Yes, using output Yes Yes, Yes, ZVS & 1.2 kW
ac-ac (CCL) variable duty cycle current loop THD <5% ZCS of two
converter [ 53] RC: LC series PF: UPF switches
Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 185

FIGURE 6.29 Steady-state operating waveforms of one switching cycle during the positive
half of source voltage.

dis
Ls = vac vi , iS1 = is4 = is. (6.72)
dt
186 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

iac Ls is io iac is io
Co1 Co1
D1 D1
S1 S2 S1 S2 Cs i1
ii Cs i1 i2 ii i2
vo vac
Cf vs Cf vs
vi vr vi vr
Cp Cp

Co2 Co2
S3 S4 S3 S4
D2 (c) D2
(a)

iac is io iac is io
Co1 Co1
D1 D1
S1 S2 Cs i1 S1 S2
ii i2 ii Cs i1 i2
vo vac
Cf vs Cf vs
vi vr vi vr
Cp Cp

Co2 Co2
S3 S4 S3 S4
(b) D2 (d) D2

iac is io
Co1
D1
S1 S2 C s i1
ii i2
vac vo
Cf vs vi vr
Cp

(e) Co2
S3 S4
D2

FIGURE 6.30 Equivalent circuit during the different intervals of operations.

During this interval, on the receiver side, the RC current is rectified by diode D2.
The voltages and currents of RC side elements are given as

vD1 = vo1 + vo2, iD2 = i2, (6.73)

dvo1 dvo2
Co1 = io, Co2 = i2 io ., (6.74)
dt dt

Interval 2 (t1–t5): interval t1–t2 is the switching overlap period between switches
S1P and S2P. The overlap period’s duration is almost negligible compared to one
complete switching cycle but sufficient to transfer the input current from an
incoming device to an outgoing device. Since the voltage across S2P is positive at
time instant t2; therefore, S2P immediately starts conducting, and current through
S1P is transferred even before its gate pulse is removed. Thus, at the instant t1
switch, S2P experiences hard turns-on, whereas, at instant t2, S1P experiences zero-
current turn-off. The equivalent circuit of this interval is shown in Figure 6.30b. The
voltages and currents of TC side components are given as

dis
Ls = vac , iS3 = is2 = is. (6.75)
dt
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 187

At instant t2, the gate pulse of S1P is removed. However, the equivalent circuit of the
converter remains the same as in Figure 6.30b because the current commutation
from switch S1P to switch S2P has already occurred. At instant t4 the overlap period
of S3P and S4P starts. However, at this instant, the converter output voltage, vi is
negative, and the voltage across S3 is negative. Although S3P is triggered, S3N blocks
this negative voltage present across S3. Thus, S4P keeps on conducting without
transferring current ii to S3P. Therefore, S3P is switched on at zero voltage. The
overlap period of S3P and S4P gets over at instant t5, and the equivalent circuit of the
converter from t1 to t5 remains the same as in Figure 6.30b. This interval (t1–t5) is
similar to the conventional boost converter turn-on period.
Interval 3 (t5–t6): At the instant t5 gating signal of S4P is removed, and it ex-
periences a hard turn-off. Although the voltage across S3P is negative, the source
inductor current, is forces S3P to conduct because is has no alternate path. In this
interval t5–t6, the source current flows through the TC tank network. The equivalent
circuit of the converter circuit is shown in Figure 6.30c. It is clear that this interval
is similar to the turn-off time period of a conventional boost converter, where the
input inductor is directly connected to the output. The current and voltage ex-
pressions of this interval are given as

dis
Ls = vac + vi , iS 2 = is3 = is. (6.76)
dt

Interval 4 (t6–t7): Although at time instant t6, there is no switching transition on the
TC side, the current through the RC changes its polarity at this instant. Thus, the
rectifier diode D1 commutates D2 and rectifies the RC coil current. The equivalent
circuit of this interval is shown in Figure 6.30d. the voltage and current expressions
of receiver side components during this interval are given as

vD2 = vo1 + vo2, iD1 = i2, (6.77)

dvo1 dvo2
Co1 = i2 io, Co2 = io, (6.78)
dt dt

Interval 5 (t7–t11): At the instant t7, S4P is triggered, and the interval t7–t11 is
switching overlap period. Similar to interval-2 the switch S4P immediately
commutates S3P because of the positive voltage present across S4P. Therefore, S4P
experiences a hard turn-on at instant t7, and S3P experiences ZCS turn-off at
instant t8. It is clear that S1P and S3P experience both turn-on and turn-off soft-
switching whereas both S2P and S4P experience hard turn-on and hard turn-off.
The equivalent circuit of the converter during intervals t7 to t11 is shown
in Figure 6.30e. The steady-state operation of the converter circuit repeats in
this order.
188 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

6.11.4 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RATINGS

Applying KCL on the RC side of Figure 6.28b converter equivalent circuit, the
rectifier input current in terms of output current is derived as

I2 = · Io, (6.79)
2

Applying power balance between the output and input of the rectifier and using
(6.79), the rectifier input ac voltage RMS is derived as

2 2 Vo 2
Vr = × = × Vo. (6.80)
2

Since this RC side rectifier is a passive rectifier; therefore, the voltage Vr and
current I2 are in the same phase, and these phasors are considered reference phasors.
Referring to the coupled inductor equivalent circuit of the coupled IPT coils as
shown in Figure 6.28b and applying KVL at the RC side loop, the TC current is
derived as

Vr
I1 = j . (6.81)
oM

Using this current expression and adding the induced voltage in TC due to RC
current, the TC voltage is derived as

L1 oM
V1 = Vr j Vr . (6.82)
M Roeq

Using (6.81) and (6.82) and applying KVL and KCL at the TC tank network, the ac-
ac converter output voltage and current are derived as

L1 1 oM
Vi = 2
Vr j Vr , (6.83)
M o MCs Roeq

2
o MCp Vr 2 Cp
Ii = Vr + j o Cp L1 + 1 . (6.84)
Roeq oM Cs

6.11.5 SOFT SWITCHING

Referring to steady-state operation, to achieve ZVS turn-on and ZCS turn-off of
converter switches S1 and S3, the operating power factor of ac-ac converter output is
required to be lagging. Therefore, it is important to know the operating power factor
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 189

of the converter. From Figure 6.28b equivalent circuit, the impedance at the input of
the tank network is derived as

1 1
Zi = // j (L1 M) +
j Cp j Cp

1
+ j M // j (L 2 M) + + Roeq . (6.85)
j Cp

Figure 6.31 shows the variation of tank network input impedance and phase angle
with a change in operating frequency. The figure shows that below the resonance
frequency, the operating power factor is lagging, and on the other side, it is the
leading power factor. This is an advantage of this tank network that the lagging
power factor operation is achieved below the resonance frequency, whereas for the
series LC tank, it occurs above the resonance frequency.

6.11.6 TWO LOOP CONTROL

The selected IPT topology is controlled through a two-loop control method. From
steady-state operation, it is clear that the basic operation of this ac-ac converter is
similar to a boost converter. When switches in the same leg are ON simultaneously,
i.e., either S1–S3 or S2–S4 are ON it is similar to boost converter switch turn-on
interval. Similarly, when either diagonal (S1–S4) or off-diagonal (S2–S3) switch

FIGURE 6.31 Variation of tank network input impedance with switching frequency.
190 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

pairs are ON, the converter input gets directly connected to the output capacitor. It is
equivalent to a boost converter turn-off time interval.
The outer output current loop is used to regulate the converter output current,
whereas the inner input inductor current loop is used to achieve unity power factor
at ac-ac converter input. The detailed control loop diagram is presented in
Figure 6.28. The input voltage polarity determines which switch set will be trig-
gered. When input voltage polarity is positive, switches S1P-S4P are triggered, and
similarly, S2N–S4N is triggered when the input voltage is negative.

6.11.7 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

To verify the operation and control of the selected IPT circuit experimental vali-
dation is required. In this section, a set of experimental results is presented.

[Link] Experimental Set-Up

The ac-ac converter switches are MOSFETs with manufacturer part number
C2M0080120D. The tank capacitors are all Epcos make, 700V RMS film
capacitors. The IPT coils are circular type and the airgap between the TC and RC
is around 25 cm. Since, the major focus of this section is to verify the per-
formances of this converter and not the IPT coil design; therefore, the details of
circular coil design are not included here and it can be found in [40,43]. It is
already proven that the leakage magnetic flux can be kept well within the spec-
ified limit with the use of proper aluminum shielding [40]. However, when this
IPT pad is used for direct ac-ac converter, there might be some low frequency
(60Hz, 120Hz) flux present around the coil surroundings. Nonetheless, from the
fundamental point of view, this pulsating low-frequency leakage flux cannot
impact any object when the switching frequency leakage flux i.e., the flux
responsible for effective power transfer is kept within a regulated limit. This is
because the RMS values of the induced voltage in this foreign object due to TC
and RC are given as

V1F = 2 fM1F I1 and V2F = 2 fM2F I2 (6.86)

respectively, where, M1F and M2F are mutual couplings of the foreign object with
TC and RC, respectively and f is the frequency of pulsating flux. Therefore, the
impact of this low-frequency pulsating magnetic field is about 1000 times lower
than the switching frequency field. This is very similar to a case when a conductor
carries line frequency current and a low-frequency magnetic field exists around the
conductor. This does not have a significant impact on regular devices working
nearby.
The rectifier side diodes are 400V fast recovery diodes and the manufacturer part
number is SCS215KGC. The ac-ac converter MOSFETs are driven with Semikron
make SKHI 61(R) gate driver with a rated switching frequency 50 kHz. Figure 6.32
shows the experimental set-up and 60 cm diameter circular coil.
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 191

FIGURE 6.32 Experimental set-up.

[Link] Balancing Uneven Power Loss of Inverter Devices

From a practical implementation point of view, non-uniform power loss distribution
leads to an uneven structure of the converter in terms of heat sink design. Therefore,
a simple logic circuit can be used such that during a positive half cycle of line
frequency, the switches S1and S3 experience soft switching, and during a negative
half cycle S2 and S4 experience soft switching. Therefore, this will make the
converter size regular and suitable for practical implementation. Figure 6.33 shows
this logic structure where the usual switching sequence is shown in red color and it
leads to soft switching of S1 and S3 and hard switching of S2 and S4, repeatedly.
However, during the negative half of input voltage, the switching sequence can be
interchanged as shown in in Figure 6.33, leading to uniform switching loss distri-
bution among all four sets of devices.

FIGURE 6.33 Switching sequence generation circuit for uniform switching loss distribution.
192 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.34 Gate pulse sequence.

[Link] Gate Pulse Sequence

Figure 6.34 shows typical gating signals of the ac-ac converter switches when the
duty cycle of S1 (or S3) is D = 0.35. The overlap duration between the comple-
mentary gating signals S1 and S2 is around 250 ns, and this is enough to turn on and
turn off the MOSFETs. The overlap time is mainly dependent on the turn-on time of
incoming and turn-off time of outgoing devices and vice versa. This overlapping
time should be small enough such that converter duty cycle utilization is close to
100% but long enough to successfully turn-on and turn-off the incoming and out-
going devices. In the experimental setup, the devices are MOSFETs; therefore, this
duration is significantly less. However, with an IGBT-based converter circuit, this
overlapping time will be slightly longer due to comparatively larger device turn-on
and turn-off time. S1 and S3 have the same length turn-on time, but 180° phase
shifted. Similarly, S2 and S4 have the same duty cycle, but 180° phase shifted. From
Figure 6.34, it is clear that only when S1 and S3 are on, the ac-ac converter input is
connected to TC side tank network. The rest of the time, the input inductor, Ls is
directly connected across the source through the second leg of the ac-ac converter
switches. Input voltage polarity is used to determine whether to provide switching
frequency pulses to positive switch sets (S1P–S4P) or negative switch sets (S1N–S4N).

[Link] Results with Resistive Load

Figure 6.35 through Figure 6.40 shows experimental results of the converter when
the load is resistive, whereas Figure 6.41 through Figure 6.44 shows results when
the load is stiff dc voltage. Since all the results have a line frequency and switching
frequency components, line frequency views are shown in the middle figures,
whereas switching frequency views of the waveforms are shown on two sides. The
zoomed view on the left side of every figure shows zoomed view at the line fre-
quency peak, whereas the right-side figure shows zoomed view at the off-peak of
the line frequency.
Figure 6.35 shows experimental results of source voltage, current, ac-ac converter
output voltage and current for 1200 W power output, and the corresponding input
voltage is 200 V, 60 Hz ac and output voltage is 300 V dc. Since the ac-ac converter
input current predominantly contains line frequency and switching frequency
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 193

FIGURE 6.35 Experimental results of grid voltage, current and ac-ac converter output
voltage and current waveforms when Vac = 200V ac, Po = 1.2 kW, Vo = 300 V. (a) zoomed
view at line frequency peak, (b) line frequency view, and (c) zoomed view at off-peak of line
frequency.

FIGURE 6.36 Experimental results: Transmitter and receiver coil voltages and currents at
when Vac = 200V ac, Po = 1.2 kW, Vo = 300 V.

components; therefore, the small input filter is sufficient to filter out the switching
frequency components. The total harmonic distortion (THD) of the source current is
around 4.0% and it is well within IEEE 519-1992 specified standard (5%). From
Figures 6.35a and 6.35c zoomed waveform, the ac-ac converter out current waveform
is a quasi-square, but the voltage is very close to sinusoidal.
Figure 6.36 shows the voltage and current waveforms of both the transmitter and
receiver coils. Figures 6.36a and 6.36c zoomed waveforms show switching frequency
view at around the source voltage peak (90°) and 45° from zero-crossing, respec-
tively. Due to the presence of the parallel capacitor, the TC coil voltage and current
profiles are very close to sinusoidal. Compared with the parallel capacitor in a con-
ventional parallel LC tank, the parallel capacitor, Cp in the CCL tank, offers much
lower impedance to higher-order harmonics. This is because the capacitance value of
Cp in the CCL tank is approximately twice that of a simple parallel LC tank.
Figure 6.37 shows the gating signal of S1P and voltages across TC side tank
elements. These results show the advantage of the CCL tank network over the
simple parallel LC tank. Without the presence of the series capacitor, Cs, the
converter switches would get directly TC coil voltage which is quite high. However,
since the series capacitor, Cs partially compensate for the TC coil leakage imped-
ance; therefore, the parallel capacitor has to provide only the remaining amount of
reactive power to the TC coil. Thus, the converter switches get only vi, and it is a
fraction of TC coil voltage, v1, as shown in Figure 6.37.
Figure 6.38 shows input and output voltages and currents of the CCL primary
and LC series secondary tank network. The operating power factor at the
194 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.37 Experimental results: Gate pulse of switch S1P and voltages across different
elements (Cs, Cp, TC) in the TC side tank network.

FIGURE 6.38 Experimental results: Input and output voltages and currents of the resonant
tank network.

ac-ac converter output is lagging, and it is suitable for soft switching operation.
Also, on the receiver side, the rectifier diodes turns-on and turns-off at zero current.
This ensures zero reverse recoveries of these rectifier diodes. There is some surge
current present in the ac-ac converter output current. In Figure 6.38, experimental
results show this current profile with the full bandwidth of digital storage oscillo-
scope (DSO). However, in Figure 6.35, the bandwidth of DSO is kept at 20 MHz to
show the exact line frequency envelope profile of the ac-ac converter output current.
However, without this setting, this current profile is not very clear.
Figure 6.39 shows the soft-switching performance of converter switches S1P and
S3P. In the lagging power factor, the switch S1P is triggered when the voltage across
switch S1 is negative, and S1N blocks this negative voltage. Therefore, switch S1P
does not start conducting immediately, resulting in ZVS of S1P. However, after the
overlap period, the complementary switch of S1, i.e., S2 is turned off, and S1 is
forced to take the input current, is. Also, before the turn-off of S1, the comple-
mentary switch, S2, is triggered to maintain the required overlap. Since the voltage

FIGURE 6.39 Experimental results: Soft switching of ac-ac converter switches S1P and S3P.
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 195

across S2 is positive; therefore, S2 immediately commutates S1. Thus, switch S1

turns off at zero current. During this operation, the switch S2 experiences hard
switching both during turn-on and turn-off. Similar soft-switching turn-on and turn-
off characteristics are obtained for switch S3, as shown in Figure 6.39.
Figure 6.40 shows the dynamic response of the converter when a load step
commend from 70% of rated load (0.84 kW) to rated load (1.2 kW) is applied. From
Figure 6.40, it is clear that the outer loop is capable of meeting the load require-
ments while the inner input current loop ensures high-quality source current. The
load current settles at around 0.75 s, which verifies the converter’s dynamic model.
Since there is no bulky electrolytic capacitor to filter out the second harmonic;
therefore, the load current contains second harmonics. These results are significant
when the load is resistive such as the lighting load. In case of a fault or other
emergency, such as the living object detection (LOD) function detects an intrusion
into the active region, then the load power has to be reduced abruptly from full load
to light load. In this situation, the control command can be directly applied to the
inner input current control loop for faster response and safety.
Literature study shows that this rectified sinusoidal current is acceptable for
several battery charging applications. However, if the load does not accept this
current profile, then a reasonable size dc capacitor can be connected to the con-
verter’s output. The analysis and experimental results show that the converter can
deliver power in either case. The first part of the experimental results shows the load
current as rectified sinusoidal, and the later part of the experimental results shows
the ripple-free dc load current.

[Link] Results with Stiff Voltage Load

To verify the converter’s performance for battery charging applications, a stiff dc
voltage load is connected to the converter output. Figure 6.41 shows experimental
results of grid voltage, current, and ac-ac converter output voltage and current wave-
forms when Vac = 200 V ac, Po = 1260 W, Vo = 270 V fixed dc. It is clear that the inner
input current loop is capable of maintaining a high-quality grid current. The THD of
this current is calculated to be around 4.5%, and it is well within IEEE 519-1992
specified standards. From Figure 6.41a, it is seen that, unlike resistive load, here, the ac-
ac converter output voltage does not follow the line frequency sinusoidal envelope.
This voltage does not reduce significantly toward the zero crossing of the line fre-
quency. This is because the load is stiff dc voltage, and to pump the charge to this high

FIGURE 6.40 Dynamic response of the converter for a load step from 70% of rated load to
rated load.
196 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 6.41 Experimental results of grid voltage, current and ac-ac converter output voltage
and current waveforms when Vac = 200V ac, Po = 1260 W, Vo = 270 V stiff dc (a) zoomed view
at line frequency peak, (b) line frequency view, (c) zoomed view at off-peak of line frequency.

dc voltage toward line frequency zero crossing, the TC side has to maintain a significant
amount of voltage. This fact is evident from Figures 19a and 19c zoomed waveform of
ii that toward zero crossing the boosting feature of ac-ac converter becomes high. This
phenomenon of the converter is very similar to boost-derived PFCs.
Figure 6.42 shows TC and RC voltages and current profiles. The TC coil
receives a high-quality sinusoidal current, similar to earlier results. As discussed,
the TC side coil voltage and current envelope do not follow the line frequency
sinusoidal trend because of the stiff dc output voltage. Figure 6.43 shows the gating
signal of switch S2P and voltages across TC tank network elements. Similar to
earlier, the magnitude of the voltage across the parallel capacitor, Vi, is a fraction of
TC voltage V1 because of the presence of a series capacitor, Cs. Since Vi directly
determines ac-ac converter switch voltage stress; therefore, the CCL tank is superior
in terms of inverter switch voltage rating.
From Figures 6.41 and 6.43, it is clear that, unlike resistive load, the duty cycle
of the ac-ac converter devices varies significantly throughout the line frequency.

FIGURE 6.42 Transmitter and receiver coil voltages and currents at when Vac = 200 V ac,
Po = 1.2 kW, Vo = 270 V stiff dc.

FIGURE 6.43 Gate pulse of switch S3p and voltages across different elements (Cs, Cp, TC)
in the TC side tank network.
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 197

FIGURE 6.44 Dynamic performance of the converter for a step-change in output current
reference from 4.4 A to 5.5 A.

The duty cycle of switches S1 and S3 slowly reduces when the input voltage moves
from peak to zero. From steady-state operation interval II, it is clear that current
through the S1 is transferred to S2 before the gate pulse of S1 is withdrawn.
Therefore, S1 experiences a soft turn-off, and S2 experiences a hard turn-on. Again,
in interval II of steady-state operation, the device S4 keeps on conducting when S3
is given gating pulse. This leads to a soft turn-on of S3 and a hard turn on S4.
Figure 6.44 shows the converter’s dynamic performance when a step-change in
load current reference is given from 4.4A to 5.5A. The outer output current loop can
meet load demand within the designed settling time, i.e., around 0.75 s, while the
inner loop maintains the high-quality source current.

6.12 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Q1. Using the conventional method, find the values of compensation capacitors such that the input
voltage and current of the following WPT circuit are in the same phase.

Draw a possible inverter and rectifier circuit for this IPT circuit.
C1 Lp Ls C2

C3 R

M
Q2. What will happen to S/S, S/P, P/S, and P/P compensated WPTs if a) the load is removed instantly
and b) the secondary coil and associated circuitry are removed suddenly.
Q3. Design a Parallel-Series compensated WPT Charger for Okinawa i-praise battery.

Given: Okinawa i-praise battery: 72 V Li-ion, charging power 720 W, input 400 V DC, k = 0.25 and
choose any suitable value of L1/L2.
Q4. Design a series-series compensated WPT Charger for a Tesla make EV Battery rated for 400 V,
25 A and drawing power from a 400 V DC bus. Assume coil-to-coil coupling k = 0.2, fs = 85 kHz.
Choose any suitable value of L1/L2.
• If the load impedance (Re or Ro) is variable, derive the output power and efficiency expression as
a function of Re for the above WPT charger. Assume coil resistances: rp = rs = 100 mΩ
• Plot Po-verses- Re, and efficiency-verses-Re.
• Find the value/s of Re for which maximum efficiency and maximum Po are obtainable. What
are the values of maximum efficiency and maximum Po?
198 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

• Find voltage and current ratings of each element as necessary for manufacturing/ or selecting
components.
Q5. In the following WPT circuit, using the conventional method, find C2 expression.
• Considering this value of C2, is it possible to design the C1 such that its value is not
dependent on the load (load-independent resonant tank design)?
• Derive the control (duty cycle) to output (output voltage) transfer function (TF) for the
following circuit.

Q6. Assuming the L1, L2, and Cs impedance are the same at the resonance frequency, find the primary
compensation capacitor value for the following circuit.
• Find the inverter (Ii / ig ) and rectifier transfer functions (vo / Vs ).
Wireless Inductive Power Transfer 199

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 7 Power Grid Impacts of
Electric Vehicle (EV)
Integration
D. S. Kumar, A. Sharma, and
C. D. Rodríguez-Gallegos

CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 204
7.2 EV Models, Charger Types, and Charging Modes...................................204
7.3 Impacts of EV Integration ......................................................................... 208
7.4 Positive Impacts of EV Integration ...........................................................209
7.4.1 Demand Response .......................................................................... 210
7.4.2 Regulation.......................................................................................210
7.5 Negative Grid Impacts with EV (PHEV, DC Fast
Charging, Ultra/Extreme Fast Charging)................................................... 211
7.5.1 Need for Grid Infrastructure Upgrades ......................................... 212
7.5.2 Voltage Fluctuation ........................................................................ 212
7.5.3 Grid Stability .................................................................................. 213
7.5.4 Phase Imbalance .............................................................................213
7.5.5 Protection and Fault Management .................................................214
7.5.6 Cyber Security Concerns ............................................................... 214
7.6 Harmonics and Power Quality...................................................................214
7.6.1 Harmonics Standards...................................................................... 215
7.6.2 EV Modeling Methods...................................................................216
7.6.3 Modeling of EVs Using Actual Schematics ................................. 216
7.6.4 Harmonic Load Flow Analysis...................................................... 217
7.6.5 Impact of EV Chargers ..................................................................218
7.7 Approaches to Mitigate the Impacts of EVs.............................................218
7.7.1 Energy Storage System ..................................................................219
7.7.2 Demand Response .......................................................................... 219
7.7.3 Power Electronic Devices .............................................................. 220
7.8 Potential of PVs and EVs .......................................................................... 220
7.9 Challenges of High PV Penetration........................................................... 223
7.10 Joint Operation of PV Systems and Electric Vehicles .............................225
References.............................................................................................................. 226

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-7 203

204 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Climate change has evolved as one of the most critical urban challenges in the 21st
century. The change in climate has been attributed to greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions that come from transport activities, burning of fossil fuels, industrial
processes, changes in land use, and deforestation [1]. As the global transport sector
is one of the major polluters, with road transport contributing around 80% of the
emissions, many countries have come up with policies promoting sustainable means
of transportation. Electric vehicles (EVs) have gained immense traction as a zero-
emission* means of transportation due to the massive subsidies provided by the
governments. According to IEA Global EV Outlook 2021 [2], the global electric car
stock just in the passenger section has risen to more than 10 million in 2020 in the
last decade (see Figure 7.1). It is noted that EVs are also replacing internal com­
bustion engine (ICE) vehicles in other categories such as trucks, three-wheeler, and
two-wheeler vehicl es.
The increase in EV numbers is not only linked to government subsidies but can
also be attributed to the reduction in battery costs and safety concerns, although
there is still scope for improvement in these aspects.
Although the increase in the electric fleet will bring major advantages to the
environment, it will require a major infrastructure deployment in terms of charging
stations. Moreover, it will also pose a major challenge for the grid operators as the
EVs would require electricity to charge the batteries. This additional requirement
for electrical power would change the load demand observed by the grid [4]. The
non-linear and mobile nature of the EV load demand will also affect the power
quality of the distribution system. Moreover, the EVs can act not only as a load but
also as a source and deliver power back to the grid using the vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
feature. Thus, the charging strategies and infrastructure will play a vital role in
determining the various grid impacts of EV integration as their penetration in the
transport sector increases.
The aim of this chapter is to highlight the various grid impacts of EV integration
as their penetration in the transport sector increases. We will present the different
EV models, charger types, charging strategies, and how their usage affects the grid.
The chapter will also discuss the mitigation methods to counter the different
impacts and describe the challenges associated with the widespread development of
the EV ecosystem.

7.2 EV MODELS, CHARGER TYPES, AND CHARGING MODES

In order to compete with ICE vehicles, various models of EVs have been released in
the market with different battery sizes, traveling ranges, and charging requirements
(see Table 7.1). Kindly note that the required charging power is aimed to match the

*
Zero-emission here refers to the emissions from the vehicles. The authors understand that there are
potential emissions during the manufacturing of the EV battery, and during the generation of power
that is required to charge the batteries.
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 205

FIGURE 7.1 The global electric passenger car stock, 2010–2020 [ 2].

TABLE 7.1
Available Car Models in the Market Till 2020 [ 3]
Car Model Battery Range Charging Power Actual Maximum
Capacity (kWh) (km) Required (kW) Charging Power (kW)
Mini Cooper SE 28.9 180 69 49
BMW i3 37.9 235 91 49
Hyundai Kona 64 400 154 77
Tesla Model 3 72.5 450 174 250
Porsche Taycan 83.7 425 201 262
Turbo S
Tesla Model S 95 515 228 250
* to reach from 20% to 80% SOC in 15 min

refill time in a fuel station which is approximately 15–20 minutes within which the
state of charge (SOC) of the vehicle should reach from 20% to 80%.
While driving range is one of the concerns, the major deterrence for car owners
to make the transition to EV is due to the inadequate availability of charging
206 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 7.2
Classification of Charger Types Based on Power Level, Location, Input
Signal, etc
Power Level Charger Type Location Expected Power Tentative Charging
Level (kW) Range (hours)
Level 1 On-board Home or Office 1.4 (12 A) 4–11
chargers 1-phase 1.9 (20 A) 11–36
Level 2 On-board 1- or Private or Public 4 (17 A) 1–4
chargers 3-phase Outlet 8 (32 A) 2–6
19.2 (80 A) 2–3
DC fast Off-board Commercial or 50 0.4–1
chargers Public Outlet 100 0.3–0.6
250 0.2–0.5

stations (CS) and the time taken for the EV to be fully charged. Therefore, a variety
of charging options are available depending on factors such as the EV owner’s
needs, available electrical infrastructure, space, etc. The charging infrastructures
can be categorized in different ways, based on factors such as input current type,
power level, charging location, charger type, etc. (see Table 7.2). According to the
various Standards available for EV charging, such as IEC 61851-1 [5], SAE J1772
[6], etc., the charging stations can operate in different modes based on the cate­
gories as shown in Figure 7.2, individually or in their combinations. Though ex­
treme fast charging is also being developed, the research on the topic is in the
nascent stage and there are no commercially available extreme fast chargers yet in
the market.
The methods of charging EVs are categorized into different power levels and the
power levels reflect the charger power, equipment, effect on the grid, charging time,
cost, and location. The main components of an Electrical Vehicle Supply
Equipment consist of Cords for EVs, attachment plugs, ports for the electrical
vehicle and Charge stands. The specific configuration will vary accordingly
depending on location, country, the connection to the electrical grid, the electric
potential difference, frequency, and transmission standards. Level 1 and level 2
charging equipment are the primary options because most EV owners are expected
to charge their vehicles overnight at home. Moreover, level 1 and level 2 chargers
are convenient and cost-effective.
Level 1 AC, which uses the slowest charge method, is commonly used in a
household where EV can be plugged into any convenient power outlet which
requires 120/230 V. The charger uses a standard J1772 which connects to the ac
port of the EV or a wall plug, Nema 515 Nema 520 to charge the EV [6].
Whereas, level 2 AC, a semi-fast charge method, requires 240/400 V and the
charging infrastructure can be off-board or on-board. Level 3 AC-DC uses a three-
phase commercial fast charge method which requires a voltage of 208/415 V. The
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 207

FIGURE 7.2 Factors defining charging infrastructure. Example: SAEJ1771 Standard.

charging takes less than an hour, however, it requires an off-board charger con­
version to regulate AC to DC. Among the 3 levels, the cost of level 3 infrastructure
is the most expensive as compared to the other power level chargers.
There are currently several types of electric vehicle charging infrastructure such
as conductive and inductive charging. Conductive charging requires direct contact
between the utility grid and the EV whereas inductive charging involves the ide­
ology of mutual induction for the power transfer between the utility grid and the
electric vehicle. Currently, conductive charging is more established than inductive
charging.
Also, there are on-board and off-board EV chargers [7]. On-board chargers are
integrated into the EV thus, they have a size and weight constraint resulting in
power level limitation. Off-board chargers are installed on various infrastructures
such as shopping centers and hospitals where they are not integrated into the EVs.
Conductive chargers require a cable connection between the charge inlet and the EV
connector. The cable is fed from a charging station of level 2 or level 3 or fed from
an electrical outlet of level 1 or level 2. Inductive charging does not require any
physical contact between the utility grid and electric vehicles; hence isolation
transformers might not be required for safety purposes allowing for the reduction of
the charger’s size. In addition, inductive chargers, are used in level 1 and level 2
chargers both methods can either be static or dynamic. The static charger is a
stationary inductive charger that consists of a primary inductor at the charging
208 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

station and a secondary inductor located at the bottom of the vehicle. The power
transfer happens when the primary paddle is inserted into the vehicle. The dynamic
charger is a contactless roadway for charging the EV system. The idea of Roadbed
inductive charging (dynamic charger) uses inductive charging to have the capability
to charge EVs on the move which reduces battery size. However, the misalignment
between the power-transferring coils reduces the efficiency of inductive charging.
In a unidirectional charger, the system power only transferred its power from the
grid to the vehicle, also known as grid-to-vehicle (G2V). Whereas the bi-directional
charger, allows the power to flow from the V2G and G2V. A typical bidirectional
charger consists of two stages. Firstly, a bi-directional AC-DC converter connected
to an active grid boosts the power factor of the system. Secondly, a bi-directional
DC-DC converter regulates the battery current. Unidirectional chargers apply to
level 1, level 2, and level 3. However, bidirectional only applies to level 2 infra­
structures, this is due to level 1 being targeted at low cost and its power limits and
maximizing the system flexibility. A reverse in the power flow of a level 3 fast-
charge system creates conflict with the basic purpose, minimizing connection time,
and delivering substantial energy.
In this work, to understand the grid impacts of EV integration, we will mainly
divide the chargers into AC and DC types. It can be observed from the literature, that
AC chargers are mainly used for low-power applications, take more time to charge,
and are usually deployed at homes or offices. DC chargers are fast chargers with less
charging time and are installed mainly on commercial sites (see Table 7.2). Slow
charging would allow the grid operator to plan and regulate the load demand and with
the V2G feature, EVs can be utilized even for other ancillary services. Fast or extreme
fast charging, on the other end, can lead to severe grid impacts in terms of voltage
fluctuations, harmonic distortions, etc., due to the high-power level and fast plug-and-
play. The various impacts of EV grid integration are highlighted next.

7.3 IMPACTS OF EV INTEGRATION

Before understanding the potential impacts of the integration of EVs in the grid, it is
important to understand the control architecture and market framework in which the
EVs will be deployed. It is evident from Table 7.2 (considering the power levels)
that an individual EV might not have a significant impact on the grid, especially for
low-power chargers. However, the cumulative impact of EVs can be significant and
they can even play a role in the electricity markets. As EVs are deployed on a large
scale, a new entity called the “Aggregator” is emerging in the grid. An Aggregator
manages and controls the charging of a group of EVs considering the requirements
of the EV owners. At the same time, it utilizes the flexibility of charging and
discharging the EV batteries in the electricity market based on the constraints laid
out by the distribution system operator. A good example of an Aggregator can be
charging infrastructures provided at public locations, such as malls or multi-story
car parks. Figure 7.3 highlights the EV integration architecture from the medium
voltage to the low voltage level.
From Figure 7.3, it can be observed that EVs can either be charged at individual
houses as shown by the yellow box, or be charged with other EVs at an Aggregator.
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 209

FIGURE 7.3 EV integration architecture.

The EVs charging/discharging at the individual houses would primarily have slow
charging facilities. They might choose to be controlled (or not) by the DSO and
would ideally not participate in the market. The uncontrolled EVs would generally
be free to charge at their will and would lead to an increase in load demand, voltage
drop, increase in line current, or transformer loading. The DSO needs to be prepared
to deal with this situation. While the controllable EVs could allow the DSO to
manage their charging or discharging to support the grid in terms of peak load
management for some incentives or subsidies. It is important to highlight that in
some works of literature, the controllable and uncontrolled charging aspect of EVs
is referred to as smart charging and dumb charging, respectively.
The EVs getting charged at the Aggregator are mainly controllable and because
of their cumulative power can participate in the electricity market and support the
grid for various ancillary services. As observed from Figure 7.3 (green arrow)
before an Aggregator commits in the market, it needs to check with the DSO re­
garding any constraint violations (such as line current, transformer loading, etc.). It
is noted that for efficient control and management, there must be channels of
communication sharing information among the various players (see Figure 7.3 for
the potential information which could be shared between the parties).

7.4 POSITIVE IMPACTS OF EV INTEGRATION

In this chapter, the focus is on highlighting the impacts of the large-scale integration
of EVs. As mentioned before, individual EVs would have minimal impact on the
grid and the DSO can include them partially in the control and management of the
210 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

distribution system by providing some incentives or subsidies. However, at the

Aggregator, the cumulative impact of EVs can be significant and they can partic­
ipate in the market to provide various ancillary services. These ancillary services are
considered positive impacts of EV integration in this chapter and will be discussed
next. It is noted that the participation of EVs for ancillary services depends on their
availability, therefore, the Aggregator relies on forecast tools to estimate their
availability and bid in the market.

7.4.1 DEMAND RESPONSE

As the EV penetration increases, the load demand of the system will increase as the
EV batteries need to be charged. The charging strategy plays an important role in
load management. As seen in Figure 7.4, for the dumb charging scenario it is
observed that the peak load increases during the night and the difference between
peak load and minimum load is around 22.5 MW, whereas, for the smart charging
strategy, this difference is reduced to 5 MW. This is very advantageous for the
DSO, as they do not have to depend on reserves to support the peak load. Here, the
aggregated load of EVs can act as a reserve which can assist to reduce the peak
load. The V2G feature of EVs plays a vital role to develop a good load manage­
ment/demand response strategy.

7.4.2 REGULATION
The aggregated EVs not only can reduce the dependence on reserves, but at the
same time, they can also act as reserves and support the grid in frequency and
voltage regulation. EVs as controllable loads and their V2G feature can support the
grid as primary, secondary, or tertiary frequency control using the droop

FIGURE 7.4 Variation in load demand with different charging strategy.

Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 211

FIGURE 7.5 Droop characteristics (Active Power v/s Frequency).

characteristics by injecting or consuming active power as shown in Figure 7.5. It is

noted that the use of EVs as a primary or secondary reserve would depend on if the
system is grid-connected or isolated [4]. Similarly, EVs can support voltage reg­
ulation by supplying or absorbing reactive power. This mode of ancillary service
assists the DSO to reduce investment in Battery Energy Storage Systems and
improve the system performance even during an emergency.
It is noted that the load management and regulation strategy can also support the
integration of renewable energy sources by mitigating their uncertainty or providing
an energy buffer in both steady-state and dynamic operations. As the integration of
EVs in the grid increases, it is the economics of the ancillary services which would
allow the Aggregators and EV owners to participate in the electricity market and
offset the charging cost of EVs.

7.5 NEGATIVE GRID IMPACTS WITH EV (PHEV, DC FAST

CHARGING, ULTRA/EXTREME FAST CHARGING)
EV charging adds new/futuristic loads to the grid infrastructure and will be seen to
impact grid reliability, resiliency, and security. With increasing EV loads in the
grid, issues like feeder voltage regulation, harmonic regulation, power quality
concerns, etc. are anticipated to significantly exacerbate. The EV interfaces can be
three-phase or single-phase systems depending upon the type of chargers used.
Signal phase systems will introduce additional issues like phase imbalance.
212 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

7.5.1 NEED FOR GRID INFRASTRUCTURE UPGRADES

With the increase in penetration of EVs, an increase in peak loading is anticipated
with unconstrained charging. Changes in load profiles owing to EV penetration will
impact the operation grid equipment including transformers, capacitor banks, and
on-load tap changers (OLTC), bringing about reliability and lifetime concerns for
the same. Though the increase in loading can be managed through coordinated
charging of vehicles up to certain penetration levels, the differences in consumer
charging patterns, grid constraints, etc., will drive the need for grid infrastructure
upgrade.

7.5.2 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION

Voltage fluctuation can be defined as the degree of deviation to terminal voltage i.e.,
the voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) when current is injected/ab­
sorbed at any power factor or the percentage change in output voltage from no-load
to full load. The deviation in feeder voltage is minimal closer to the substations and
the deviation becomes significant along the feeder with the addition of feeder
impedance. The voltage drops with EV penetration in a system can be understood
from Figure 7.6, where the green dots suggest that the voltage is within the standard
limits while the red dots suggest that the limits are violated (according to ANSI
C84.1-2020 Standard [8]). It is noted that as you move away from the DSO, the

FIGURE 7.6 Voltage Drop along the feeder due to EV load demand.
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 213

voltage level would reduce compared to the voltage at the DSO. Significant grid
impact with regards to EVs would be voltage regulation along with the distribution
feeders. In [9], the authors have analyzed the voltage profile in a substation for a
given distribution network with minimum and maximum loading of EVs and with
increasing penetration. The feeder voltage profile with EV penetration is heavily
dependent on the network model, distribution/number of charging infrastructures,
type of EV charging infrastructures (i.e., power, 1-ph/3-ph system, etc.) and is also
based on whether the EV is being used as a load or a source. Thus, the impact of
voltage regulation owing to PHEV is to be aggregated while an independent xFC
station can have a direct impact on the PCC.

7.5.3 GRID STABILITY

Charging infrastructures are typically interfaced to the grid via power electronic
circuits made of voltage source converters (VSC) as from-end stages and dc/dc
converters. These converter systems are designed to be operated under specific
conditions therefore, the converter control gains are linearized for the same. Thus,
the system stability is a function of the grid impedance (Zg) and the Aggregator’s
(charging infrastructure) input impedance (Za) as shown in Figure 7.7. With
impedance changes, the stability of the system can be easily compromised.
Conditions such as a weak grid, parallel operation of converters, grid voltage
events, etc., impact the system stability. Generally, impedance-based modeling is
used to analyze the stability of the grid as in [3].

7.5.4 PHASE IMBALANCE

IEEE defines voltage imbalance as the ratio of negative or zero sequence compo­
nents to the positive sequence component. Simply explained, phase imbalance
exists when one or more line-line voltages in a three-phase system are mismatched.
As per the definition, phase imbalance is a bigger concern with PHEVs which are
connected to single-phase lines of the distribution system. Uneven distribution and

FIGURE 7.7 Impedance model of the grid with an Aggregator (lumped charger load).
214 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

capacity of PHEVs along the three-phase system feeder can lead to phase im­
balances leading to different phases of the feeder with different voltage profiles.
This problem is alleviated with DC fast charges and extreme fast charging (XFC)
infrastructures which are directly connected to the 3-ph system with or without the
3-phase transformer.

7.5.5 PROTECTION AND FAULT MANAGEMENT

Connecting EVs to the power grid imposes numerous challenges with respect to the
protection and management of fault events, be it external or internal to the PCC. For
example, a grid under-voltage event can impact the EV chargers and lead to their
malfunctioning. As per recommendations, the EV is designed to trip when the grid
voltage reaches 0.8 p.u. in case of an under-voltage event. Cascaded trips in a
section of the electrical network can suddenly reduce the load on the grid and
impact the grid’s stability. The same holds good for tripping under grid fault events.
Additionally, existing grid infrastructures are not designed for bidirectional power
flow capability from EV integration. V2G operation will require new bidirectional
relays in the power grid for protection and fault identification.

7.5.6 CYBER SECURITY CONCERNS

It is evident that with the increase in EV penetration i.e., with the increase in power
electronics interfaces in the grid, the cyber-attack surface leads to a weak cyber-
security posture. Security breaches in the charging stations can not only endanger
consumer privacy but also the stability of the grid infrastructure [10]. With EV
penetration, the communication networks/infrastructures with a vast amount of
resourceful data/messages including state of charge, payment information, etc., can
be compromised. A detailed representation of the current and the futuristic EV
charging infrastructure with the potential entry pathways for cyber-attacks can be
observed in Figure 7.3 where communication channels associated between
Aggregator, DSO, and electricity markets are provided. It is noted that communi­
cation of individual EVs with different Aggregators would also be a feature and an
IOT-enabled Vehicular Energy Network is possible in the future [10]. With the PCC
governed by grid cyber security norms and standards, the EVs and their connection
points to the charging infrastructures must be cyber-hardened [11].

7.6 HARMONICS AND POWER QUALITY

The non-linear behavior of the onboard EV chargers and the high load demand of
EVs can lead to high variability in demand curves and voltage fluctuations which
can disrupt the quality of power. Hence, the impact of EVs on the power grid with
respect to power quality is discussed in detail here. Generally, voltage fluctuation.
Voltage unbalances, harmonic current distortion, and harmonic voltage distortion
falls under the umbrella of power quality issues. The harmonic standards, EV
modeling methods, the impact of EV chargers, and standard mitigation measures
are discussed in the following sub-sections.
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 215

7.6.1 HARMONICS STANDARDS

The charging infrastructures are designed to comply with harmonic standards
(IEEE–519). However, violations in harmonics injected from these sources can
occur in conditions involving the parallel operation of converters, weak grid situ­
ations, and grid voltage distortions. In [3], the authors have formulated the har­
monic current emission (considering the circuit shown in Figure 7.8) as

Za (s ) Ia (s ) Vg (s )
Ig (s ) = (7.1)
Za (s ) + Zg (s ) Za (s ) + Zg (s )

Total harmonic distortion (THD) of end grid current is the parameter used to
analyze the harmonic content in the current. THD can be expressed as both voltage
THD (THDv) and current THD (THDi). THD can be defined as the ratio of the root
means square of the harmonic voltage/current content expressed as a percentage of
the fundamental voltage/current,

n =2 Vn2_ rms
THDv = × 100% (7.2)
Vfund _ rms

2
n =2 In _ rms
THDI = × 100% (7.3)
I fund _ rms

Total demand distortion (TDD) is another parameter used to analyze the grid
harmonics. While in the former, the harmonics are a percentage of the fundamental
current, in the latter, it is expressed as a percentage of the root mean square (RMS)
maximum demand current, the latter is a better metric to analyze the grid
harmonics.

2
n =2 In _ rms
TDD = × 100% (7.4)
Imax _ rms

The allowable THD and TDD as per IEEE-519 [12] are shown in Table 7.3. The
limits in the IEEE519 vary according to the voltage at the point-of-coupling (PCC),
a point where the load is connected to the utility, the larger the voltage the stricter
the limits.
For bus voltages <1 kV at PCC, the voltage individual harmonics and THD are
limited at 5% and 8%, respectively. It is to be noted that harmonics impacts should
be analyzed at the PCC only and not the individual components as there would be
an occurrence that may or may not reduce the harmonics via phase cancellations
and diversity of load. Fourier analysis can be used to determine the harmonic
characteristics (THDv, THDi, TDD).
216 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 7.3
The TDD and THD Levels as Per IEEE 519 [ 3]
Maximum Harmonic Distortion of the Individual Harmonic Order in Percent of IL
ISC/IL 3 ≤ h < 11 11 ≤ h < 17 17 ≤ h < 23 23 ≤ h < 35 35 ≤ h < 50 TDD
<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Note:
• Limits for even harmonics are 25% of the odd harmonic limits
• DC offset in current is not allowed
• IL= maximum demand load current and ISC = maximum short circuit current at PCC

7.6.2 EV MODELING METHODS

Power quality assessment requires appropriate representations of the charging
infrastructure to capture its non-linear behavior. There are two main methods in
analyzing the impact of the harmonic of EV chargers, a) Mathematical
models—Model the harmonic injection into the grid as a current source and
compute harmonic load flow analysis, b) Circuit-based method—Model the EV
charger as the actual power electronics and measure harmonic characteristics at
the PCC.
When using mathematical models, the magnitude and phase variables can be
determined by the combination of actual data from the EV, analytical models, and
randomized using probabilistic models [13]. The individual harmonic contents
could be determined by measuring data from actual chargers as in [13] and [14]
where odd harmonics of level 1 and 2 industry chargers (Nissan Leaf (Gen 1 & 2)
and Tesla-S) were used in the harmonic load flow analysis. Alternatively, harmonic
contents can be obtained by the analytical time model by considering the difference
in voltage/current at different stages of charging [15].
For the circuit-based method, the actual schematic of the different levels of
chargers and EV batteries is designed to measure the actual harmonics. Due to the
difficulty in exact modeling of all the power electronics components, some authors
such as in [16], simplified the model by using the equivalent circuit of the nearest
stage/component of the chargers that is nearest to the grid. This is because the
circuit located on the AC side has the greatest harmonic content as illustrated
in [16].

7.6.3 MODELING OF EVS USING ACTUAL SCHEMATICS

Modeling EVs as harmonic current injecting sources or using data from actual EV
charging stations may not be accurate as EVs are considered as static loads in these
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 217

FIGURE 7.8 Simulated model of EV (Class E chopper with PMBL motor) [ 17].

cases. An accurate EV modeling using the actual EV schematics and charger using
a Class C chopper, and permanent magnet brushless motor (PMBL) design is done
in [17]. Here, the authors have connected a PMBL to two class C choppers—that
operate in four quadrants (to have forward and reverse direction) and simulated the
EV as shown in Figure 7.8. Moreover, they have used a Level 1 unidirectional
charger shown in Figure 7.9. The level 1 unidirectional charger used here consists
of an EMI filter, rectifier, and power factor correction (that can either be on or off-
board), a full bridge converter, and rectifier (which is also known as unidirectional),
a series resonant DC to DC converter which is an on-board circuit that connects to
the car battery.

7.6.4 HARMONIC LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

The purpose of the harmonic load flow or “Nodal Harmonic Analysis” is to obtain
the harmonic voltage for computing harmonic characteristics like THDv and
compare it with the IEEE 519 limits. The harmonic load flow analysis involves
computing the system admittance matrix along by modeling the different power
system components. The system admittance Y (h) requires modeling of all trans­
mission lines, generators, transformers, and loads that are connected to each node in
a network [19]. We know that harmonic current I(h), is either obtained by the actual
EV charger or the analytical model. Hence, once I(h) and Y (h), are known, the
corresponding harmonic voltage V(h) can be computed using,

FIGURE 7.9 Circuit Model of on-board unidirectional EV charger for Level 1 system [ 18].
218 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Y (h) V(h) = I(h) (7.5)

7.6.5 IMPACT OF EV CHARGERS

Harmonics impacts from EV chargers depend on the non-linear characteristics of
power electronics schematics in different types of chargers, the initial state-of-
charge (SOC) of the EV’s battery, charging pattern, and duration. Chargers can also
lead to serious harmonic and voltage fluctuations. Moreover, growth in home
electronic devices can cause an impact on the power quality, as well as the increase
in non-linear loads used at home such as refrigerators which require more reactive
power from the grid. Hence, one of the solutions to improve the power quality and
meet the requirement of reactive power is to design single-phase EV chargers that
provide reactive power while charging or discharging the EV battery. Moreover, the
charger can be used as an active power filter to reduce and filter the harmonic in the
household network i.e., created by the household’s non-linear loads or EV chargers.
If the ECS is directly connected to the grid for power supply without any energy
supports, such as Renewable energy (RE) and Energy Storage Systems (ESS), it
will cause harm to the grid due to the irregular charging and discharging load of an
EV charger. Also, Figure 7.11 shows the connection of a DC grid connected to an
EV charger and Figure 7.12 shows the connection of the AC grid to an EV charger.
The SOC of the battery is found to have a significant impact on the harmonic
contents. Research conducted on a standard IEEE 34-bus test system [20] deduced
that higher initial SOC led to lower THD levels. Similar results were also reported
in [21] where the authors tested 20 EVs with different initial SOC (0%, 20%, 30%,
50%, and 80%) and it was concluded that individual harmonic current magnitude is
reduced when they charge simultaneously with different SOC. This phenomenon is
explained by SOC attribute to variations in phases and magnitudes, hence, the
cancellation effects.
The location of the EV chargers also plays a critical role in the harmonic contri­
butions. EV chargers are not recommended to be placed near transformers as trans­
former and chargers are non-linear devices and thus would significantly increase the
harmonics contents [20]. It is also reported that transformer core saturation can distort
the sinusoidal wave from primary to secondary generating harmonics on the sec­
ondary side [22]. Thus, the key takeaway is the nodes near the transformers experi­
ence more harmonics when EV chargers are connected to them compared to the ones
further away from the transformer. Moreover, uncoordinated EV charging [23] and
fast charging [24] also increase the harmonics caused by EVs in the power grids.
Thus, the impact on power quality issues due to the EV integration can vary
depending on the type of grid, SOC levels, charging rate, and type of charging [25].

7.7 APPROACHES TO MITIGATE THE IMPACTS OF EVs

With the increasing problem of harmonics level in the EV chargers and a requirement
to meet IEEE 519, mitigation methods are required for power system conditioning.
Some of the commonly used ways to mitigate the impact of penetration of EVs into
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 219

THDv analysis - 4 node (848, 862, 852, 890)

10
9
8 THDv (4 node)
7
THDv (%)

6
5
4
3 THDv (4 node
2
1 after Filter)
0

Node bus

THDi analysis - 4 node (848, 862, 852, 890)

35
30 THDi (4 node)
25
THDi (%)

20
15
10 THDv (4 node
5 after Filter)
0

Node bus

FIGURE 7.10 Voltage and current THD graphs with and without active filters [ 17].

the distribution system are the use energy storage system (ESS), demand response,
use of external power electronic devices such as filters, and distributed–flexible
alternating current transmission devices, and smart charging strategies.

7.7.1 ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM

The ESS can be charged during the time of reduced grid power demand and dis­
charged to the system at higher grid power demand. The main purpose is to supply
both reactive and active power which will reduce the peak power demand from the
grid to the EV charger.

7.7.2 DEMAND RESPONSE

This methodology enforces the end-users rather than the utility supplier to consume
or charge their EV chargers at a different pattern. The purpose is to reduce the
power consumption during peak demand as higher penetration of EV chargers does
increase the THD values [26]. There are various alternatives for demand response
such as time of use (ToU), day-ahead, and dynamic pricing. Time-of-use (ToU) is
defined by having dynamic pricing during different times of the day, for example,
220 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 7.11 Shared of the primary energy consumption worldwide based on the energy
source in time (adapted from [ 28]).

charging the vehicle during peak-period (after workhours) is relatively more ex­
pensive than during the off-peak period.

7.7.3 POWER ELECTRONIC DEVICES

There are several power electronic devices to mitigate harmonics problems such as
passive filters, active filters, and Distributed Flexible AC Transmission System
(DFACTS). Traditionally, harmonic mitigation is done using passive filters.
However, problems such as non-ideal voltage sources could not be resolved by
traditional passive filters. Hence, in recent times, devices such as shunt active filters,
series active Filters, and DFACTS are implemented to stabilize and resolve power
quality issues. Active filters are the simplest and most convenient choices among
the discussed solutions. There are mainly two types of active filters namely shunt
active filter and series active filter. Shunt active filters and series active filters
resolve the harmonic problems mainly by injecting a compensated current and
voltage respectively into the PCC [27]. The use of simple active filters (integrated
with level 1 chargers and EVs) in mitigating the power quality issues has been
demonstrated in [17] where the authors have discussed that the current/voltage
injection using the shunt/series filters can effectively reduce the THDi and THDv.
This has been demonstrated using an IEEE 34-bus distribution test system with and
without active filters in Figure 7.10 where it can be seen that active filters play a
significant role in reducing THD.

7.8 POTENTIAL OF PVS AND EVs

Till now, the main sources of energy are still heavily dominated by non-renewable
sources such as coal, crude oil, and natural gas, as illustrated in Figure 7.11. This
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 221

FIGURE 7.12 Energy potential based on the different energy sources (adapted from [ 29]).

figure also shows that renewable sources such as solar photovoltaics (PV) are still a
minor player when considering the whole primary energy consumption worldwide.
Nevertheless, solar energy has the largest potential among all sources as just a
small fraction of it would be required to fully satisfy all the world’s energy
demands. The previous can be appreciated in Figure 7.12 where the area of the inner
pink circle represents the yearly world’s energy demand while the black circle
represents the overall known nonrenewable energy sources such as oil, coal, and
natural gas (~85 times the world’s yearly demand) while the green area stands for
the yearly potential from all different renewable sources expect for solar energy (~8
times the world’s yearly demand) and finally, the yellow area is the overall potential
form solar energy for land areas only (~1200 times the world’s yearly demand). The
previous then highlights the strong potential of PV systems to be deployed
worldwide.
Besides its energy potential, the introduction and deployment of PV systems
have considerably increased in time due to many factors such as:

• Cost reductions: the cost of a solar panel was more than 20 USD/Wp in
1984 [30] while in present times it is around 0.25 USD/Wp [31].
• Concerns on the limitation on non-renewable sources: it is estimated that
the known reserve left for natural gas is around 52.6 years, for oil is around
50.2 years, and for coal is around 134 years [32]. While this number might
increase by finding more reserves and improving the extraction and con­
version of energy processes, among others, there will be a limit never­
theless and thus, the increase of renewable sources is desired to satisfy the
world’s energy demand in the near future.
• Greenhouse gas emissions: it is expected that non-renewable sources have
a big impact on greenhouse gas emissions which is why clean energy
sources present an advantage.
• Government incentives: due to the previous points, many countries have
adopted a friendly policy toward the introduction of renewable energy
systems.
222 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

• Versatility: PV systems application is quite wide as it can be employed for

small-scale systems in the order of a few Watts or lower (like in calcu­
lators) all the way to big systems for residential, industrial, and PV farm
application where systems even beyond the GWp installation capacity
have been detected (the 2.7 GW Bhadla Solar Park located in India is
perhaps the largest installation to date).

Figure 7.13 the progressive adoption of PV systems in time worldwide indicating

the yearly install capacity (red bars) and the accumulated installed capacity (blue
bar). As it can be see from this figure, by end of 2021, around 942 GWp of PV was
installed and it is expected that in the present, the 1 TWp barrier has been surpassed.
This figure also shows how the installation of PV systems is increased in an ex­
ponential way and thus, considerable growth is still expected for the coming years.
Furthermore, with respect to the World’s electricity generation, Figure 7.13 shows
the PV penetration with a solid black line where it can also be appreciated how fast
the PV systems are gaining more of this share in time reaching a value of 5% by end
of 2021 and based on its trend, it is also expected for PV systems to continue
gaining more of the market share. This can also be noted for different countries
which already have PV penetrations beyond 10% such as Australia (15.5%), Spain
(14.2%), Greece (13.6%), Honduras (12.9%), Netherlands (11.8%), Chile (10.9%)
and Germany (10.9%) [33].
PV systems are not the only ones that have experienced a remarkable increase in
their deployment in time, but electric vehicles have followed a similar trend in the
previous years as shown in Figure 7.14. This figure shows that in the year 2021,
around 7 million electric vehicles were sold which is more than twice the number of
sales from 2020. It is thus expected that the EV market also continue to expand in time
and as a result that the electrification in the transportation sector will continue to
improve.

FIGURE 7.13 Yearly and accumulated PV installed capacity worldwide in black bars and
gray bars, respectively. The black solid line shows the yearly PV penetration with respect to
the World’s electricity generation. Illustration adapted from [ 33– 37].
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 223

FIGURE 7.14 Yearly PV installed capacity and yearly sales of electric vehicles [ 33].

7.9 CHALLENGES OF HIGH PV PENETRATION

As the number of installed PV projects continues to increase, concerns about
potential negative impacts on the electrical grid start to raise as, different to tra­
ditional energy sources, PV systems in principle produce power based on the
weather conditions which is difficult to control as for example, big variations in the
PV power are expected due to the clouds influence as this affects the amount of
irradiance reaching the solar panels. Based on measured data provided by the Solar
Energy Research Institute of Singapore (SERIS), Figure 7.15 provides an example
of how the irradiance can experience sudden changes due to the cloud’s effect. This

FIGURE 7.15 Irradiance variation due to clouds for a particular day in Singapore.
(Source: SERIS)
224 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

abrupt change in power can thus negatively affect the electrical grid quality, the
electrical protections, and the load, among others.
In order to tackle the impact that a large PV penetration can cause into the grid,
many solutions are proposed, such as the employment of forecasting algorithms to
accurately ascertain the resource adequacy in a power system as this will also help
the grid operator and generation companies to assure that enough power supply is
generated to satisfy the load demand [38] and achieve an optimal reserve allocation
and grid stability [39]. Another approach consists of installing extra equipment to
handle different challenges such as voltage variations frequency variations and high
harmonics. Examples of these equipment are capacitor banks, distributed flexible
AC transmission systems, solid-state on-load tap changers, solid-state transformers,
virtual synchronous generators, adaptive relays, and smart inverters, among others
[40]. Among these, batteries also play a critical role as a potential solution to
mitigate the negative impacts of PV on the grid as they can smooth out the power
injected into the grid and thus improve the overall grid quality. As seen in
Figure 7.16, the work [41] from presents an example of how, for a particular 20-
node electrical grid, the voltage fluctuations are kept within the desired range
(0.95–1.05 pu) only when batteries are employed.
While batteries present a great opportunity to tackle the issues induced by PV
systems into the grid, one challenge is that, although the battery price keeps on
reducing, it still has a considerable price which would influence the levelized cost of
electricity and return of investment which has limited the adoption of these solu­
tions in multiple projects. Thus, one potential approach could be to employ batteries

FIGURE 7.16 Grid voltage deviating from the desired range (0.95–1.05 pu) when only
diesel generators and solar panels are energizing this grid (left image) and achieving desired
grid voltage when batteries are added (right image).
Source [ 41]
Power Grid Impacts of EV Integration 225

whose main purpose is for other activities but that, if required, could be used to
support PV systems. Such an approach can be accomplished by employing the
batteries from electric vehicles. This will be discussed in the next section.

7.10 JOINT OPERATION OF PV SYSTEMS AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES

PV systems and electric vehicles can work together and support each other. On the
one hand, PV systems can provide energy to charge the batteries inside the electric
vehicles while on the other hand, the batteries from the electric vehicles can be used to
smooth out the power fluctuations of PV into the grid and thus improving the grid
quality and allowing for the further adoption of PV systems. Nevertheless, it must be
considered that:

• Electric vehicles are not a static battery but a movable one which is not
always connected into the grid.
• The main purpose of electric vehicles is the transportation of their pas­
sengers and thus its battery capacity should have enough level of charge to
assure that the desired transportation can take place.
• There would be multiple owners of electric vehicles and thus, their
approval to support the PV systems would be required.

Due to the previous challenges, while the combined operation of PV and electric
vehicles has a strong potential (There is increasing deployment of these as seen in
Figure 7.15), more work is still required to properly control this interaction and
define the gains from the different parties.
As for example, in [42], the authors aimed to optimize the operation of electric
vehicles in order to control the voltage and frequency stability in the grid by applying a
volt-var control for fast vehicle-to-grid var dispatch and electric charging vehicle
coordination where not only a better grid quality but also economic benefits were
achieved.
The work presented in [43] then aimed to optimize the location for aggregate
charging of electric vehicles in a photovoltaic power grid where 84% in reduction of
the distribution losses were achieved compared to a conventional power flow strategy.
Research and applications have also been found for residential cases where the
PV system and electric vehicle have the same owner and thus the aim of the
optimization approach changes such as the one shown in [44] where an optimization
strategy is considered for a smart house where the home appliances, rooftop PV,
and electric vehicle are considered to be schedulable devices based on a controller
set up. This work showed how by controlling this equipment, not only the electricity
bill is reduced (economic benefits) but also the peak demand of the microgrid is
reduced (technical benefits) by more than 30%.
Other applications of PV and EV can also be found such as the one where PV
panels are integrated into the EV. Figure 7.17 shows examples of different models of
electric cars with onboard solar panels. Here, the aim is then for the solar panels to
provide as much energy as possible to the batteries in order to reduce the grid con­
sumption if required to charge the EV. Different factors thus need to be considered
226 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 7.17 Different electric cars with onboard solar panels participating in the World
Solar Challenge [ 47].

such as the PV design, technology selection, impact on the high temperature, and
proper controller to transfer the PV power to the batteries with high performance and
reliability, among others [45]. Different studies have aimed to estimate the amount of
energy that can be provided by a PV system installed on the car itself like for example,
in [46] the authors estimated the percentage of annual driving that could be provided
by solar panels generated onboard under different conditions and for different loca­
tions. In their most optimistic scenario, 35% of the driving range per year was covered
by solar while in their least favorable conditions, this number can go as low as 12%.
The relation and tendency to adopt solar panels and electric vehicles are clear as
both technologies have the potential to support each other. This can be further seen
as more than 30% owners of electric vehicles are also expected to employ solar
panels [48]. Thus, further research on the common integration and operation
between solar PV systems and electric vehicles is expected to increase in the years
to come to design more robust and efficient systems.

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 8 Energy Storage in EVs
and Mitigating Impact
of EV Charging on
Power Grid
B. Sivaneasan, N. K. Kandasamy, K. T. Tan, and
D. R. Thinesh

CONTENTS
8.1 Energy Storage in Electric Vehicles............................................................ 232
8.1.1 Types of Energy Storage Used in EVs ........................................... 233
8.1.2 Cycle Life of Energy Storage..........................................................236
[Link] Calendar Ageing ................................................................ 236
[Link] Cycle Ageing .....................................................................237
8.2 Mitigating Impact of EV Charging ............................................................. 241
8.2.1 Impact of EV Charging on the Grid (Kuan Tak) ...........................241
[Link] Unpredictable Increase in Peak Demand..........................241
[Link] Increased Total Harmonic Distortion................................ 242
8.2.2 Mitigation Measures – Coordinated Charging ................................ 242
8.3 Summary....................................................................................................... 252
References.............................................................................................................. 253

One of the major sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) is the transportation sector. In
highly urbanized cities, transportation can account for a significant proportion of the
total emissions. Electrification of transportation is considered as the optimal solu­
tion for reducing the GHG emissions of the transportation sector. Looking beyond
electric railway systems such as mass or light rapid transit, electric vehicles (EVs)
are considered as an important component of future electric transportation systems
and are crucial for reducing global CO2 emissions. It is estimated by the
International Energy Agency (IEA) that the electrification of transportation could
reduce the transportation sector’s GHG emission to net zero by 2050 [1].
Back in 2012, the California Air Resources Board’s report stipulated that by
2025, 15% of all new cars and trucks sold will be powered by batteries, hydrogen
fuel cells, or other technology that emits little or no air pollution [2]. In recent years,

DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-8 231

232 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

many countries have been seen to take targeted ambitious push toward EV adoption.
For example, the Singapore government has targeted to have no new registration of
internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles by 2030, and no ICE vehicles on the road
by 2040. Another example is India, though it has not pledged to phase out con­
ventionally fueled vehicles by a certain year, it has an ambitious target to have 30%
of all new vehicle sales be electric by 2030. EVs have the greatest potential for
widespread market penetration, and it was evident that government policies are
taking effect as the global EV stock increased by 43% in 2020 compared to 2019
[3]. With public transportation playing a key role in the urban transportation system,
especially in urban cities like New York and Singapore, more and more EVs are
also introduced into the public transportation system, serving as both feeder bus and
long-haul passenger transport. Electric bus registrations increased in 2020 in China,
Europe, and North America with the global electric bus stock hitting 600 000
units [3].
In the study of EV integration to the grid, the impacts of different charging
methods on battery life and distribution system peak demand are the two most
important factors to be considered. As batteries are charged and recharged
repeatedly, it slowly loses the ability to return to its original intended capacity.
Furthermore, with increased penetration of EVs, it must be noted that EV charging
shifts a significant portion of transportation energy use onto buildings’ and homes’
electricity meters. The literature indicates that EV charging will predominantly
occur at buildings and homes during off-peak hours [4]. However, the charging of
EVs is unpredictable due to the various mobility patterns of EV users. Specifically,
the uncertainty in the arrival of EVs which are known as flexible loads is the main
cause of this problem. At large-scale penetration of EVs, these flexible loads will
have a significant impact on the power system if not managed properly. Typically, it
will result in problems such as an unpredictable increase in peak demand, voltage
fluctuations, and increased total harmonic distortion.

8.1 ENERGY STORAGE IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Electric vehicles can be classified as hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). All types of EVs
primarily require some form of energy storage as they have regenerative braking
systems to recover energy otherwise lost as heat due to friction during braking.
HEVs are powered by both an ICE and an electric motor that draws power from a
battery. Unlike other electric vehicles, however, HEVs use regenerative braking to
charge their batteries. PHEV is a hybrid electric vehicle with a battery pack that can
be recharged both internally and externally by plugging a charging cable into an
external electric power source, as well as by its on-board ICE-powered generator.
This allows the battery to store enough energy to operate the electric motor,
reducing fuel use by up to 60%.
On the other hand, BEVs do not have an ICE, a fuel tank, or an exhaust pipe, and
rely solely on battery-supplied energy for propulsion. While environmentally
friendly and with lower operation cost, owners may experience range anxiety since
they must ensure their BEV has enough energy for their journey unless they choose
Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 233

TABLE 8.1
Different EV Models Based on Battery Energy Capacity
Battery Capacity Energy Models
Category Range (E)
Low E ≤ 16kWh Renault Twizy, REVAi, Buddy, Mitsubishi i MiEV and
Mia electric.
Medium 16kWh > E < Nissan Leaf, Smart ED, Renault Fluence Z.E., Ford
30kWh Focus Electric, Honda Fit EV, Renault Zoe, Roewe
E50, Chevrolet Spark EV, Mercedes Clase B ED, Kia
Soul EV, Honda Clarity EV and Mahindra e2o.
High 30 kWh ≥ E < Wheego Whip LiFe, Volkswagen e-Golf, Bolloré
45 kWh Bluecar, BMW ActiveE, Renault Zoe, Ford Focus
Electric, BMW i3 and RAV4 EV.
Extra-High E ≥ 45 kWh Tesla Model S, Tesla Model 3, Tesla Model X, Audi e-
tron, Renault ZOE 2, BYD e6, Hyundai Kona e, Jaguar
I-Pace, Peugeot e-208, Volkswagen ID.3, Tesla Roaster
and Ford Mustang Mach-E.

a model with an optional fuel-powered generator, such as the BMW i3. The driving
range of these EVs depends on the energy capacity of the batteries used and the type
of vehicle. The range of energy capacity of the EVs is between 7 kWh and 85 kWh
[5]. Table 8.1 categorizes different commercially available EV models based on the
energy capacity of their batteries. There are also many EV motorcycles and EV
bicycles commercially available [6,7].

8.1.1 TYPES OF ENERGY STORAGE USED IN EVS

A variety of electrochemical batteries are available for electric transportation.
Popular electrochemical batteries include Lead-Acid, nickel–metal cadmium (Ni-
Cd), nickel–metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), and lithium-metal (Li-
metal). Due to the different types of batteries used in today’s electric vehicles, it is
difficult to determine which is best suited to meet all the important requirements for
electric transportation use, including energy storage efficiency, structural properties,
cost, safety, and service life. EVs use various types of batteries which are classified
into three widely used categories based on their chemistry, namely lead-acid bat­
teries, nickel–metal hydride batteries, and lithium-ion-based batteries. The char­
acteristics of the three battery types are compared in Table 8.2 and the typical
charging curves are shown in Figure 8.1.
Lead-acid batteries (Pb-PbO2) are the oldest kind of rechargeable battery invented
in 1859. Although this kind of battery is very common in conventional vehicles, it has
also been used in electric vehicles. It has very low specific energy and energy density
ratios. The GM EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV, are examples of vehicles that used
this kind of battery. Nickel-metal-hydride (Ni-MH) type batteries use an alloy that
234 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 8.2
Comparison of Three Battery Types Based on Their Chemistry [ 8– 14]
Characteristics Lead-Acid Nickel-Metal Hydride Lithium-Ion
Working Temperature (°C) −20–45 0–50 −20–60
Specific Energy 30–60 Wh/kg 60–120 Wh/kg 100–275 Wh/kg
Specific Power 75–100 W/kg 250–1000 W/kg 350–3000 W/kg
Charge/discharge efficiency 50%–92% 66% 80–90%
Self-discharge rate 3–20%/month 30%/month 15% /month
Cycle durability 500–800 500–1000 400–3000

FIGURE 8.1 Typical charging curves of different battery types.

stores hydrogen for the negative electrodes instead of cadmium (Cd). Although they
present a higher level of self-discharge than those of nickel-cadmium, these batteries
are used by many hybrid vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius and the second version of
the GM EV1. The Toyota RAV4 EV, apart from having a lead-acid version, also had
another with nickel-metal-hydride. Lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ion) employ, as elec­
trolyte, a lithium salt that provides the necessary ions for the reversible electro­
chemical reaction that takes place between the cathode and anode. Lithium-ion
batteries have the advantages of the lightness of their components, their high loading
capacity, their internal resistance, as well as their high loading and unloading cycles.
In addition, they present a reduced memory effect.
When comparing different technologies of energy storage, it’s crucial to consider
their working temperatures, as this can limit their acceptance. In this regard, lead-
acid and lithium batteries are the best at withstanding low temperatures, as they can
load temperatures of up to −20 degrees Celsius, however, low temperatures severely
reduce the capacity of Li-Ion batteries, causing self-discharge [15]. When com­
paring the specific power, lead-acid batteries offer only up to 100 W/kg, while Ni-
MH with a maximum of 1000 W/kg, and Li-ion, which offers up to 3000 W/kg
gives the best results. The Ni-MH and lead-acid batteries, on the other hand,
perform poorly in terms of life cycles. Lithium batteries have a cycle life of up to
3000 cycles, whereas Ni-MH batteries have a cycle life of up to 1000 cycles only.
The charging curves shown in Figure 8.1 are based on the assumption that the
same charging rate is used. The charging rate of a battery is defined as the portion of
Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 235

energy that is supplied to a battery in one hour and is usually denoted as C or C-rate.
For example, if a battery with a nominal capacity of 16 Ah is charged using 2 A
current then the charging rate is 1/8 C and it will approximately take 8−10 hours for
charging the battery depending on its chemistry. Both nickel-metal hydride batteries
and lithium-ion batteries can be charged at a comparatively higher C-rate such as
1C−3C but this is not possible with lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, both Lead-acid
batteries and Lithium-ion batteries have two distinct regions namely

1. Constant current region where the charging power remains constant and
2. Constant voltage region where the charging power changes with time.

Among all the various energy storage technologies, lithium-ion battery is the most
suitable technology as it has the best performance in practically all the evaluated
qualities. This is mainly due to their high specific energy and high energy density.
As of now, Li-ion batteries are the lightest and long-lasting batteries available for
electric vehicles [16]. Furthermore, it can meet the requirements of both the elec­
tricity grids and the electric vehicles sector. There are several advantages to uti­
lizing a Li-ion battery cell and as a result, the technology is rapidly being employed
for a wide range of applications. Owing to the advantages of Li-ion technology,
these batteries are finding an increasing number of applications, resulting in a lot of
research and development.
The advantages of Lithium-ion battery include [17,18]:

• Self-discharge: The rate of self-discharge rate for Lithium-ion cells is

much lower than other rechargeable cells like NiMH and Ni-Cad forms.
The self-discharge rate is approximately 5% in the first four hours after
getting charged, but it falls to 1% to 2% monthly.
• High energy density: Due to the continuous demand for batteries with
much better energy density as electronic devices like mobile phones need
to function longer between charges while amid consuming more power.
Electric cars also require high-energy-density battery technologies.
• Low maintenance: Lithium-ion battery do not require maintenance to
sustain their performance, unlike lead acid cells, which require topping up
of battery acid periodically.
• Load characteristics: The load characteristics of Lithium-ion battery are
constantly 3.6 volts per cell, which is great.
• Availability of different types: Different forms of Lithium-ion batteries can
provide different current densities which is ideal for consumer mobile
electronic equipment including electric vehicles and power tools.
• No priming required: Unlike other rechargeable cells which require
priming after receiving their first charge, Lithium-ion battery do not have
such a requirement.

As with all technology, lithium-ion batteries have their own drawbacks.

Nonetheless, this does not rule out the potential of overcoming or at the very least
minimizing these drawbacks and achieving superior performance.
236 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

The disadvantages of Lithium-ion battery include [17,18]:

• Protection required: Lithium-ion batteries and cells are less durable than
certain other rechargeable technologies. They must be protected against
being overcharged and discharged too far. In addition, the current must be
kept below safe limits. As a result, one downside of lithium-ion batteries is
that they require protective circuitry to guarantee that they remain within
their acceptable working limits.
• Cost: Lithium-ion battery cost 40% more than Nickel Cadmium cells to
manufacture.
• Developing technology: Even though lithium-ion batteries have been
around for a long time, some people still regard them as a developing
technology. This has the potential to be a disadvantage since technology
changes. However, because new lithium-ion technologies are always being
researched, this can be a benefit when better alternatives become available.
• Ageing: One of the most significant issues of lithium-ion batteries for
electronics is that they age. This is based not only on the time or calendar
but also on the amount of charge-discharge cycles that the battery has gone
through. Typically, batteries can only tolerate 500 to 1000 charge-
discharge cycles before their capacity degrades. This number is rising as
lithium-ion technology advances, but batteries will eventually need to be
replaced, which might be a problem if they are integrated with equipment.
However, it is to be noted that Li-ion batteries have the best performance
in terms of ageing compared to any viable technology currently available.

8.1.2 CYCLE LIFE OF ENERGY STORAGE

The first uses of energy storage technology only required a short lifespan. However,
as a result of the proliferation of new applications and technology including electric
transportation, the attention has shifted to ageing phenomena in energy storage
devices while still taking into account manufacturer requirements to meet their
applications’ need for power and energy performances. So, in addition to the
performance constraints, battery design specifies service life criteria such as 10–15
years or 20000–30000 discharges [19] clearly. As a result, battery ageing is widely
used to extract both the major consequences of time and usage on a battery.
Identifying ageing and degradation mechanisms in a battery is the most challenging
and time-consuming task. Such processes are difficult because various components
from the environment or from the method of usage interact to produce diverse
ageing effects. This makes it difficult to comprehend battery ageing, and many
researchers have sought to explore battery ageing over the years [20].

[Link] Calendar Ageing

The period of time a battery may be left idle or with low activity while still
maintaining a capacity greater than 80% of its initial capacity is referred to as
calendar life. Any ageing mechanisms that cause a battery cell to degrade without
being subjected to a charge-discharge cycle are referred to as calendar ageing. This
Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 237

is a major concern as the operating hours of energy storage devices are substantially
shorter than the idle intervals, especially in many lithium-ion battery applications,
such as EVs. Furthermore, damage owing to calendar ageing might be noticeable in
ageing experiments, especially when cycle depths and current rates are low [21].
The most prevalent process of calendar ageing is the creation of passivation layers
at the electrode–electrolyte contacts. During the creation, growth, or repair of
passivation layers, electrolyte decomposition, i.e., reduction at the anode and oxi­
dation at the cathode interface, consumes cyclable lithium. Furthermore, it is
thought that dissolved transition-metal ions from the cathode induce the formation
of the passivation layer at the anode, known as the solid electrolyte interphase
(SEI), which is eventually converted back to metals at the anode [22,23]. Both the
evolution of passivation layers and transition-metal dissolution are accelerated by a
high state of charge (SoC) and temperature [24,25].

[Link] Cycle Ageing

The number of full charge and discharge cycles a battery may go through before its
capacity drops to 80% of its starting capacity is referred to as cycle life. When a
battery is charged and discharged, cycle ageing occurs. Cycle ageing, like calendar
ageing, causes the loss of lithium inventory (LLI), active material (LAM), and
impedance to rise [26]. It was found that faster development of the SEI is observed
while cycling at ambient temperature and an additional blocking mechanism of
graphene layers on the anode SEI when cycling at 60 °C [27]. Cycling also affects the
anode surface areas as the de-lithiation and lithiation in the active material of the
electrodes cause volume expansion and potential electrode breakage. In addition to
SEI development and active mass wear, lithium plating at low temperatures and/or
high currents can cause rapid ageing [28]. In cycle ageing studies, the effects of cycle
ageing are frequently layered atop those of calendar ageing. As a result, the calendar
ageing effects must be analyzed and subtracted from overall ageing to achieve the
pure cycle ageing effects. Pure cycle ageing refers to charge and discharge throughput
in Ah or the whole equivalent cycle. The temperature, C-rate, Depth of Discharge
(DoD), and SOC range of the cell all have a role in cycle ageing.
A lot of literature summarizes the ageing mechanisms of Li-ion batteries to the
loss of cathode/anode active materials and the loss of lithium-ion inventory [29–31].
The intercalation/ deintercalation of lithium-ion cathode and anode active material
are commonly linked to battery charging and discharging operations. As a result,
the battery capacity is directly determined by the amount of active materials and
available lithium ions. In addition, the battery degradation mode includes electro­
lyte loss (LE) and an increase in internal resistance (RI). While the charge and
discharge cut-off voltages stay constant, an increase in internal resistance may cause
the battery’s power to fade and its capacity to shrink [32].
In [33], Kristen A. Severson’s team performed analyses on the characteristics
and patterns of the capacity degradation of commercial lithium-ion batteries under
fast charging conditions, with varying cycle life ranging from 150 to 2300. The
batteries were charged and discharged continuously till the end of its life. Since
each battery is charged to the end of life, the battery characteristics can be observed
from the voltages and current over its total number of cycles to study the
238 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

degradation in its useful life. One particular batch of batteries was charged to 80%
state of charge and left to rest for 1 minute, followed by its discharging sequence
and left to rest for 1 minute after fully discharged. The battery is charged to 80%
which equates to 0.88 AH. Each battery has a useful life of different cycles and each
of these cycles has multiple data points for voltage and current as it charges to 80%
SOC. Data such as time, voltage, current, and discharge capacity were recorded,
compiled, and shared with the research community. Using the accumulated data
provided, the performance of the batteries could be studied by analyzing the deg­
radation of cycle life with respect to charging. There were 3 batches of test channels
used. Batch 1 consists of 48 channels, but there were two test channels, channels 4
and 8 that did not successfully start, and hence it does not have the data in this
study, whereas batch 2 consists of all 48 channels. The cells feature a 1.1 Ah
nominal capacity and a 3.3 V nominal voltage. The manufacturer’s suggested fast-
charging technique 3.6 C constant current–constant voltage (CC-CV). The rate
capability of these cells is demonstrated during the charge and discharge process.
Figure 8.2 shows the scatter plot of the last termination cycle life of all
46 channels of batteries. It can be observed that out of 46 channels, the range of the
life cycle varies quite significantly. In this batch, when compared to all the other
channels, channel 11 has the fastest degradation profiles with the lowest cycle
number of 534, while channel 6 has the slowest degradation profile with the highest
cycle number of 1227.
To further visualize the degradation of each channel based on cycle number and
discharge capacity, the application of the start cycles and inter-cycle distance is
used to obtain the range of the discharge capacity at the specific cycle numbers.
Therefore, the start cycle is set at 50 of the cycle number, and for the inter-cycle
distance, which is the distance or gap in the cycle number, is set at 10. This can be
determined as:

• Dataset: Starts from 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, … 1000, 1010, 1020, … 1200,
1210, 1220 (Cycle Number)
• Dataset: Ends at 1220 instead of 1227 cycle number, due to the inter-cycle
distance of 10

For example, Figure 8.3 shows the results of two individual representative channels,
namely 11 and 6 that are plotted for their discharge capacity versus cycle number.
After the application of the start cycle and inter-cycle distance, the result of cycle
number for channel 11 will be 530 instead of 534, and channel 6 will be 1220
instead of 1227 of the cycle number.
Hence, the execution from the start cycle and inter-cycle distance results will be
used in the data analysis for the battery degradation on all the remaining channels of
data. With the application of the start cycle and inter-cycle distance for all the
channels, most of the degradation of cycle number lies on the discharge capacity
that ranges from 0.8 Ah to less than 1.2 Ah.
Figure 8.4 compiles all the cycle numbers plotted against the battery discharge
capacity based on the updated dataset with the start cycle and inter-cycle distance
imposed. The graph indicates the degradation of the discharge capacity over the
Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 239

FIGURE 8.2 Scatter plot of all 46 channels.

240 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 8.3 Channels 11 and 6 with start and inter-cycle distance.

prolonged cycle at a fast charging rate of 3.6C. All the batteries exhibit similar
characteristics at either a steeper or gentler gradient. From the isolated view in
Figure 8.5, showing only the distinct characteristics of the channels, it can be
observed that some batteries exhibit a distinct degradation and others that are
supposedly in the “well-grounded” range. Batteries of channels 11, 12, 47, and 48
exhibit rapid capacity degradation between 534 and 620 cycles with discharge
capacity below 0.9 Ah. On the other end of the spectrum, it can be observed that
batteries channel 2, 3, 5, and 6 has the highest number of cycles between 1150 and
1220 with discharge capacity above 0.97 Ah. The discharging capacity of these
channels has a much gentler slope which indicates a higher performance of a Li-ion
battery within this set of test batteries.
In order to prolong EV battery life, the most efficient charging mode is shallow
charge cycling, which provides the largest cumulative capacity or cycle life [34].
The DoD has a considerable impact on the cycle life of Li-ion batteries. The number
of cycles and cumulative capacity increases as DoD decreases. A battery that has

FIGURE 8.4 Overall discharge capacity.

Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 241

FIGURE 8.5 Isolated view of Figure 8.4 showing only the distinct characteristics.

been depleted to 20% of its full energy capacity, for example, has a far longer cycle
life than one that has been discharged to with 80% DoD. Furthermore, with fast
charging, lower DoD cycling is recommended with operation in a favorable DoD
and SoC range, avoiding the end of charge (near to 100% SoC) region [35].

8.2 MITIGATING IMPACT OF EV CHARGING

EV integration into the grid requires proper attention to avoid unnecessary com­
plications. The energy requirement of an EV is compared with the average resi­
dential energy consumption in major cities is noticeably higher. Various analyses on
the impact of EV charging show that uncoordinated charging of EVs will result in
detrimental impacts on the power system operation.

8.2.1 IMPACT OF EV CHARGING ON THE GRID (KUAN TAK)

EVs behave like a flexible load, as such they will have a significant impact on the
power system and has the potential to cause an unpredictable increase in the peak
load of the power system if not managed properly. Furthermore, if the problems are
not addressed properly, it will result in a decrease in power quality and an increase
in system operation cost for the peak demand. Large-scale EV charging would have
the following impacts on the power grid.

[Link] Unpredictable Increase in Peak Demand

The increase in energy demand due to large-scale EV charging could result in an
unpredictable peak demand increase in power grids. This increase in peak demand
has the potential to overload the electrical equipment in the power grid which
includes transformers and feeders. If multiple EV users located within a vicinity
such as multiple houses in a neighborhood or multi-storey carparks in several
blocks of commercial buildings decide to charge their EVs simultaneously, the
transformers and feeders might not have adequate capacity to deliver the required
242 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

amount of power to charge the EVs. This issue might be more prominent with fast-
charging stations which have been increasing rapidly in recent years. As shown in
Figure 8.6, if the utilities do not upgrade the infrastructure of the power grid and the
charging of EVs is not managed properly, it is expected that the peak demand will
increase by 30% when the EV adoption reaches 50% of the vehicles on the road
[36]. Additionally, the increase in peak demand will also shorten the life of
transformers and cables as the life of these electrical equipment depend on the hot-
spot temperature that arises from overloading.

[Link] Increased Total Harmonic Distortion

The charging of EVs involves the conversion of power using nonlinear power
electronic converters which will result in the injection of harmonic currents into the
power grid and increase the total harmonic distortion (THD) level of the grid
voltage. The amount of harmonic currents injected from an EV charger is dependent
on its circuit topology, power rating, and the impedance of the network that the
charger is connected to. The distortion of grid voltage due to the injection of har­
monic currents from a three-phase EV charger is demonstrated via a simulation
study conducted in MATLAB/Simulink. Figure 8.7 shows the simulation model of
the distribution system which is realized in Matlab/Simulink for the study. The
proposed system consists of a distribution grid supplying power to a 5 kW, three-
phase EV charger, and a linear load. The linear load is a three-phase RL load with a
real and reactive power demand of 8 kW and 3 kVAr respectively. The system
parameters are given in Table 8.3. The impedances of the distribution lines and the
transformer have been obtained based on the details presented in [37]. The inverter
loss resistance of the EV charger has been coarsely estimated because it is not
precisely known in practice. In the simulation study, the grid only supplies real and
reactive power to the linear load for 0 ≤ t < 2 s, and the EV charger is disconnected
from the distribution system. Figure 8.8 shows the grid voltage for 0 ≤ t < 4 s. At
t = 2 s, the EV charger is then connected to the distribution system. The close-up
waveforms of the grid voltage for 1 ≤ t < 1.1 s (before connection of charger) and
3 ≤ t < 3.1 s (after connection of charger) during steady-state operation are shown in
Figures 8.9 and 8.10, respectively. It is observed that the connection of the EV
charger results in increased distortion of the grid voltage due to the injection of
harmonics currents from the EV charger to the grid. The current supplied by the
grid to the EV charger for 3 ≤ t < 3.1 s is shown in Figure 8.11. The THD values of
the grid voltage before and after the connection of the EV charger are measured to
be about 2% and 4% respectively. As the number of EV chargers increases, the
increased amount of harmonics currents injected by the EV chargers would have a
cascading detrimental effect on the life of transformers and cables.

8.2.2 MITIGATION MEASURES – COORDINATED CHARGING

If EV charging/discharging is managed properly, it is not only possible to mitigate
these problems but also possible to derive many auxiliary functions such as dis­
tributed reserves for renewable energy [38–40]. Many countries have an infra­
structure for parking where a large number of EVs will be available in groups for
 Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging

FIGURE 8.6 Estimated increase in peak demand due to EV charging (50% adoption) [ 34].
243
244 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 8.7 Overall configuration of the simulation model.

TABLE 8.3
Parameters of the Simulation Model
PARAMETER Value
Distribution grid voltage vG = 230 Vrms (phase)
DC link voltage Vdc = 600 Vdc
Distribution line impedance Rℓ = 7.5 mΩ, Lℓ = 25.7 μH
Transformer impedance RT = 1.9 mΩ, LT = 28.6 μH
LC filter Lf = 1.2 mH, Cf = 20 μF
DG inverter loss resistance Rf = 0.01 Ω

FIGURE 8.8 Waveforms of grid voltage.

FIGURE 8.9 Closed-up waveforms of grid voltage for 1 ≤ t < 1.1 s.

Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 245

FIGURE 8.10 Closed-up waveforms of grid voltage for 3 ≤ t < 3.1 s.

charging/discharging. A well-designed charging method can therefore be utilized to

achieve optimum charging/discharging with comparatively lesser infrastructure
investment and improved efficiency. It also provides a better opportunity for utilizing
the auxiliary services offered by the EVs and hence has the potential to decrease the
power system operation cost as well as increase the power system stability.
Coordinated charging of EVs which also has other terminologies such as smart
charging, regulated charging, and controlled charging is one of the most effective
methods for integrating EVs into the existing power systems. In this method, the
charging of EVs is carried out such that optimal performance can be obtained.
There are various coordinated charging strategies available in the literature [41–46].
Coordinated EV charging can be broadly classified into two types, i.e., time-
coordinated charging (TCC) and power-coordinated charging (PCC).
The difference between TCC and PCC in terms of the number of EVs being
charged and the corresponding power consumed is illustrated in Table 8.4 using a
typical scenario of 6 EVs connected for charging. It can be seen that in TCC, the
number of EVs allowed to charge at a given time is controlled to ensure that the
total EV load demand is within the total power available for EV charging. Whereas,
in PCC, the power consumed by each EV is controlled to ensure that the total EV
load demand is within the total power available for EV charging.

FIGURE 8.11 Closed-up waveforms of current supplied to EV charger for 3 ≤ t < 3.1 s.
246 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 8.4
Difference Between TCC and PCC
Total Power TCC PCC
Available for EV
Charging (kW) Number of Average Power Number of Average Power
EVs Charged Consumed by Each EVs Charged Consumed by Each
EV (kW) EV (kW)
9 3 3 6 1.5
12 4 3 6 2
15 5 3 6 2.5
18 6 3 6 3

Both the TCC and PCC methods aim to control the overall EV load demand to
keep within the recommended limits in order to circumvent the impacts of EV
charging on the power system operation. It can be observed from Figure 8.12 that in
power-controlled coordinated charging, the power supplied to each, and every
vehicle is controlled in all instances such that the power limits are not violated.
Whereas in the case of time controlled coordinated charging, the number of EVs
charging at all instances is controlled such that the power limits are not violated.
The power limit is the constraint that is to be maintained for optimal perform­
ance. Time-controlled coordinated charging has significant advantages as the con­
verters used for charging the EVs mostly operate near their optimal power output.
Since discontinuous charging will not affect the life and performance of the bat­
teries [47] time-controlled coordinated charging can be used without any major
performance degradation. However, time-controlled coordinated charging requires
an accurate load model for determining the charging demand of each EV and an
effective scheduling algorithm for scheduling the EV charging with a set of
constraints.
A real-time TCC is proposed in [48] for minimizing power losses and improving
voltage profiles during EV charging. The authors analyze the voltage deviation due
to different scenarios of uncoordinated charging for different levels of EV

FIGURE 8.12 Typical load curves of PCC and TCC.

Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 247

penetration. The authors based on their analysis proposed a real-time TCC which
utilizes tariff-based priority and regulatory voltage limits as constraints. The
advantage of smooth valley fill-charging with the help of a TCC is demonstrated in
[42]. The authors used different proportions of Level I and Level II chargers for
their analysis. The intelligent EV charging strategy proposed aims to minimize the
ramping cost of the power system. Methodologies for using priority-based TCC are
presented in [44] and [49] to achieve EV load leveling.
In [44] the authors introduced a centralized EV charging method that can modify
the total demand of EV charging without affecting the convenience of EV users. In
[49], the objective is to maximize the overall profit by increasing the number of jobs
completed before their deadlines and decreasing the penalty for uncompleted jobs.
It included various threshold limits for scheduling the EVs. Novel solutions of using
TCC for V2G application are demonstrated in [50] and [51] where different priority
criteria are employed for scheduling of EV charging. In [52] the aggregators control
EV charging from 10 P.M. to 7 A.M. i.e., during off-peak period. The amount of
energy that needs to be purchased in each time interval is determined by the
scheduling algorithm based on the price and EV charging demands. The EVs that
are to be charged during the given time interval are determined by the dispatch
algorithm. In [50] the authors employed a dynamic programming algorithm to
obtain the optimal charging control for each EV. The developed algorithm was
applied for V2G frequency regulation services. Mathematical representation for the
cost of battery charging and the revenue was also used for further investigations. In
[51], the authors developed a dynamic scheduling algorithm for estimating the real-
time V2G capacity that can be obtained from a group of EVs. The method has the
significant advantage that the accuracy is not affected by time.
A novel PCC method for mitigating the complications in power system operation
due to different levels of penetration of EV load is proposed in [41]. The authors
analyzed the voltage regulation issues and power losses associated with
uncoordinated charging in the residential grid. The proposed PCC minimizes power
losses and maximizes the main grid load factor. Furthermore, optimal charging
profiles for the EVs are computed in the proposed method using stochastic pro­
gramming. In [53], a PCC method that focuses on minimizing the variance in SOC is
developed for achieving fair aggregation of EVs for V2G application. The authors
used state-dependent allocation and the water-filling approach both for up-regulation
as well as down-regulation. The objective function of the optimization problem is to
satisfy fairness criteria when the regulation service is provided by the EVs.
Research work in [54] proposes a PCC method that maximizes the total amount
of energy that can be delivered to all EVs over a charging period while ensuring that
network limits are not exceeded. In the above work, a linear programming-based
approach is employed to determine the charging power which is optimal for each
EV. The method was also tested on a section of the residential distribution network.
A novel PCC algorithm to intelligently allocate electrical energy to EVs connected
to the grid based on priority criteria such as energy prices, battery capacity, and
charging time is proposed in [55]. Estimation of distribution algorithm (EDA) and a
mathematical framework that aims at maximizing the average state-of-charge at the
next time step was used by the authors. The proposed method was simulated for
248 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

real-world parking deck scenarios using statistical analysis and transportation data.
Another PCC method proposed in [46] uses EV charging profiles and energy prices
as priority criteria for scheduling EV charging. The algorithm proposed uses the
elasticity of EVs as loads for valley filling. Optimal charging profiles for all the EVs
are obtained pertaining to the different conditions such as valley filling power,
maximum charging rate, and deadline.
The dynamic scheduling algorithm proposed in [51] uses a data-driven sched­
uling approach to overcome the disadvantages of other scheduling methods while
providing a robust algorithm compared to those available in the literature. The load
demand of the power network consisting of m number of residential units without
EVs is represented as

m
pjload demand = pxres
,j
unit
j = 1, 2, 3, … 48 (8.1)
x =1

2
pxres
,j
unit
= rand x, j , x, j , pdfx, j (8.2)

where μx,j, x2, j , and pdfx,j are the mean, variance, and probability density function of
respective units in a given interval. ‘x’ and ‘j’ represent the residential unit number
and half-hour interval, respectively. The load demand data is collected from the
smart meters installed in a few residential units of Nanyang Technological
University (NTU) campus. Load demand data for a period of one year is used to
determine the mean, variance, and probability density function of the load demand.
Four-hundred and fifty units are considered for obtaining the base load without EVs
and the number of units represents a typical group of Housing Development Board
(HDB) blocks in Singapore. The values obtained are then used for the stochastic
simulations as given by (8.2). The power limit plimit for ensuring that the EV load
demand does not exceed a predetermined value can be obtained using the method
discussed in [56]. The method proposed in [56] uses the transformer’s hotspot
temperature and loss of life for determining the value for plimit.
Another method to obtain plimit is to find the power limit required for smooth
valley filling which is essential for optimal power system operation [42] and the
average power required for having a smooth valley filling is obtained by

mmax
j =1 (pjload demand + pjuEV )
plimit = (8.3)
m max

where

n
pjuEV = pjuEV , i (8.4)
i =1
Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 249

The contracted capacity or maximum power demand limit pCC can also be used as
the power limit. In addition, plimit can be obtained from the power system operators
to account for the uncertainties in the network. The power available for EV
charging is then given by

pjavai ble = pjlimit pjload demand j = 1, 2, 3, … 48 (8.5)

where subscript j represents each half-hour interval in the next 24-hour period. The
initial and final SOC required is obtained from the distance traveled by personal
vehicles in Singapore [57]. The authors of [58] used vehicle usage data to determine
that the distance traveled by personal vehicles will follow a normal distribution. In
this paper, the energy required/km for different types of EVs is also used for cal­
culating the initial and final SOC. The arrival time and departure time of EVs are
assumed to be normally distributed over 18:30 hours and 07:30 hours respectively
with a standard deviation of 30 minutes.
The final required SOC is generally around 90–100% as the EV users will prefer
to charge their EVs to the desired SOC when the cost of electricity is lowest (off-
peak period). Using the final required SOC of the previous day and the distance
traveled by the EVs (both obtained from stochastic samples), energy required/km
the initial SOC is calculated. Thus, the uncertainties in the initial and final SOCs of
the EVs are accounted into the simulations. An EV system consisting of three EVs
having 7 kWh battery capacity, three EVs having 24 kWh battery capacity, and nine
EVs having 16 kWh battery capacity (total 15 EVs) is considered in this research.
Different battery capacities are considered to ensure that the impact of all the
priority parameters on EVs with different battery capacities and average daily en­
ergy requirements can be analyzed precisely. It is important to have different types
of battery capacities as it has a huge influence on all the priority criteria. The battery
capacities used in the paper are the standard ones available in the EV market such as
Smart ED, Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Twizy, Renault Kangoo
Z.E., etc.
It is important to analyze the impact of each priority criterion as well as the
impact of various combinations of different priority criteria on the chargeability of
the EV to the required SOC and fairness in the allocation of charging time/energy.
The analysis can serve as a guideline while selecting different parameters as priority
criteria for any scheduling algorithm. In addition, the requirement for weighted
priority criteria is also evaluated and optimal weights required for each case are
determined. The analysis which determines the impact of different criteria with their
corresponding weights is vital for tuning the performance of the scheduling algo­
rithms. However, such studies are not yet available in the literature. As the onset of
the smart grid will provide a large data which is earlier unavailable, the proposed
data-driven simulations are an attractive option. The use of data-driven simulations
is an effective solution for the evaluation of EV charging strategies. Furthermore, it
is feasible to accurately evaluate the overall performance of both the charging
strategies, namely TCC and PCC. The analysis is carried out using stochastic
building load demand and EV charging demand.
250 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Data-driven simulations offer a wide variety of advantages. Updating the model

parameters to account for the changes due to ageing is one of the major advantages.
Furthermore, scaling up the system to account for new additions is relatively
simple. The effectiveness of data-driven simulations and controller design using
data-driven modeling has been studied by many authors [59–62]. However, in this
research, the data-driven simulations are used for evaluating and comparing the
performance of different charging strategies of EVs with different combinations of
priority criteria. The impact of all possible combinations of the three priority criteria
which are widely used in literature is studied in this research.
A prospective residential power network in cities will consist of a few high-
rise buildings connected together. It is assumed that a typical residential power
network will serve about 450 residential units. Hence stochastic load demand data
is generated. Using the stochastic load demand data of the power network and the
load demand data of the EVs, the scheduling process is carried out. The estimated
SOC is obtained at the end of the scheduling process. The scheduling process is
carried out using individual priority criteria and various combinations of different
priority criteria as listed in Table 8.4. The probability that an EV is not charged to
the desired SOC is used for analyzing the impact of each of the three priority
criteria and their different combinations. The analysis is carried out for both TCC
and PCC charging strategies. Table 8.4 illustrates the overall probability of an EV
not being charged to the desired SOC with different priority criteria. It can be
observed from Table 8.4 that in the case of TCC, the probability that an EV is not
charged is lowest at 0.0653 when only slack time is used as priority criterion.
Whereas the probability that an EV is not charged is highest at 0.1264 when SOC
and allotted time are used as priority criteria. Furthermore, it can be observed that
whenever SOC is used along with any of the other two priority criterion, the
probability that an EV is not charged increases, e.g., when slack time is used as
the only priority criterion, the probability that an EV is not charged is 0.0653, but
when it is used along with SOC the probability increases to 0.0804. It can also be
observed from Table 8.5 that in the case of PCC, the probability that an EV is not
charged is not significantly affected by the choice of priority criteria and the
probability value is between 0.0217 and 0.0269. Furthermore, the probability that
an EV is not charged is considerably less in PCC due to better utilization of the
available power pjavai ble . However, the overall probability that an EV is not
charged just gives the overall performance of the scheduling algorithm and does
not give the complete picture of the impact of different priority criteria on
individual EV [63].
Hence, detailed analyses of the percentage of failure for each EV with reference
to the total number of charging events are presented in Figures 8.13 and 8.14. It can
be observed from Figures 8.13 and 8.14 that using SOC as one of the priority
criteria (4 out of 7 cases) results in a reduction of failures with a decrease in battery
capacity and energy requirement (i.e., EV1, EV2, and EV3). The result can be
correlated by taking an example of two EVs having the same SOC but different
battery capacity, i.e., 7 kWh and 24 kWh. Since the SOC is the same for both the
EVs, an equal priority value for i1 is obtained from (3.12). Hence, equal resources,
Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 251

TABLE 8.5
Overall Probability of an EV Not Being Charged with TCC and PCC
Priority Criterion/Criteria TCC PCC

Probability that an EV Is Not Probability that an EV Is Not

Charged Charged
SOC + Slack time +Allotted 0.0705 0.0217
time
Allotted time 0.1187 0.0268
Slack time + Allotted time 0.0891 0.0220
Slack time 0.0653 0.0269
SOC 0.1148 0.0231
SOC + Allotted time 0.1264 0.0223
SOC + Slack time 0.0804 0.0245

FIGURE 8.13 Percentage failure for different EVs in PCC while using different priority
criteria.

i.e., either equal charging time or equal charging power or both will be allotted.
With equal resources (say 3 kW power for 30 minutes), the EV with 7 kWh battery
capacity will be charged to a higher SOC value compared to the EV with 24 kWh
battery capacity.
252 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 8.14 Percentage failure for different EVs in TCC while using different priority
criteria.

Using allotted time as one of the priority criteria (4 out of 7 cases) also results in
a similar phenomenon as observed from Figures 8.13 and 8.14. This is because EVs
which have higher allotted time/energy will have lesser value for its priority criteria.
With the same amount of allotted time/energy, an EV with a lower battery capacity
will be charged to a higher SOC value compared to an EV with a higher battery
capacity. However, the degree of reduction due to SOC is not the same as the
allotted time which can be seen from Figures 8.12 and 8.13. Using slack time (total
4 out of 7 cases) as the priority criterion results in the opposite effect compared to
the other two priority criteria, i.e., the number of failures reduces with an increase in
battery capacity and energy requirement (i.e., EV13, EV14, and EV15). This is
because EVs with higher battery capacity and higher energy requirements will have
a low value for slack time and hence a higher priority value.

8.3 SUMMARY
In this chapter, the energy storage requirement and technologies used in EVs were
reviewed with a greater focus on Li-ion batteries that are widely used in current
EVs. The cycle life of Li-ion batteries and their ageing mechanisms were also
discussed in detail. Analysis of the Li-ion battery performance over its lifetime was
performed to understand the impact of fast charging and discharging cycles on the
Energy Storage in EVs and Mitigating Impact of EV Charging 253

battery ageing profile. Beside the impact on the battery life cycle performance,
uncontrolled EV charging can have a different impact on the power grid. A com­
prehensive review of the potential impact of EV charging on the grid was con­
ducted. As a mitigation measure to reduce the impact of EV charging on the grid,
coordinated EV charging strategies based on priority criteria were introduced for
scheduling EV charging. The dynamic EV charge scheduling algorithm was pro­
posed for both time and power-coordinated charging techniques. The impact of
various combinations of different priority criteria, namely SOC, slack time, and
allotted time/energy on the chargeability of EVs was studied for both types of
coordinated EV charging. The concepts presented in this chapter are based on the
author’s publications [51,56,63].

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 9 Electric Vehicle
Development in
Singapore and Technical
Considerations for
Charging Infrastructure
Elsa Feng Xue

CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction...................................................................................................257
9.1.1 National Strategies on Sustainable Transport ................................. 258
9.1.2 EV Phase 1 and the Transition to EV Phase 2............................... 259
9.2 EV Phase 2 Test Bedding and Beyond .......................................................260
9.2.1 EV Car-Sharing Programme ............................................................ 260
9.2.2 Electric Bus Trials............................................................................261
9.2.3 Electric Taxi Trials...........................................................................262
9.3 Technical Considerations Behind Adoption of a National Standard for
Public Charging Infrastructure.....................................................................262
9.3.1 Background.......................................................................................262
9.3.2 Technical Considerations Behind Adoption of IEC Type 2...........263
[Link] Connector........................................................................... 263
[Link] Charging Time/Speed ........................................................264
[Link] Cost Effectiveness ............................................................. 265
[Link] Charging Efficiency...........................................................267
[Link] Ability to Support EV Proliferation and V2G Future
Proof................................................................................... 268
9.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 268
References.............................................................................................................. 269

9.1 INTRODUCTION
With increasing widespread concerns on global warming and recurrent extreme
weather events reported around the world, Singapore actively participated in the Paris
Agreement for Climate Change and committed to reducing its overall carbon emis­
sion intensity from its 2005 level by 36% by the year 2030. Efforts can be made on
various fronts including power generation, manufacturing industry, and transport in
DOI: 10.1201/9781003330134-9 257
258 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

the adoption of cleaner and more sustainable technologies which promise enhance­
ment of energy efficiency and harnessing of green growth opportunities. In the context
of Singapore, it is documented that 20% of the total carbon emission arises from land
transport which is a significant amount considering the compact size of the city
country. Moreover, from the perspective of the environmental impact, 75% of the air
pollutants come from motorized traffic in Singapore.
Singapore, with its compact size and excellent urban infrastructure development,
has positioned itself as a “Living Laboratory” that enables trialing new technologies
that can bring more livability and sustainability. In line with the innovative drives
and in response to the pledge of carbon emission reduction, the Singapore gov­
ernment has outlined a series of sustainable transport strategies. Among these
strategies, one important direction is to promote a greener form of motorized land
transport, such as electric vehicles (EVs). The introduction and application of EVs
bring about various benefits including reducing carbon emissions and pollutants and
advancing sustainable transport-related technologies in the process of getting
Singapore EVs ready for the future.

9.1.1 NATIONAL STRATEGIES ON SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

The subsection will give an introduction of a few key national strategies dedicated
to sustainable transport.
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) of Singapore partnered with the Intelligent
Transportation Society of Singapore to develop the first Intelligent Transport
System Master Plan named “Smart Mobility 2030” for Singapore. Under the
masterplan, focal areas are outlined that aim to tackle the transportation challenges
for Singapore considering its increasing population and limited space. The mas­
terplan congregated and consolidated views from agencies and industry partners.
Green Mobility has been identified as one of the four focal areas under Smart
Mobility 2030. It is emphasized that motorized vehicles that are powered by
electricity or alternative fuels which rely on fully or partially powered by electric
motors are inherently more energy efficient.
Furthermore, the Land Transport Master Plan (LTMP) 2013 presented aspira­
tions and key strategies for a more sustainable future transport network. In LTMP
2013, one of the key strategies still lies with the promotion and wider adoption of
public transport as much as possible as it is considered one of the most energy-
efficient modes of commuting around the city as compared to privately owned cars.
To achieve this, more comprehensive coverage of the city by public transport
network and easier access to public transport will further encourage the take-up of
public transport. For privately owned vehicles, Fuel Economy Labelling Scheme
(FELS) has been mandatorily enforced. It is a label required to be displayed for all
vehicles on sale. This label provides information on fuel efficiency and how it is
compared to the average efficiency level. Potential buyers can then make informed
choices in choosing the vehicle model. The label also potentially nudges buyers
toward more environmentally responsible choices. Building upon the FELS scheme,
a Carbon Emission-based Vehicle Scheme (CEVS) was introduced in the year of
2013 which particularly incentivizes fuel-efficient vehicles that entail lesser carbon
Electric Vehicle Development in Singapore 259

emission and environmental impacts. While the initial CEVS solely focused on
carbon dioxide emission, an amendment to the scheme was made in 2018 to form an
updated version called Vehicular Emission Scheme (VES). The VES includes four
more pollutants in addition to carbon dioxide which guarantees a fair coverage of
pollutants from vehicles and therefore a guaranteed preference for truly en­
vironmentally friendly vehicles.
Sustainable Singapore Blueprint (SSB) 2015 laid out ambitious targets and
associated plans to reach these targets. The overall goal is to enhance the livability
and sustainability of the city. EVs have been highlighted in SSB 2015 as an
alternative mode of green transport and part of the strategies in overcoming
resource constraints for a sustainable economy growth. One initiative called
“Sharing Electric Vehicle at our Doorstep” highlighted the idea of car sharing using
EVs which aims to make EVs more widely accessible to the general public without
the need of EV ownership. The later part of the chapter will detail a piloting project
on EV car sharing.
More recently, EV Early Adoption Incentive was mandated from 1 January 2021
to 31 December 2023 to further encourage the adoption of cleaner and greener
vehicles [1]. A rebate of 45% off the Additional Registration Fee will be given to
owners who register full electric cars during this period. The incentive will help to
lower the upfront cost by an average of 11% which helps to close the gap between
EVs and Internal Combustion Engine cars. Along with the incentive, EV road tax
structure is also revised in terms of its calculation to account for tiered power
ratings in EVs. Relevant schemes are also adjusted to better reflect the efficiency of
EVs which weren’t addressed in the past [2].

9.1.2 EV PHASE 1 AND THE TRANSITION TO EV PHASE 2

A multi-agency and multi-ministry EV taskforce which is co-chaired by the Energy
Market Authority (EMA) and LTA was established in 2009 to spearhead the EV
test-bedding Phase 1. Members across agencies and ministries provide their support
in the roll-out of the initiative. The EV Phase 1 test-bedding started in June 2011
and concluded in 2013. The Phase 1 test-bedding provided a “Living Laboratory”
platform to enable EV manufacturers, charging infrastructure providers, and related
solution providers in testing their products and ideas in Singapore. It also acted as a
fusion platform for players to work together in achieving a common goal which is to
assess the practical feasibility of using EVs under the urbanized traffic conditions
and tropical weather conditions of Singapore. The test results provided valuable
insights into the performance of EVs and related charging solutions. A total of 89
EVs participated in the EV Phase 1 testing bedding along with 68 units of normal-
speed charging stations and 3 fast DC charging stations.
The EV Phase 1 pilot trial conducted a post-survey on the market perception of
EVs. The findings from the survey pointed out that the high price of EVs remains as
the biggest hindrance to the wider adoption of EVs in Singapore. Other concerns
include range anxiety, battery performance deterioration, long charging waiting time
due to the low charging power, and a lack of easily accessible charging infrastructure.
To gauge the economic viability of EVs, a cost-benefit analysis was conducted. The
260 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

key conclusion is that EVs are proven to be technically feasible owing to their dri­
vability and feasible charging patterns, however, they are yet to be economically
viable for mass adoption due to the high upfront cost. It is suggested in the report that
EVs are about three times more costly than their internal combustible engine coun­
terparts even taking into account all the monetary incentives for their social and
environmental benefits available at the time [3]. The report also highlighted that new
business models such as fleet operations and car-sharing programmes have the
potential to address concerns with the economic viability of EVs.
In July 2014, the LTA collaborated with the Energy Research Institute of
Nanyang Technological University (ERI@N) to develop an Electromobility
Roadmap [4] which outlines the future development trends and serves as a guideline
for technological prioritization in the electrification journey leading up to the year
of 2050. The roadmap gives a landscape overview of the trends of EV global up­
take, development in battery technologies, and charging technologies/standards.
Future trends of local EV development were then projected in the context of
Singapore. A carbon emission modeling tool was developed as part of the roadmap.
Based on the outputs from this model, three scenarios of low, medium, and high
fleet electrification were laid out for the near-, mid-, and long-term targets of
electrification leading to 2050. Factors including the growth of vehicle population,
pricing trends of EVs, development of battery technologies, increase in charging
infrastructure development as well as the sound policies that can encourage support
EV uptake are taken into account in formulating the recommendations of key
policies and research focuses.
Based on the findings and recommendations from the EV Phase 1 test-bedding
and the electromobility roadmap, EV Phase 2 with a particular focus on fleet
electrification was commissioned in 2014.
The rest of the chapter is dedicated to detailing the development and findings in
the EV Phase 2 test-bedding and more recent development beyond EV Phase 2. The
overall content includes a few piloting projects that focus on fleet electrification
including a nationwide EV car-sharing programme, and electric bus and electric taxi
trials. To support EV proliferation, a national charging standard was introduced in
EV Phase 2 and the rationale behind the adoption of the standards is analyzed.

9.2 EV PHASE 2 TEST BEDDING AND BEYOND

Built upon the findings from the EV Phase 1 test beddings and directions outlined in
the roadmap, the EV Phase 2 with a focus on fleet electrification was commissioned.
Fleet electrification was predicted to ensure greater economic viability by reaping
bigger economic returns due to the overall higher mileage and more extensive use
of EVs. It also at the same time guarantees a bigger potential for carbon emission
reduction.

9.2.1 EV CAR-SHARING PROGRAMME

A 10-year EV car-sharing programme kick-started as the flagship project of EV
Phase 2. A Request for Information (RFI) was announced at the end of 2014 which
Electric Vehicle Development in Singapore 261

aimed to garner information from the industry on a plan to introduce 1000 EVs and
a charging infrastructure network with 2000 charging points. The RFI was imbued
with the “car-lite” spirit in the electrification journey and well-positioned public use
of EVs as a priority in fleet electrification. The car-sharing programme mainly
targets first-mile and last-mile connectivity, as a greener mode of transport to
complement the public transport network. In the meantime, it allows for the private
use of environmentally friendly cars without the need to own one. It also has the
potential to reduce the car population in the long run when the public experience the
convenience of using cars on demand. The car-sharing programme once rolled out,
will help to gain first-hand insights into the feasibility of large-scale EV adoption in
Singapore and the market uptake of the one-way car-sharing mode that offers
greater convenience and flexibility. A total of 13 submissions were received by the
agencies in 2015 when the RFI closed. The proposal put up by the Bolloré Group
was the top proposal received and assessed by an inter-agency-and-ministry
consortium.
Following the RFI and after rounds of discussions and negotiations, the first
large-scale EV car-sharing programme in Singapore was awarded to the Bolloré
Group. A local subsidiary of the group called BlueSG Pte. Ltd. was founded to
operate the EV car-sharing programme, which thereafter was named BlueSG pro­
gramme. BlueSG has up to four years to complete the introduction of 1000 EVs and
2000 charging points across the island. In the 2000 charging points, 80% will be
dedicated to spreading across residential areas around Singapore and 20% will be
located in public car parks, commercial development, and industry business parks
which are not well covered by public transport just yet. Twenty percent of the
charging points will form a part of a national public charging network that can be
used by cars other than those in the EV car-sharing programme. Given the scale of
the charging infrastructure to be built in the programme, the 2000 charging points
will form the foundation of a nationwide charging network that future-proofs the
EV uptake in Singapore. The BlueSG programme was officially launched in 2017
and as of today, it has over 80,000 users and has reached its one-millionth rental [5].

9.2.2 ELECTRIC BUS TRIALS

Before the introduction of electric buses, there were more than 300 public bus
service routes in Singapore operated by four local bus operators which in total own
a fleet size of around 6000 diesel buses. As one of the main forms of public
transport, buses total enormous mileage on a daily basis contributing around 60% of
the PM2.5 emissions in Singapore at the same time [6]. In the electromobility
roadmap, fleet electrification of bus services promises to be one of the best ways to
bring down carbon emissions by up to 56% per vehicle and generate near-to-no
pollutants [4].
The first electric bus trial saw the actual operation of a single unit of a BYD K9
e-bus on Singapore roads. The e-bus being trialed is powered by BYD’s iron-
phosphate batteries. It was a joint effort between BYD, S Dreams, and Go-Ahead
Singapore. The trial lasted for 6 months with the main objective to test the technical
feasibility of electric buses under the tropical climate and also the frequent start-
262 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

and-stop urban transport. The K9 electric bus was tested on a collection of routes of
various natures available in actual bus service routes overseen by Go-Ahead
Singapore. Data and information were collected including energy efficiency,
charging time required, charging infrastructure requirements, and feedback from the
commuters.
Following the promising trial results and guidance from the electromobility
roadmap, the LTA laid out plans to scale up the adoption of electric buses. The LTA
committed to having a 100% cleaner energy bus fleet by 2040 and procuring cleaner
energy buses thereafter. A contract of 60 units of electric buses was awarded in 2019
which consisted of buses with a mixture of different types of charging technologies
including depot overnight charging and pantograph opportunistic charging [7]. The
results of this larger-scale electric bus operation will give insights into the operational
and technical challenges of both the buses and the charging infrastructure which
provides guidance for the future full electrification of public buses.

9.2.3 ELECTRIC TAXI TRIALS

Taxies are another form of public transport that provides more private services to
commuters. A subsidiary of BYD in Singapore named HDT was awarded a special
license to run a fleet of 100 units of fully electric cars of Model E6 from BYD. The
operation was the first commercial electric taxi trial to last for 8 years. There are a
total number of 100 units of Model E6 progressively introduced into operation since
the end of 2016. The e-taxi trial pilots a new employer-employee business model in
which the company HDT hired the drivers full-time and pays them a fixed base
salary, which is different from the current practice of taxi companies leasing taxis to
drivers and the drivers’ income solely relies on the amount of income from covering
trips. The end of the trial will provide insights into the feasibility of such a new
business model and whether it can benefit the operation of electric taxis in the long
run. In 2018, the company obtained a 10-year license to further introduce more
electric taxis to a minimum of 800 units in 4 years’ time. Sufficient charging sta­
tions that can well support the e-taxies are to be put into place across the island.
At a broader level, the taxi industry has recently committed to electrifying at
least half of the taxis by 2030 [8]. As a special grant from the agencies to allow taxi
operators more time in strategizing their electrification plan, the statuary lifespan of
electric taxis is extended from 8 years to 10 years. Private hire cars are also fol­
lowing above-mentioned footsteps to achieve electrification.

9.3 TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS BEHIND ADOPTION

OF A NATIONAL STANDARD FOR
PUBLIC CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE
9.3.1 BACKGROUND
There are two dominant charging couplers in the IEC 62196: Type 1 and Type 2.
Type 1 which is the IEC62196/SAE J1772 refers to a type of single-phase
charging coupler detailing the plug specifications of the SAE J1772. SAE J1772
Electric Vehicle Development in Singapore 263

originated from North America and was designed for electrical connectors used
for EVs. Type 1 is compatible with single-phase electrical power supplies generally
available in North America and Japan. The EV Phase 1 mentioned in the intro­
duction used Type 1 chargers which was the then prevailing standard accepted by
the EV manufacturers.
Type 2 which is IEC 62196-2 can be used in either single or three-phase power
supplies. Type 2 standard details the technical specifications of the VDE-AR-E
2623-2-2 plug. It was originally proposed in 2009 by Mennekes Elektrotechnik
GmbH & Co. KG which is a leading manufacturer of industrial plugs and con­
nectors with headquarters in Kirchhundem/Sauerland region and Neudorf/
Erzgebirge. The system was later standardized by the German Association of the
Automotive Industry (VDA) as VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 plug. It was then recom­
mended as the optimal charging infrastructure solution in Europe in 2011 [9,10].
Prior to this recommendation, Type 1 was recognized as the default charging
coupler due to the faster development of the EV industry in North America and
Japan where the Type 1 coupler originated.
The Phase 2 piloting projects including the BlueSG programme along with their
large number of charging stations to be adopted, entailed an opportunity for
charging standardization in Singapore which will ensure inter-operability and
future-proof Singapore for a wider EV uptake. A multi-agency study was conducted
to compare the two main existing charging standards and decide which standard to
be adopted as the national charging standard. In the process of the evaluation, views
were sought from local EV stakeholders which showed that the industry players
expressed no obvious preferences for Type 1 or Type 2 at that point of time but they
urged for the agencies to mandate a uniform charging standard in order to better
regulate the EV market and therefore support potential benefit-reaping.
The evaluation of the agencies concluded that the IEC Type 2 will be adopted as
the national charging standard and the considerations behind this decision will be
discussed in detail subsequently. On 30 June 2016, the decision was announced to
adopt the Type 2 AC and Combo 2 charging systems according to the IEC 61851
series and 62196 series charging standard as the national public charging standard
for all new public EV charging infrastructure. All 2000 charging points to be rolled
out in the BlueSG programme will comply with this new standard.

9.3.2 TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS BEHIND ADOPTION OF IEC TYPE 2

This section details the technical considerations behind the adoption of the IEC
Type 2 standard. Comparison between Type 1 and Type 2 charging plugs and
power ratings are shown. The advantages of Type 2 over Type 1 are analyzed from
perspectives of the charging time and other aspects.

[Link] Connector
Configurations of Type 1 and 2 connectors used for alternative current (AC) system
and Combined Charging System (CCS) used for both AC and direct current (DC)
system, are compared in Table 9.1. As shown in the picture, a distinctive difference
between Type 1 and Type 2 plugs is the number of power pins. Type 1 has two
264 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 9.1
Connector configuration of Type 1 and Type 2
Type 1/USA, JAPAN Type 2/ Europe
Alternative current (AC)

IEC 62196 / SAE J1772 IEC 62196 -2

Combined AC/DC charging system(CCS)

CCS Combo 1 CCS Combo 2

power pins which are the two bigger-sized pins on the top row of the plug. Type 2
comes with three power pins in which the first pin is at the left in the central row
and the other two pins at the very bottom of the plug. Type 1 is only compliant with
single-phase power supplies while Type 2 has three power pins that can work in
both single and three-phase power supplies. For locations where a three-phase
supply is yet to be introduced, Type 2 can future-proof the adoption of three-phase
supplied charging stations and ensure a convenient upgrade to a higher power level.
CCS Type 1 and Type 2 are extensions to AC Type 1 and Type 2 plugs, respec­
tively, by adding two more power pins at the bottom that works for DC systems.
CCS provides greater flexibility that works with both DC and AC. If the AC part of
the plug is used, the power is sourced from the domestic low-voltage distribution
network through the integrated AC/DC converter in the vehicle to charge the bat­
teries. If the DC part of the plug is used, the power is sourced from the AC/DC
converter circuit which is normally located in the charging station itself.

[Link] Charging Time/Speed

Originating from the design thinking, Type 1 charging standard is only compliant
with single-phase or split-phase power supplies, which are widely available in
North America and Japan. The Type 1 J1772 defines two levels of AC charging
mode shown in Table 9.2 based on the current levels offered.
Type 2 connector can work for both single-phase and three-phase power supplies
and they are adopted in a broader range of regions including Singapore. Type 2
plugs enable much higher power levels due to the additional power pins and
inherently higher voltage levels of the three-phase supplies. The different power
levels are shown in Table 9.3.
Electric Vehicle Development in Singapore 265

TABLE 9.2
Two charging levels for IEC Type 1 [ 11, 12]
Charging Level Voltage Level Power Level
AC single phase 120V AC, single-phase 1.4 kW @ 12 amp
1.9 kW @ 16 amp
AC single phase 240V AC, split-phase 7.68 kW @ 32 amp
19.2 kW @ 80 amp

TABLE 9.3
Charging levels for IEC Type 2 [ 13]
Charging Level Voltage Level Power Level
AC three phase 240/415V AC 12 kW @16 amp
AC three phase 240/415V AC 23 kW @ 32 amp
AC three phase 240/415V AC 45 kW @ 63 amp

We use an EV with a moderate battery size of 25 kWh to carry out a comparative

assessment of the charging time needed using Type 1 and Type 2 respectively, at
various charging current levels. The results are shown in Table 9.4, which gives a
more straightforward comparison of the charging time needed. It is shown that Type 2
can significantly shorten the charging time needed. At a comparable charging current
level, Type 2 is able to shorten the charging duration by about 70%. Even at a low
current level, Type 2 is able to ensure reasonable charging time needed due to its
higher voltage compared to that using single-phase power supplies. Compared to
Type 1, Type 2 is able to shorten the charging time by 56% at a lower current level of
63 A than Type 1 at a higher current level of 80 A.

[Link] Cost Effectiveness

One of the main considerations in the roll-out of charging infrastructure has to do
with cost implications. In addition to the cost of assets, installation cost constitutes
one of the main cost components. Conduit and wiring systems that connect the
charging stations, control hardware, and power supplies take up a large portion of
the installation cost. Type 1 chargers incur less upfront asset cost compared with
Type 2 due to their lesser complicated hardware and lower power level therefore
cheaper associated wiring cost. Based on the information gathered in 2015 from
industrial charging service providers, a cost analysis for Type 1 and Type 2 chargers
was conducted to compare the cost differential between the two.
Shown in the diagram of Figure 9.1 is a typical layout of a charging system with
all associated components. The cost analysis took into account the cost of assets,
and the cost of the installation which enables the power connection from the
266 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

TABLE 9.4
Comparison of charging time between IEC Type 1 and Type 2
Type of Plug Current Level Charging Time
IEC Type 1 12 amp 18 hrs
16 amp 13 hrs
32 amp 3 hrs 20 mins
80 amp 1 hrs 20 mins
IEC Type 2 16 amp 2 hrs
32 amp 1 hr
63 amp 35 mins

Note: Charging time is calculated as the time needed to fully charge an EV with a usable battery
size of 25 kWh

FIGURE 9.1 Typical layout of a charging system.

substation to the Electrical Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE as shown) which are
essentially a cluster of chargers.
Reasonable assumptions are made below in the analysis without losing the
fairness in the comparison:

• The distance between the substation and the power intake point is 100
meters as also shown in Figure 9.1.
• Type 1 charging station takes power from one of the three phases while
Type 2 charging station from three phases.
• The cost analysis does not include the cost of insurance endorsement or
maintenance.
• One unit of EVSE comprises of 5 chargers.

The cost breakdown of setting up EVSEs using Type 1 and Type 2 chargers is
shown in Table 9.5:
It is noted that Type 2 chargers have a longer lifespan of 7 years compared with 5
years of Type 1 chargers. Taking into account the difference in the lifespan, the cost
per unit per annum of the two types of chargers is calculated as shown in the last
row of Table 9.5. It is noted that the cost difference of a mere 7% is far from
significant to become a major inhibiting factor in choosing Type 2 chargers.
EVSE using Type 2 chargers may incur a slightly higher upfront cost but the cost
difference should not be a main concern considering the multiple benefits Type 2
chargers can offer in the longer term.
Electric Vehicle Development in Singapore 267

TABLE 9.5
Breakdown of cost of EVSE using Type 1 and Type 2 chargers
S/No. Classification Type 1 Cost in SGD Type 2 Cost in SGD
1 Cabling to Meter Box $ 4500 $ 13500
2 Main supply meter box $ 900 $ 1620
3 Cabling to panel control $ 9000 $ 22500
4 Panel Control DB $ 5000 $ 7500
5 Sub-DB boxes $3450 $ 4800
6 EVSE hardware $ 50740 $ 63425
7 Mounting brackets $ 12500 $ 12500
8 Services $ 3500 $ 7500
9 LEW $ 2000 $ 4000
Installation Subtotal $ 91590 $ 137345
Cost per unit per annum $ 3,663 $ 3,924

[Link] Charging Efficiency

It is known that the majority of Singapore’s electricity is generated from natural
gas. Undoubtedly, once the charging network is scaled up and the number of
charging events and associated energy consumption significantly rise, the charging
efficiency of charging systems plays an important factor in reducing the power
losses during charging events and influences energy sustainability.
A study was conducted to compare the efficiency and sensitivity to the ambient
temperature of charging systems when using a lower and high charging power level
[14]. It was concluded that the overall efficiency of using a high power level is
higher than that when using a lower power level. An efficiency increment of 13%
was found in some of the case studies while using a higher power level. It is
therefore safe to say that using a Type 2 charging system that uses a high voltage
level has the potential to achieve higher charging efficiency and incur fewer power
losses which in a way further reduces carbon emission considering the source of the
electricity in Singapore.
On the level of sensitivity toward the ambient temperature, it was found that
charging systems that come with higher charging power shows higher efficiency at
all temperature levels [14]. This is mainly attributed to lesser temperature rise
during the shorter periods of charging time when using a higher power, which also
helps to preserve battery lifetime. The resilience toward temperature levels when
using higher charging power is critical for Singapore considering the hot and humid
weather. Type 2 chargers can ensure overall better performance in such an en­
vironment. Greater benefits arising from ambient temperature resilience are even
more salient when using Type 2 chargers at public charging locations where
charging events occur more frequently and weather conditions are more
uncontrollable. This further justifies the mandate to use Type 2 for all public
charging facilities.
268 Advanced Concepts and Technologies for Electric Vehicles

[Link] Ability to Support EV Proliferation and V2G Future Proof

It is no doubt to say that fast turn-over rates are crucial for the profitability of fleet
electrification. Surveys show that taxi companies are conservative about using EVs
due to concerns about long charge time and hence low turn-over rates. This is
believed to be an inhibiting factor for sensible business models. With this hindrance
in mind, it is difficult for taxi companies who invest in a high upfront cost in EV
fleets to expect a reasonably short pay-back period. In general, operations of most
types of fleet vehicles demand long operating hours and intensive coverage of
mileage, in view of which, a sufficiently fast charging speed is indispensable for a
sustainable and profitable business model upon switching to fleet electrification. In
the case of car-sharing programmes, faster charging speed enables higher rates of
car utilization and lesser customer frustration in waiting time. In the case of
commercial fleets, faster turn-over rates help to maximize economic returns, min­
imize disruptions to service during the transitional period, and support long-term
strategic and sustainable business plans.
With the EV population taking up in a major way in the near-and-medium term
future, there is plenty of space in exploring Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) applications
where idle EVs with their onboard energy storage can participate in electrical grid
services. Functions including demand response, peak load shavings, energy arbi­
trage, and so on can be performed and experimented with in V2G applications. With
a unified V2G platform, EV owners have the potential to get economic returns from
providing V2G services. Research has shown that faster charging speed, which is
enabled by Type 2 charging standard, allows for V2G functions to execute in a
timely manner [13]. This is critical in nearly all V2G applications considering the
nature of electrical grid services is time sensitive. In the case of a charging network
that has renewable energy integrated, faster charging speed enables timely and
opportunistic utilization of intermittent renewable energy.
Compared with Type 1 slower charging, Type 2 which comes with a faster
charging speed can offer a series of benefits in a wide range of applications.

9.4 CONCLUSION
This book chapter gives an overview of the electromobility journey of Singapore
starting from the year of 2011 [15]. The chapter covers the piloting trials, analysis,
and roadmaps in EV Phases 1 and 2, as well as the charging infrastructure standard.
More specifically, the technical considerations behind the national public charging
standard adopted during EV Phase 2 with a focus on fleet electrification are pre­
sented. It is also worth mentioning that in March 2022, the national EV charging
standard has been further updated and expanded to better support the EV prolif­
eration [16]. The update includes the introduction of two new modes of low-power
charging which is lower than 2.3 kW; standards for pantograph charging; increase
of the power limit of up to 400 kW for the CHAdeMO charging system and up to
500 kW for the CCS and battery swapping for motorcycles. The updates to the
charging standard include various types of charging modes which effectively
support land-based transport electrification in multiple ways.
Electric Vehicle Development in Singapore 269

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Supporting_cleaner_and_greener_vehicles.html.
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Encouraging_the_adoption_of_electric_cars.html.
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[Link]/data/apps/news/press/2014/20141208_EVPh2-[Link].
[4] E-MOBILITY. 2016. “E-MOBILITY Technology Roadmap.” [Link]
[Link]/sites/nccs/files/Roadmap_E-M_1.pdf.
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[6] MEWR. 2015. ...Factsheet on More Measures to Improve Singapore’s Air Quality
Factsheet, Singapore MEWR
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[9] ACEA. 2011. ACEA Position and Recommendations for the Standardization of the
Charging of Electrically Chargeable Vehicles. Position paper, Brussels: ACEA.
[10] Standard for New Public Charging Infrastructure for EVs [Link]
content/dam/ltagov/news/press/2016/20160630_Public_charging_standard_
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[11] SAE. 2011. “SAE Charging Configurations and Ratings Terminology.” [Link]
[Link]/smartgrid/[Link].
[12] EVConnectors. n.d. “EVConnectors.” Electric Vehicle Charging Products & Connectors.
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[13] Stuart Speidel, Fakhra Jabeen, Doina Olaru, David Harries, Thomas Bräunl. Sep.
2012. “Analysis of western Australian electric vehicle.” Australian Transport
Research Forum ATRF.
[14] Justine Sears, Evan Forward, Eric Mallia, David Roberts, Karen Giltman. March 20,
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[15] Feng Xue, Evan Gwee. 2017. Electric vehicle development in Singapore and
technical considerations for charging infrastructure, Energy Procedia, Volume 143,
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[16] [Link]
[Link].
Index
AC charging, from PV, 25 Cycle ageing, 237
Ageing, 236 Cycle life, 236
Aggregator, 208
Air quality, 2 DC-link diode, 122
All Electric Aircraft (AEA), 140 DCM PFC converter, 55
ANSI C84.1-2020 Standard, 212 Demand response, 210
Ányos Jedlik, 3 Depth-Of-Discharge (DOD), 63
Automobile industry, 3 Developing technology, 236
DFACTS, 219
Back-end DC-DC converter, 70 Direct AC-AC converter topologies, 156
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), 13, 92 Double PWM plus double phase-shift
Battery Management System (BMS), 43 (DPDPS), 128
Bilaterally symmetrical, 123 Drivetrain, 10
Bipolar IPT coils, 160 DSO, 209
Bloomberg, 42 Dual Phase-Shift (DPS) modulation, 125
BlueSG, 261 Dynamic WPT technology, 149
Boost-derived inverter, 174
Bridgeless boost, 49 Electric bus trials, 261
Bridgeless interleaved boost PFC converter, 50 Electric Power and Research Institute (EPRI), 7
Bridgeless sepic and CUK PFC converter, 50 Electric taxi trials, 262
Electromobility roadmap, 260
Calendar ageing, 236 EMI, 48
Carbon Emission-based Vehicle Scheme Energy Market Authority (EMA), 259
(CEVS), 258 Energy Research Institute of Nanyang Technological
Carbon footprint, 4 University (ERI@N), 260
Car-lite, 261 Energy storage in electric vehicles, 232
CC-CV mode, 65 EV car-sharing programme, 261
CCS/COMBO, 23 EV ecosystem, 6
CHADeMO, 92, 23 EV modeling methods, 216
Charge-discharge cycle, 236 EV proliferation, 268
Charging efficiency, 267 Experimental Results, 190
Charging standards, 34
Charging time/speed, 264 FB-LLC-based SiC converter, 96
CIECA, 66 FCEV (Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle), 5, 14
Classical IC engine, 42 FFT analysis, 46
Climate change, 204 Fixed duty cycle (FDC) control, 125
Closed-loop control, 98 Float chargers, 46
Combined Charging System (CCS), 263 Free-wheeling current, 119
Compensation capacitances, 160 Fuel Economy Labelling Scheme (FELS), 258
Conductive charging for EVs, 24
Connector, 263 Galvanic isolation, 43
Coordinated Charging, 242 GaN-based dual active bridge (DAB), 94
C-rate, 237 Global warming, 1
CRM operation, 95 Greenhouse gas (GHG), 204
Current source inverter (CSI), 154 Grid current harmonics, 38
Current-fed converters, 111 Grid stability, 213
with active clamp circuit, 118
with snubbers, 117 Harmonic load flow analysis, 217
Cyber security concerns, 214 Harmonics and power quality, 214

271
272 Index

Harmonics standards, 215 PFC unit, 45

HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle), 5, 9 Phase imbalance, 213
HF film capacitor, 118 Phase-Shift Modulation (PSM), 125
High energy density, 235 Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge (PSFB), 94
PI loops, 99
IEC 61851-1, 206 PLL (Phase lock loop), 82
IEEE–519, 215 Plug-in chargers, 42
Impact of EV charging on grid, 241 Point of common coupling (PCC), 212
Impulse commutation, 135 Power-coordinated charging (PCC), 245
In-Cable Control Box (ICCB), 37 PV’s and EV’s, potentials of, 220
Inductive Power Transfer (IPT), 26, 151
Inner Input Current Loop, 177 Quasi-resonant path, 116
Input-Series Output-Parallel (ISOP) connected
converter, 97 Range anxiety, 259
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers RES, 38
(IEEE), 34 Resonant Antennae Power Transfer
International Electro-mechanical Commission (RAPT), 151
(IEC), 35 Resonant Inductive Power Transfer, 150, 151
International Energy Agency (IEA), 231
International Organization for Standardization SAE J1772, 92
(ISO), 35 Semi-bridgeless boost PFC, 49
IPT coils, 158 Series-parallel (S/P), 153
Isolated flyback converter, 44 Series-series (S/S), 153
Isolated topologies, 43 Si-C MOSFET, 93
Single phase-shift (SPS), 125
Japan Electric Vehicle Association (JEVA), 35 Single-stage IPT, 181
Sliding mode control technique, 105
Land Transport Authority (LTA), 258 Smart mobility 2030, 258
Land Transport Master Plan (LTMP), 258 Society for Automobile Engineers, 34
LCCL tank, 155 Solar charging of EV’s, 23
LCL tank, 155 Solar photovoltaics (PV), 221
Lead-acid batteries (Pb-PbO2), 233 Solar-powered cars, 16
Level 1 AC, 206 Southeast Asian countries, 42
Level 2 AC, 206 SPS control, 128
Level 3 AC, 206 state-of-charge (SOC), 63, 205
Lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ion), 234 Static WPT chargers, 149
Living Laboratory, 258 Stiff Voltage Load, 195
Sustainable Singapore Blueprint (SSB), 259
Miles per gallon of gasoline-equivalent, 9 Sustainable technologies, 258
Modelling, 171 Symmetrical duty cycle (SDC), 122
Motorized traffic, 258
Tesla supercharger, 92
Naturally clamped current-fed converter, 136 Time coordinated charging (TCC), 245
Nickel-metal-hydride (Ni-MH), 233 Traditional unidirectional current-fed
Nominal voltage, 238 converters, 112
Non-isolated topologies, 43 Two loop control, 189

Off‐board charger, 44, 27 Uni and bidirectional charging, 28

On-load tap changers (OLTC), 212 Unipolar PWM, 174
Outer current loop, 180 Unity power factor (UPF), 45

P/S compensation, 161 V2G and G2V, 208

Paris Agreement, 257 VEEFIL-RT, 101
PEV (Plug-in Electric Vehicle), 5, 11 VisIC technologies, 101
PFC regulation, 46 VRLA, 64
Index 273

Wave-shaping, 47 Wireless and wired charging, 28

WBG chargers, 106 Wireless power transfer (WPT), 148
WBG DC-DC converter, 93
WBG material, 93 ZVZCS, 138
Well-grounded, 240