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NORMAL, BINOMIAL AND POISSON DISTRIBUTIONS 239
ee
7.5 The Normal Distribution
The normal distribution or Gaussian distribution is the most important of all
distributions because it describes the situation in which very large values are rather
sate, very small values are rather rare, but the middle values are rather common.
It is one of the useful models for the population relative frequency distribution.
the normal distribution was proposed by C.F. Gauss (1777-1855), thus this was
named Gaussian distribution, a model for the relative frequency distribution of
errors such as errors of measurement. It is defined by the equation
n (x; H, 6)
1 Sex - wre?
e
n (x, p) =
04 21
where = mean
o = standard deviation
m= 3.14159
e = 2.71828
A graph of the normal distribution which is often called the normal curve is
shown below. This curve provides an adequate model for the relative frequency
of data collected from many disciplines.
=F
pe p25 po (0 te Ho HO
*— 68.28% —*
*— 95.45% ———_»
— 99.73% ———___+
The Normal Curve
The normal distribution has mean » = Np and ‘variance o? = Npq and
o= 7 Npq
The total area bounded by the normal curve and the x-axis is 1; hence the
atea under the curve between two ordinates x, = a and x, = b, where a < b
represents the probability that x lies between a and b. The probability is denoted
by Pasx s b).
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1 curve has the following characteristics: =
The normal
The graph has a single peak at the center that occur at the i
an
h
(Mean = Median = Mode)
The graph is symmetrical about the mean p.
The graph never touches the horizontal axis.
¢ The area under the graph is equal to. 1.
Plu-o Hy.
A two-tailed test is used when the alternative hypothesis is non-directional
which means that the values of two measures of the same kind are not equal. A
two-tailed test has a not equal sign (#) in the alternative hypothesis. When the
population mean (1) is not equal to specified value of 1, then the alternative
hypothesis can be expressed a pt = H-
A two-tailed test is a hypothesis test for which the rejection region lies on
both end tails of distribution, one on the left and one on the right.
Table 8.2
Rejection Regions for Two-tailed, Left-tailed,
and Right-tailed Test
Two-tailed | Right-tailed Left-tailed
Test Test Test
Sign in H, = S <
Rejection region both sides right side left side
Table 8.2 summarizes the discussion about two-tailed, right-tailed test, and
left-tailed test.
rejection region
*
waA___ |?
z = -1.645 5
= .05, one-tailed test (left tail)
non-rejection region
Aa
z= -2.33 x
a = 01, one-tailed test (left tail)
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rejection region
K 2% = 1.645
a = .05, one-tailed test (right tail)
non-rejection region
rejection region
x z= 2.33
a = .01, one-tailed test (right tail)
non-rejection region
rejection region
z= -1.96 x z= 1.96
a = .05, two-tailed test
non-rejection region
rejection region reeton region
2 = 2.575 x z = 2,575
a. = .01, two-tailed test
Fig. 8.2: Graphical representation of rejection regions for two-tailed; left-tailed and
right-tailed test at 5% and 1% level of significance.
Scanned with CamScanner Critical Region in Testing Hiypothes!s
One-tailed Test .Two-tailed Test
Significance
Left-tailed | Right-tailed
Z< -1.645 z> 1.645 z>196 orz< -1.96
Z< -2.33 Z> 2.33 z > 2.575 or z < -2.575
z<-1.28 z> 1.28 z > 1.645 or z < -1.645
Note: Reject the null hypothesis when the computed value of z lies within
the area of rejection.
8.8 Some Terminologies To Remember
Test Statistic: The statistic used as a basis for deciding whether the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
Rejection region: The set’ of values of the test statistic that leads to rejection
of the null hypothesis.
Non-rejection region: The set of values of the test statistic that leads to non-
rejection of the null hypothesis.
Critical value: The values of the test statistic that separate the rejection and
non-rejection regions.
8.9 A Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Formulate the null and alternative hypothesis.
Decide the level of significance, a.
Choose the appropriate test statistic,
Establish the critical region.
Compute the value of the statistical test.
Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
NQafenrne
Draw a conclusion.
In this section and the succeeding sections, we are goi i ites
i a , in
hypothesis that involve a single population mean ™ 80Ing to discuss testing
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O_O
volved in testing hypothesis between means; a large sample (n > 30) and small
sample (n < 30) cases. In testing hypothesis, z-test and t-distribution may be used
depending on the number of cases involved.
The z-test is used in comparing two means if the population standard deviation
(o) is known. We should give emphasis in the discussion that if the population is
normally distributed, z-test can be used for any sample size n. However, in many
practical cases, the population standard deviation is unknown but the sample is
sufficiently large, that is n > 30. The sample standard deviation (s) is used as an
estimator of the population standard deviation. Below are the discussions of the
different cases in testing the mean.
fi. Hypothesis About Means (Comparing Sample Mean and Population Mean)
1. 2.
where:
z = z-test value
Xx = sample mean
# = population mean or claimed mean in H,
co = population standard deviation
s = sample standard deviation
n = number of cases greater than or equal to 30
Problem 1:
The treasurer of a certain university claims that the mean monthly
salary of their college professor is 21,750 with a standard deviation of
6,000. A researcher takes a random sample of 75 college professors were
found to have a mean monthly salary of 19,375.00. Do the 75 college
professors have lower salaries than the rest? Test the claim at a = .05 level
of significance.
Apply the different steps in testing hypothesis to solve the given
problem.
Solution:
Step 1. H,; The mean monthly salary of the College professors is P21,750
(= 21,750)
H,: The mean monthly salary of the College professors is lower or
less than 21,750. (u < 21,750)
Step 2. a=.05
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ss
Step 3. One-tailed test is used because the H, is directional.
Step 4. The tabular value or critical value of z at 0.05 level of significance
is £1,645.
Step 5. Compute the z-value.
Given:
X = P19,375.00
j= 21,750.00
o = P6,000
n=75
Zz =
19,375 — 21,750
6,000
V5
ee
gis
3
@
PN
&R
-2,375
692.84
= -3.43
Step 6. The computed value of z = -3.43 lies under the rejection region,
therefore reject H, and accept H,.
Step 7. Conclusion:
The mean monthly salary of the College professors in lower
than 21,750.
Problem 2:
The mean weight of the baggage carried into an airplane by individual
passengers at Tuguegarao City Airport is 19.8 kilograms. A statistician takes
a random sample of 110 passengers and obtains a sample mean weight of
18.5 kilograms with standard deviation of 8.5 kilograms. Test the claim at
a = .01 level of significance.
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Y ag oe
ae
23.) +f. 45 vane
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SE
Step 1. Hp = 19.8 kg
Hy p< 19.8 kg
Step 2. a=.01
Step 3. The alternative hypothesis is expressed in a directional statement,
therefore use one-tailed test.
Step 4. The tabular or critical value of z = 42.33.
Step 5. Compute the z-value. -
Given:
x = 18.5 kg
p= 19.8 kg
8 =85kg
n=110
Solution:
Step 6.
Step 7.
z =-1.60
The computed value of z = -1.60 lies under the non-rejection, there-
fore accept the null hypothesis (H,).
Conclusion
There is no significant difference between the weight of bag-
gage carried by individual passengers.
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—233 = ).60
a
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ee
B. Difference Between Means (Sample Means)
eae
1 = mean of the first sample
X, = mean of the second sample
variance of the first sample
s,? = variance of the second sample
n, = number of cases in the first sample
n, = number of cases in the second sample
Problem 3:
A sample of 70 observations is selected from a normal population. The
sample mean is 2.78 and the sample standard deviation is 0.83. Another
sample of 58 observation is selected from normal population. The mean
sample is 2.63 and the sample standard deviation is 0.75. Test the hypothesis
using a = .05 level of significance.
Solution:
Step 1. H,: X, =
Hy & # %
Step 2. a = 0.05
Step 3. The alternative hypothesis is expressed in a non-directional state-
ment, therefore the two-tailed test is used.
5 = £1.96
‘a = 05,
Step 4. The tabular value of z
Step 5. Compute for the z-value.
Given:
X, = 2.78
s, = 0.83
X, = 2.63
S = 0.75
n, = 70
ny, = 58
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al
Solution:
z=
\
i 0.15
~ Yo.01954
_ 0.15
“0.1398
z = 1.07
Step 6. The computed value of z = 1.07 lies under the non-rejection region,
therefore accept the null hypothesis (H,).
Step 7. Conclusion
There is no significant difference between the two samples.
» Hypothesis Testing about a Single Proportion
-P
where:
P = population proportion
P = sample proportion
n = number of cases
Problem 4:
A barangay captain claims that at least 85% of the residents in his baran-
gay have household pets. To test this claim, a researcher randomly selected
a sample of 550 residents and find that 495 of them do have household pets.
At 0.05 level of significance what can you conclude?
Solution:
Step 1. H,: P 2 85%
H,; P > 85%
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SS
Step 2. a = 0.05
Step 3. Alternative hypothesis is expressed in directional statement, therefore
one-tailed test is used.
Step 4, The tabular value of 2, 95 = +1.96
Step 5. Compute the z-value.
~ “To.s5(1 - 0.85)
550
_ 0.05
~ -¥0.00023181818
_ 0.05
~ 0,015225576
z = 3.28
Step 6. The computed value of z = 3.28 lies at the rejection region, therefore
reject the null hypothesis (H,) and accept the alternative hypothesis
(H,).
Step 7. Conclusion:
There is a difference between the two proportions.
D. Hypothesis Testing About Two Proportions
R P,
where:
P, = proportion of the first sample
P, = proportion of the second sample
ny = number of cases in the first sample
n, = number of cases in the second sample
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Problem 5:
Aresearcher made a survey regarding the proportion of male and female
college students who dropped their business mathematics subjects before
| midterm examination. In a sample of 600 female students, 49 dropped their
| business mathematics subject before midterm examination. In a sample of
450 male students, 36 dropped their business mathematics subject before
the midterm examination. Is there a difference in the proportion of male
| and female students who dropped their business mathematics subjects? Use
| q = 0.05 level of significance.
| Solution:
Step 1. H,: P, = P,
H,: Py =P,
Step 2, a= .05
Step 3. Use two-tailed test because Ha is non-directional.
Step 4. The critical or tabular value z,_ 95 = +1.96
Step 5. Compute the z-value
Given:
7. *
600
36
R= =
n, = 600
n, = 450
Solution:
R-2
** a-f), a= ®)
ny n,
0.0817 — 0.08
= Fonsi — 0.08817) , (0.08)(1 - 0.08)
600 450
0.0017 f
* 70.0002859745
z = 0.10
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——_————————— OO EEE——EEE
Step 6. The computed value of z = 0.10 lies at the area of non rejection,
therefore accept the null hypothesis (H,).
Step 7. Conclusion:
There is no significant difference between the two-sample
proportions,
When the sample size involves small cases (n < 30) and the population
standard deviation is unknown, use the sample standard deviation (s) as an
estimator of population standard deviation (a). In cases like this, t-distribution
is appropriate as the test statistic. Using the t-distribution as test statistic, it is
always an assumption that the sampled population is normal or approximately
normal.
The tdistribution was developed by an employce of Irish brewery in the
person of William S. Gossett (1876-1936). He chose to publish his findings using
the pen name “Student.” To honor his work, the distribution is known today as
Student t-distribution.
€ Test Concerning Means (Comparing Sample Mean and Population Mean)
Xx-
5
where:
t =tvalue
x = sample mean
== population mean
s = sample standard deviation
n = number of cases less than 30
df =n-1
Problem 6:
According to the Department of Education, high school teachers work
an average of 40 hours per week during the school year, A district supervi-
sor of a certain school surveyed 28 randomly selected teachers and found
that they work an average of 42.6 hours a week and the standard deviation
was 3.75 hours. Test if the mean number of hours worked by teachers’in the
supervisor's school district differs from the national average. Use a = .01.
Solution:
Step 1. Hy: = 40 hours
H,; b # 40 hours
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Level of significance for a directional (one-tailed) test
02
1 31.821
2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925
3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.641 5.841
4 1,633 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604
S 3.365
6 3.143.
7 1.415, 1,896 | 2.365 2.998, 3.499
8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355
in 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250
2.764
2.718
1.366 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055
1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012
1.345 1.761 2.145 2,624 2.977
2,602
2.583
1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898
1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878
1,328 1.729 2.093 2.639 , 2.861
2.528
A 2.518
1.321 1.717 2.074 2.608 2.819
1,319 1.714 2.069 2.600 2.807
1.318 W711 2.064 2.492 2.797
1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.7798
27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771
238 1.313 4.701 2.048 2.467 2.763
2 1.371 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756
30 2.457
40 “ 2.423
60 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660
120 1,289 1.668 1.980 2.358 2.617
oo
1.282 1,645 1.960 2.326 2.576
‘The value listed in the table is the critical value of ¢ for the number of degrees of freedom
listed in the left column for a directional (one-tailed) or nondirectional (two-tailed) test a
the significance level indicated at the top of each column. If the observed # is greater tha
or equal to the tabled value, reject Ho. Since the ¢ distribution is symmetrical about t= ¢
these critical values represent both + and ~ values for nondirectional tests.
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au —————
Step 2. a=.01
| Step 3. The alternative hypothesis expresses a non-directional
ti
| therefore two-tailed test is used, statement,
Step 4. If one sampled is given, use df =n - 1
df =n-1
= 28-1
df = 27
The tabular value of t = 2.771.
step 5. Compute the t-value.
Given:
X = 42.6 hours
p = 40 hours
s = 3.75 hours
n= 28
Solution:
t=
42.6 - 40
3%
a
2.6
305
5.2915
26
* 0.7087
t = 967
Step 6. The computed value of t = 3.67 is greater than the tabular value of
t = 2.771, thus reject the null hypothesis (H,) and accept the alter-
native hypothesis (H,).
Step 7. Conclusion:
There is a significant difference of the working hours of 28
f teachers per week compared to the national average.
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F. Difference Between Means
1. t-test for independent samples
where:
X, = mean of the first sample
X) = mean of the second sample
5,2 = variance of the first sample
s, = variance of the second sample
n= number of cases in the first sample
n, = number of cases in the second sample
df=n, +n ,-1
2. t-test for dependent samples
d
{2 a eK
8
where:
d = difference between means
Yd? = sum of the squared difference
Yd = sum of the mean difference
n = number of cases
s = standard deviation
df =n-1
Problem 7:
An agronomist randomly selected 20 matured calamansi trees of one
variety and have a mean height of 10.8 feet with standard derivation of 1.25
feet, while 12 randomly selected calamansi trees of another variety have a
mean height of 9.6 feet with standard derivation of 1.45 feet, Test whether
the difference between the two sample means is significant. Use a = .05.
Solution:
Step 1. HX, = %
Hy: X # X,
Step 2, a =.05
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Step 3. The alternative hypothesis is non-directional, thus, the two-tailed
test is used.
Step 4. Since there are two samples used,
df =n, +n, -2
=20+12-2
= 32-2
df = 30
The tabular value of t = 2.042.
Step 5. Compute t-value
* Given:
X, = 10.8 ft.
% = 9.6 ft.
s, = 125 ft.
S, = 145 ft.
n, = 20
ny, = 12
Solution:
t =
t = 2.38
Step 6. omputed value of t = 2.38 is greater than the tabular value of
ae eee thus ieject the null hypothesis (H,) and accept the alter-
native hypothesis (H,).
Step 7. Conclusion:
There is a significant difference between the two samples.
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pad
pal
vn
ales
n
#2 I
10
d= 13
Step 6,
| Step 7,
-V8.4555556
s =2.91
13,
291
"
13
0.920222799
t = 141
The computed value of t = 1.41 which is less than the tabular value
of t = 2.262, therefore accept the null hypothesis (H,).
Conclusion:
There is no signific
students before and after the review class. It implies
was not effective.
ant difference between the mean scores of
that the review
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Critical Values of Chi-square, x?
[a0 [0s [ozs [or [0s [008
Level of significance for a nondirectional test
Core aauna|&
SS88s SSSS8 BB
The table lists the critical values of chi square for the degrees of freedom shown at the left
for teats corresnondina to those significance levels which head aah antume TF she
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In the previous sections, we dealt with hypothesis testing about a population
mean, two population means and proportion. In this test, it is always assumed that
the population is approximately normal and the given data are at least interval
scale. How about if the given data are normal or ordinal scale, and no assump-
tions are made about the population? What appropriate test statistic is used in
these types of data?
When the data are nomimal or ordinal, the hypothesis test used in this type
of data is called non-parametric, or distribution free tests. This implies that these
tests are free of assumptions regarding the distribution about a population.
The chi-square goodness-of-fit is one of the most commonly used non-
parametric test which was developed by Karl Pearson. The purpose of the
goodness-of-fit test is to determine how well an observed set of data fits an
expected data.
ge - 1O- BF
E
where x? = chi-square value
O = observed frequency
E = expected frequency
8.9.1 Chi-square Goodness-of-fit Test: Equal Expected Frequencies
Example:
There are three (3) gates at the University of the East. The building
maintenance supervisor would like to know if the gates are equally utilized.
As an experiment, 600 students are observed as they enter the school.
The number of students using each gate is reported below. At 101 sig-
nificance level, can we conclude that there is a difference in the use of the
three gates?
Gate Number of Students
Recto 245
Lepanto 205
Gastambide 150
600
Because there are 600 students in the sample, we expect that 200 students
fall in each of the three categories. These categories are called cells.
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Gate 0 K
Reto MS 200
Lepanto 208 200
Gastanbide: AN 200,
00 600
Niation
sep L Bormutate the Hy and Hl).
He Thor is no difference between the set of observed frequencies and
the set of expected frequencies.
He: There is a difference between the set of observed frequencies and
the set of expected frequencies.
sep 2 a= OL
Sep 3 The test statistic is the chi-square distribution. It is designated as
¥ and is computed by:
ye _ Woe BY
with k-I degrees of freedom, where
kis the number of categories, and
O is an observed frequency in a particular category
E is an expected frequency in a particular category
v - W- BE)
E
(245 - 200)° , 205 - 200)" _ {150 = 200)
200 200 200
2,025 | 25 | 2,500
200° 200° 200
10.125 + 0.125 + 12.5
22.75
"
*,
"
Step 4. Formulate the decision rule.
9.210
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Since the computed value of x? = 22.75 is greater than the criti.)
value of x? = 9.210, reject the H, and accept the H,.
Step 5. Conclusion
There is a large difference between the set of observed frequencig,
and set of expected frequencies. Three gates are not equally utilized,
6.9.2 Contingency Table Analysis
When we applied the goodness-of-fit test previously in this chapter, we wer
concerned with only a single variable and a single trait. The chi-square distriby.
tion can also be used when we are considering two traits.
Example:
A number of employees at a large chemical plant were asked to indicate
a preference from one of the three pension plans. The results are given in
the following table. Is there a relationship between the pension plan selected
and job classification of the employees? Use .05 significance level.
Job Class Plan A Plan C Total
oO E
oO E
20 | 34.67 58
38 | 78.67 38
162 | 106.67 44
220 140
df = (number of rows - 1)(number of columns - 1)
(Row Total)(Column Total)
df = (r - 1)(c - 1)
Grand Total
Suspension
Chemical
Labor
Total
Expected Frequency for a cell =
Expected Frequency for acell = a = 34.67
= (220)(236) _
= oa 78.67
= £220820) _ 196.67
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H,: There is no association between the job classification of employees
Step 1.
and their selected pension plan preference.
H,} There is an association between the job classification of em-
ployees.
step 2. a = .05
Step 3. Compute the x?
2 . wee EY
E
_ 20 - 34.67% | (38 - 78.67)" | (162 - 106.67)"
34.67 78.67 106.67
(26 - 47.27)2 (160 - 107.27)2 . (114 - 145.45)2
‘War o7a7SSC
(68 - 22.06)2 , (38 - 50.06)2 | (44 - 67.88)2
22.06 50.06 67.88
x? = 621 + 21.03 + 28.70 + 9.57 + 25.92 + 6.80 + 58.55
= + 2.91 + 8.40
x? = 168.09
Step 4. Formulate the decision rule:
Computed Value of x? Critical Value of x?
168.09 9.488 a | i
Since the computed value of x? = 168.09 is greater tha
critical value of x? = 9.488, reject the Ho and accept the H,.
Step 5. Conclusion:
Job classification is associated to the pension plan pref
of employees,
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