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Chapter 3 Calculus 1

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Trương Quang Thịnh
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CHAPTER 3 ERI AE DIFFERENTIATION Creo belief, the calculus is not the highest of the so-called “higher mathematics.” It is, in fact, only the beginning. PREVIEW In this chapter, we develop the main ideas of differential calculus. We begin by defining the derivative, which is the central concept of differential calculus. Then we develop a list of rules and formulas for finding the derivative of a variety of expressions involving Polynomials, rational and root functions, and trigonometric, logarithmic, and inverse trigonometric functions. Along the way, we will see how the derivative can be used 10 find slopes of tangent lines and rates of change. PERSPECTIVE A calculus is a body of calculation or reasoning associated with a certain concept. For differential calculus, that concept is the derivative, one of the fundamental ideas in all ‘mathematics and, arguably, a comerstone of moslern scientific thought, The basic ideas of what we now call calculus had been fermenting in intellectual circles throughout much of the 17th century. The genius of Newton and Leibniz centered not so much on the discovery of those ideas as on their systematization, In this chapter, we will consider various ways of efficiently computing derivatives. We will also see how the derivative can be used to find rates of change and to measure the direction (slope) at each point on a graph. Falling body problems in physics and ‘marginal analysis from economics are examples of applied topics to be discussed, and we will also explore several topics involving basic concepts. It is fair to say that your suecess with differential calculus hinges on understanding this material, CONTENTS 3a 32 34 36 a7 38 ‘An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents Tangent lines The derivative Relationship between the graphs of f and f’ Existence of derivatives Continuity and ditferentiabilty Derivative notation Techniques of Differentiation Derivative of a constant funetion Derivative of a power function Procedural rules for finding derivatives Higher-order derivatives Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions, Derivatives of the sine and cosine functions Differentiation of the other trigonometric functions Derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions Rates of Change: Modeling Rectiinear Motion ‘Average and instantaneous rate of change Introduction to mathematical ‘modeling Reatlinear motion (modeling in physics) Falling body problems The Chain Rule Inroduction to the ebain role Extended decivative formulas Justification of the chain rule Implicit Differentiation General procedure for implicit differentiation Derivative formulas for the inverse trigonometric functions Logarithmic differentiation Related Rates and Applications. Linear Approximation and Differentials Tangent line approximation Ditlesential Error propagation Marginal analysis in economics ‘The Newton-Raphson method for approximating roots Chapter 3 Review Research Project 131 132 3.1. An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents 3.1 AN INTRODUCTION To THE DERIVATIVE: TANGENTS: IN THIS SECTION: Tangent lines, the derivative, relationship between the graphs of f and f’, existence of derivatives, continuity and differentiability, derivative notation ‘Ancient Greck mathematicians were able to construct tangents to circles and a few other simple curves, but before the 17th century, there was no general procedure for finding the equation of a tangent to the graph of a function at a ‘given point. To solve this “tangent problem,” Sir Isaac Newton (see Sistorical Quest on page 69) used an approach originally developed by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat (see Sstorical Quest on page 143.) This approach leads to the definition of the derivative. Tangent Lines Since classical times, mathematicians have known that the tangent line at a given point oon a circle has the property that itis the only line that intersects the circle exactly once, but the same principle cannot be applied to finding tangent lines to more general curves Indeed, as shown in Figure 3.1, the line we may intuitively think of as being tangent to the graph of y =f(x) at point P can intersect the curve at other points, and for that ‘matter, there may be many lines that intersect the curve only at P, but are clearly not tangent lines We begin this section by computing the slope of a tangent line as a limit, using @ procedure originally developed by the French mathematician, Piere de Fermat (1601- 1665). Fermat's use of the “dynamic” limit process rather than the “static” procedures of classical geometry and algebra was a breakthrough in thinking that eventually led to the development of differential calculus by Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) in the latter half of the 17th century. Following in the footsteps of these giants, we, too, will use what we discover about tangent lines as a springboard for introducing the derivative and studying its basic properties. Suppose we wish 10 find the slope of the tangent Tine toy =(x) at the point Donor confine secant line (lie cy, f(a). The strategy isto approximate the tangent line by other fines whose slopes enemas athe scesnrfane- can be computed directly. In particular, consider the line joining the given point P to taney gence the neighboring point Q on the graph of f as shown in Figure 3.2. This line is called a secant line. Compare the secant lines shown in Figure 3.2 Figure 3.1. Tangent line at P Do not confuse secant line a line Secant lines Figure 3.2 Interactive The secant line PO Notice that a secant line isa good approximation to the tangent line at point P as long a5 Q is close 10 P. ny ‘To compute the slope of a secant line, first label the coordinates of the neigh: boring point Q, as indicated in Figure 3.2. In particular, let Ax denote the change 8.1. An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents 133 in the x-coordinate between the given point P(1o, f(%)) and the neighboring point Ax isa single symbol and does 2010+ Ax, Flta+ Ax). ‘not mean deta times x. Do not ‘The slope of this secant line, mc, is easy to calculate: forget that as A+ Ax is get ting close 100, but isnot equal mee = BY, = f0+ M8) =F 60) 100. as ar ‘To bring the secant line closer to the tangent line, let Q approach P on the graph of f by leting Ax approach 0. As this happens, the slope af the secant line should approach the slope of the tangent line at P. We denote the slope of the tangent line bY may to distinguish it from the slope of a secant line, These observations suggest the following definition, Example 1 Slope of a tangent line at a particular point Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) =x? at the point P(~1, 1). Solution Figure 3.3 shows the tangent line to fat x = ~1 ‘The slope of the tangent line is given by f(-1+ Ax) -fC1 Men = lim, ae Because f(x) = x*; f(—1 + Ax) = (-1 + Axy. tim E+ AR =F 0 Ax = tim LE ZAR + (axe ai ar Figure 3.3 Tangent ine to ae the graph of y = x2 at (~1,1) rr +x) Ar = im, PAD ae Factor out Ax and reduce. = ac + Ax) a a In Example 1, we found the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y =x? at the point (—1, 1. In Example 2, we perform the same calculation agai, this time representing the given point algebraically as (x2) Ths isthe situation shown in Figure 3.4 for the slope of the tangent line to y =x? at any point (x, 2°) 8.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents Figure 3.4 Tangent lines to the graph of y = »° at (x2) Example 2 Slope of a tangent line at an arbitrary point and then Derive a formula for the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) use the formula to compute the slope at (4,16). Solution Figure 3.4 shows a tangent line at an arbitrary point P(x,x?) on the curve. From the definition of slope of the tangent line, sma = tim £2 2AN=SG) = Jim, Because f(x) = 2, fe + Ax) = (r+ Ax? 2 ka aro ax = im 2AES ON? assoc Qr+Anax = tim SFO Factor and reduce aye ‘ = Jim r+ Ax) a a2 At the point (4,16), x $0 Man = 214) = 8. TThe result of Example 2 gives @ general formula for the slope of a line tangent 10 the graph of f(x) =x, namely, may = 2x. The answer from Example 1 can now be verified using this formula; if x = —1, then may = 2(1) = The Derivative The expression f+ an-fw ‘Ax which gives a formula for the slope of a secant line to the graph of a function f, is called the difference quotient of f. The limit of the difference quotient £00) = jim 22240 ao ar Which gives a formula for the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x, f(x)), is called the derivative of f and is frequently denoted by the symbol f"(x) 8.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents 135 (tead “eff prime of x"). To differentiate a function f at x means to find its derivative at the point (x, f(x)).. Alternatively, we can write oe jn OL) fis) where ¢ =x + Ax. Occasionally, this form is easier to use in computat ‘The derivative is one of the fundamental concepts in calculus, an make some observations regarding this definition important to “If the limit for the difference quotient exists, then we say that the function fis differentiable at x. + The value of a derivative depends only on the limit process and not on the symbols used in that process. In Example 2, we found that if f(x) = x2, then f'(x) = 2x, This, ‘means that we also know , then g'(e) = 21, w, then h'(w + Notice that the derivative of a function is itself a funetion, Finding the slope of a tangent line is just one of several applications of the derivative that we will discuss in this chapter. In Section 3.4, we will examine rectilinear motion and ther rates of change, and in Section 3.8, marginal analysis from economics. In Chapter 4-we will examine more complex applications such as curve sketching and optimization. 3. Derivative definitio pecample 3 _Dertvative ining the 1 2 Notice that) = VT is Differentiate f(t) = Vi. defined forall: > 0, whereas TOLAN 0) derivative (@) = zip is defined Solution f'() = im, forall t > 0. This shows that a oo ar “function need not be differentiable vEB a4 throughout its entire domain & dn, ae vi (VERA Mall by 10 ronal rumen. = dna (Geers, tel “ Beran ato Br (Jit At + Vi) - 136 3.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents L = tim earn A, ERE . 1 =— fort>0 Wi 5 Example 4 Estimating a derivative using a table Estimate the derivative of f(x) = cosx atx = by evaluating the difference quotient Ay _ fe +x) ~f@) ar ar near the point Ay +.Ax) cos E Solution ae ar Choose a sequence of values for Ax > 0: say 1,$.4,f,->» and use a ealeuator (or computer to estimate the diference quotient by table, We show selected elements from this sequence of calculations in the margin: ‘A similar table for negative values of Ax should also be considered. From the table, wwe would guess that f°) REID As encouraging word is necessary after reading this first example of finding derivative. By now you are aware of the fact ha the derivative concepts one ofthe tain ideas of calelus, and the previous example indicates that finding a derivative fan be long and tedious. In the next section, we wil begin to simplify the process of finding derivatives, so that you can quickly and efficiently find the derivative of many functions (without using this definition direty). For now, however, we focus on the derivative concept and definition, ‘Theorem Equation of a line tangent to a curve at a point Iff is a differentiable function at xp, the graph of y =f(x) has a tangent Tine at the point P(xo, f(xo)) with slope f"(xp) and equation (aa) = 40) +f 60) Proof: To find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point P(4o,y0), we use the fact that the slope of the tangent line is the derivative f"(to) ‘and apply the point-slope formula for the equation of a line: y-k = mh) Pointslope formula y =o = Man(* — 40) Given point (2,90) y ~F(60) = F"Ga)le = 20) Substitute yo = fl) and Mon = f(t). y = f'Go)kx = 40) +f 40) Add f x) 10 both sides. ‘ Example § Finding the equation of a tangent line Find an equation forthe tangent line tothe graph of f(x) = + atthe point where x = 2. oy Solution ‘The graph of the function y = +, the point where x = 2, and the tangent line at the point are shown in Figure 3.5. 3.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents 137 First, find f’(x): f= Definition of derivative = Jim 2265 Substitute f(x) = 2 and fx + Ax) = aro Ax sine Te ey) xt ar xo + An) = fim SEF 8D spy te fraction Ax0 x Ax (x + Ax) ee = Jim ——— arox@ + Ax) =I Pte 2. Terget ne to roe 2 y=ta (22) 2 The slope of fat x is not the derivative f' but the value ofthe derivative atx, In Example 5 the function is defined by JF) = Ix, the derivative or in standard form, x + 4y — = oc fQ=-he Example 6 Finding a line that is perpendicular to a tangent line Find the equation of the tine that is perpendicular to the tangent line to f(x) = + at = 2 and intersects it atthe point of tangency. Solution In Example 5, we found that the slope of the tangent line is f"(2) = that the point oftangency i 2, 4. In Section 1.3, we saw that two lines are perpendicular if and only if ther slopes are negative reciprocals of each other. Thus, the perpendicular line we seek has slope 4 (the negative reciprocal of m =~). The desired equation is 4 and (x= 2) Poine-slope formula In standard form, 4x — y ~ 4$ = 0; compare the coefficients of the variables in the tan- gent and perpendicular lines. = ‘The perpendicular line we found in Example 6 has a name. Figure 3.6 shows the graph of the function from Example 6, along with the graph of its normal line Relationship Between the Graphs of f and f” Figure3é_ Graph oty = ‘along with its normal It is important to take some time to study the relationship between the graph of a function a and is derivative. Since slope is measured by it follows that st points x where 2) > 0, the angent ine must be ited upward, andthe epi rising Similar, where f'(x) < 0, the tangent line is tilted downward, and the graph is falling, If f(x) = 0, the tangent line is horiznial atx, 0 the graph hese observation ae iMusrated in Figure 37 138 Figure 3.9 A possible graph {or the derivative of the function whose graph is given in Figure 3.8 3.1. An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents ‘raph ses Figure 3.7 Interactive How the sign of f' determines whether the tangent line slants up, slants down, or is horizontal Example 7 Sketching the graph of /’, given the graph of f. ‘The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 3.8, Figure 3.8 Interactive Graph of a function f Sketch a possible graph for the derivative f’ Solution Notice that the graph of f is rising for x < —1 and for x > 3: it i falling for ~1 0. Next, draw tangent lines as.x — 0° Describe what happens, and ue this description to suppor the conclusion that there is no tangent line equation 5 are, 2 ty'-2y=0 56, Consider the function , -# ——Thatis, substitute the (x,y) values you found in FO) = = 279 420? part a into this equation 144 ‘e. With the answer from part b, you can follow the steps of Bermat by dividing both sides of the equation by E. Fermat reasoned that since E was close to 0, this step should be permitted. Now, after doing this, Fermat further reasoned that since E was close to 0, he could now set E = Oand solve for A. Carry out these steps to write A in terms of xp and yo ‘d. Fermat then constructed the tangent line at P by joining P to S. Draw the tangent line for the given, ‘curve at the point (0.5, 0.9) by plotting the point ‘corresponding to the calculated value of A. Find an equation forthe tangent line to the curve ety atthe point P(0.5,0.9). 58, Sistorical Quest The groundwork for much of the mathematics we do today, and certainly a necessity for ‘calculus, is the development of analytic geometry by Descartes and Pierre de Fermat (see Problem 51). Descartes’ ideas for analytic ‘geometry were published in 1637 as one of three appendices to his Discourse on the Method (of Rea- soning Well and Seeking Truth in the Sciences). In that same year, Fermat sent an essay entitled “Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci” to Paris, and in this essay he laid the foundation for analytic geome: ty. Fermat's paper was more complete and systematic but Descartes" was published first. Descartes is gener- ally credited with the discovery of anaistic geometry, ‘and we speak today of the Cartesian coordinate system ‘and Cartesian geometry to honor Descartes" discovery: Today we describe analytic geometry from two view ‘points: (1) given a curve, describe it by an equation (Descartes viewpoint); and (2) given an equation, describe it by a curve (Fermat's viewpoint). Inthis Quest we will describe Descartes’ circle ‘method for finding a tangent line o a given curve. This ‘method uses algebra and geometry rather than limits. Descartes’ method for finding the tangent line to the ‘curve y = f(x) at the point P (xo, f(x0)) involved first {finding the point Qx1,0), which i the point of intersec tion of the normal line 10 the curve at P with the x-axis, ‘as shown in Figure 3.15. René Descartes (1596-1650) 3.1 An Introduction to the Derivative: Tangents Figure 3.15 Descartes’ circle method for finding tangent lines Descartes then wrote the equation of the circle with center Q passing through P. Descartes' next step was to use the equation of the given curve y = f(x) (actually any equation involv ing two variables) to eliminate one of the variables (usually y) from the equation of the circle. Descartes reasoned that the circle will cut the given curve in two places except when PQ is normal, in which case the two intersection points will coincide and the circle will be tangent tothe curve at P. That is, Descartes imposed the condition that the resulting equation (after substi- tution) has only one root to solve for x. The point Q is thus found and the normal line was then known to Descartes. The tangent line can be taken as the per- pendicular through P to the normal line, Carry out Descartes’ circle method for the parabola y? = 4 at the point (4,4). '59, Show thatthe tangent line to the parabola y = Ax? (for ‘A # O)at the point where x = c will imtersect the x-axis fat the point (5,0). Where does it intersect the y-axis? 60. Suppose a parabola is given in the plane along with its axis of symmetry. Explain how you could construct the tangent line ata given point P on the parabola using ‘only compass and straightedge methods. Hint: You may assume that the parabola has an equation of the form y = Ax? in which the y-axis is the axis of symmetry and the vertex of the parabola is at the origin, Then use the result of Problem 59. 8.2 Techniques of Differentiation 3.2 TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION 145 IN THIS SECTION: Derivative of a constant function, derivative of a power function, procedural rules for finding derivatives, higher-order derivatives In the last section, you learned how to find the derivative of a function f by computing the limit of a difference quotient. For even the simplest functions, this process is tedious and time-consuming. In this section, we describe some rules that simplify the process of differentiation, If we had to compute the limit of a difference quotient every time we wished to find 4 derivative, differentiation would not be the valuable tool that it is, Fortunately, there is 4 better way, and in this section, we will derive several formulas that will enable us to compute derivatives indirectly, without evaluating any limits Derivative of a Constant Function ‘We begin by proving thatthe derivative of any constant function is zero. Notice that this is plausible because the graph of the constant function f(x) =k is @ horizontal line, and its slope is zero. Thus, for example, if f(x) = 5, then f"(x) = 0. ‘Theorem 3.3 Constant rule A constant function f(x) = & has derivative f(x) = 0; in Leibniz notation, a f@=o a” Proof: Note that if f(x) ‘quotient is k, then f(x + Ax) =k for all Ax. Therefore, the difference fukn) kok BS a Fe jin ER SEALD in, 0=0 shine Derivative of a Power Function Recall that a power function is a function of the form f(x) =.x", where n is a real number. For example, f(x) = x2, g(x) = x8, A(x) = x!? are all power functions. So are Fuy=5ex? nd Here is a simple rule for finding the derivative of any power function, ‘Theorem 3.4 Power For any real number n, the power function f (x in Leibniz notation, ot Remember Ax # Oeven though x0, 146 8.2 Techniques of Differentiation Proof If the exponent 1 is a positive integer, we can prove the power rule by using the binomial theorem with the definition of derivative. Begin with the difference quotient: fet Ax)—fe) _ + Ax)" Ax 7 Ax [erent tar + Maer? (an? tot cant] =a" ~ Ax mete 4 MED? (Any? +o + (Aa) -ete eeey antl ull Detar pet (Any Note that Ax is a factor of every term in this expression except the first, Hence, as ‘Ax > 0, we have i a pot, MAD nd yt = sim, [ae + tart (ny ] In =0,then f(x) 50x) = 0. We will prove the power rule for negative integer exponents later in this section, and we will deal with the case in which the ‘exponent is any real number in Section 3.6. Note, however, that we have already verified the power rule for n = 3 in Example 9 of Section 3.1 and for the rational exponent in Example 3 of Section 3.1, when we showed that the derivative of f(t) = vt = 1"? 0 Wi For the following examples, and the problems at the end of this section, you may assume that the power rule is valid when theexponent m is any real number, + Example 1 Using the power rule to find a derivative Differentiate each of the following functions. a fx) b g(r) = 8? Solution ‘a, Applying the power rule with n = 8, we find that aS) 2 8x8 = a? a& b, Applying the power rule with m = 3, we get d Aegan ae 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation 147 Procedural Rules for Finding Derivatives ‘The next theorem expands the class of functions that we can differentiate easily by giving rules for differentiating certain combinations of functions, such as sums, differences, products, and quotients. We will see that the derivative of a sum (or difference) is the sum (or difference) of derivatives, but the derivative of a product (or quotient) does not have such a simple form. For example, to convince yourself that the derivative of a product is not the product of the separate derivatives, consider the power functions fax and and their product PO) =fOgte) = Because f(x) = 1 and g'(x) = 2x, the product of the derivatives is Lo Note the derivative ofa product is Sg") = (2x) = 2x ‘not the product of derivatives. A similar warning applies to the Whereas the actual derivative of p(x) = x? is p'(x) = 3x2. The product rue tells us how — derivative ofa quotiens (See to find the derivative of a product. Theorem 33.) Iff and g are differentiable functions at all x, and a,b, and ¢ are any real numbers, then the functions cf, f +g, fe, and f /g (forg(x) #0) are also differentiable, and their derivatives satisfy the following formulas: ——— aa Constant multiple [feo] = of'@) ‘Sum rule [f)+ 809] =F") +0") Difference rule [f@)-s@)]'=s'@) - 8’) Linearity rule* [af ce) + bet)!’ = af'(x) + bg'(x) Product rule [Fede] =Se)9'0) +0) LOI) _ gy) — fe") Quotient rule (g(x) 4 0) [2] : a) feo? Proof: We will prove the product rule in detail, leaving the other rules as problems. Note that the order of term in Let f(x) and g(x) be differentiable functions of x and let p(x) = f(x)g(x). We will the quotient rae matters because auld and subtract the term f(x + A.x)g(x) to the numerator ofthe difference quotient for” Je’ #8’ ~ a". p(x) to create difference quotients for f(x) and g(x). Thus, e+ An—pay a ar = tim LE + ANRC + AN) —fOeee) a “+ “The constant muliple, sum, an ieence rules can be combined ino single rule, which is called the nary rae. 148 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation im LF Bes + AXIS + Andale) +f HAE) =F) acto ar ‘g(x t+ Ax) — gy f(x + Ax) ~ f(x) fran [BED =8] gn [PEA] " soso gn ett This isthe derivative of § x+A0) =f) + gaeoin S]| This the derivative off = Fle") + gaya). Note: lim, f+ Ax) = FE) because f 6 comtinuous. Note that in each part of Theorem 3.5, we prove the differemtiability of the appropriate functional combination at the same time we are establishing the differentiation formula. By ple 2 Using the basie rules to find derivatives Differentiate cach of the following Functions a f(x) = 2e? SVE by p(x) = (3x? = 1)(7 + 2x4) 4e—7 ‘ © 4a@)=F—9 a. gtx) =r 43? & FQ)=55- Solutic ‘a. Apply the linearity rule (constant multiple, sum, and difference), and power rules: 207)! — Sel?y 2209 -3(3) fe Apply the product rule; then apply the linearity and power rules: Ge? = 10-420) + Ge? = 1 +28) Gx? = 1) [0+ 2x7)] + B@x) ~ 0107 + 28°) Gx? = 16x?) + GNC + 20°) 6x(5x9 = +7) vw e. Apply the quotient rule, then the linearity and power rules: GB-x)4r-7'-4r- 7G d= 6-H _ G=x)4 = 0) = Gr = DO = 2) - B= 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation 149 4d. Write g(x) = (4x + 3)(4x +3) before applying the product rule: (ax + 3)(4e +3) + Gr +3) +3) ax + 3)(4) + (4Y(4e +3) (4x +3) Sometimes when the exponent ier to expand before differentiating: g(x) = (Ax +3)? = 16x? +24 +9 g& €. Write the function using negative exponents for reciprocal powers: ‘Then apply the power rule term by term to obtain a 2-ar-)— 1 4 yx FQ) = 3-2) — 5 +0404 (—De In applying the power rule term-by-term in Example 2¢, we really used the following generalization of the linearity rule, Corollary to Theorem 3.5 The extended linearity rule I fi. faesfy ate differentiable functions and ay,az,:++.aq are constants, then Slafiteht Proof: ‘The proof is a straightforward extension (using mathematical induction) of the proof of the linearity rule of Theorem 3.5. + Example 3 illustrates how the extended linearity rule can be used to differentiate a polynomial Example 3 Derivative of a polynomial function Differentiate the polynomial function p(x) = 2x5 — 3x? + 8x — 5, Solution p's) = 4 [ae a0? 48 —5] Cpe eee d = (27) +8 (x) — (5) Estended linearity rule BOS) + BT) — FS) Estended linearity = 2(Sr4) — 32x) + 81) 0 Power and consiant rules = 10x 6r +8 . Example 4 Derivative Product of polynomials Differentiate p(x) = (x3 — 4x +7)(3x5 — x? + 63), Solution We could expand the product function p(x) as a polynomial and proceed as in Example 3, but it is easier to use the product rule. . P'G) = (8 —4e + 7)Gx5 — 2? + Gx)! + (a? = ae +7) — 2? +68) = (8 4x + 1)(15x4 — 2e + 6) + Bx? — 3x5 —27 + 6x) 150 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation “This form is an acceptable answer, but if you are using software or an algebraic calculator, ‘more than likely you will obtain the expanded formula 4x7 — 2x5 + 100K + 24x? + 12x? — 62x +42 pi Example $ Equation of a tangent line Find the standard form equation for the line tangent to the graph of — OO Rte atthe point where x = —1 Solution Evaluating f(x) at x =—1, we find that f(—1) = —4 (verify); therefore, the Point of tangency is (~1,—4). The slope of the tangent line at (—1,~4) is f"(—1). Find F°¢x) by applying the quotient rule: Qr? $4 —3Gx? +5)! = Gr? +5) 2x? +x — 3), fe) (2x? + — 3)? i (2x? +x — 3) (Gx) — Gr? + 5)Gx +) Qe tx—3F ‘Thus, the slope of the tangent lin is yy = BIERE DCO = B+ D4 + ee @-1-35 = 2-8) = (8)(-3) ay =9 From the formula (Theorem 3.1) y ="(to)(x — a0) +/(a0), we find that an equation for the tangent line at (—1, ~4) is y= 9 +1) + (4) Figure 3.16 Graph of f and the tangent ine at the point of, in standard form, 9x — y +5 = 0. The graphs of both f and its tangent line at (— 1-4) are shown in Figure 3.16. Example 6 Finding horizontal tangent lines Let y = (¢ =2)(22 +44 —7), Find all points on this curve where the tangent line is horizontal Solution The tangent line will be horizontal when dy /dx = 0, because the derivative dy fax measures the slope and a horizontal line has slope 0 (see Figure 3.17) Applying the product rule, we find ay - ; x = 2)(a2 + de = 7) + (x — 2? + dr = 7) x — 2)(2x +4) + (I)? + 4x — 7) DPR tx?+4x-7 2 44x — 15 Bx = 5)tr +3) Figure 3.17 Graph of curve and the horizontal tangent Thus, = 0 when lines are the points on the curve at which the tangent line is horizontal. § or x = —3. The corresponding points (§, 33) and (~3,50) 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation 151 In the following example, we use the quotient rule to extend the proof of the power rule to the case in which the exponent n is a negative integer. Example 7 Proof of the power rule for negative exponents Sov tt Le) unm m whan ape ine Solution We have f(x) Go=2 (5) 2")! = (any! "= 1/x", so apply the quotient rule: (Substiute ~m =n) = Higher-Order Derivatives Occasionally, itis useful to differentiate the derivative of a function. In this context, we will refer to f" as the first derivative of f and to the derivative of f’ as the second derivative of f. We could denote the second derivative by (f')’, but for simplicity we write f”. Other higher-order derivatives are defined and denoted similarly. Thus, the third derivative off is the derivative of f” and is denoted by f”. In general, for n > 3, the mth derivative of f is denoted by f™, for example f orf, In Leibniz notation, higher-order derivatives for y = f(x) are denoted as follows 1» Woaranis says Became the derivative o fant is funtion, ferentiation ccan be applied over and over, as long as the derivative itself is a differentiable function. That is, we can take derivatives of derivatives. Notice also that for derivatives of higher orders than the third, the parentheses distinguish a derivative from a power. For example, f# #f), You should note that all higher derivatives of a polynomig! p(x) will also be poly- nomials, and if p has degree n, then p(x) =0 for k >'n" 1, as illustrated in the following example. 152 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation Example 8 Higher derivatives for a polynomial function Find all orders of derivatives of 2x4 0x3 — Sx? +7 pay= Solution p'(x) = —8x° + 27x? — 10 pi(x) = 24x? + 54x — 10 M(x) = 48x +54 pi?) = 48 p(x) =0, PROBLEM SET 3.2 ‘To demonstrate the power of the theorems of this section Problems 1-4 ask you to go back and rework some prob- lems in Section 3,1, using the material of this section instead of the definition of derivative. 1. Find the derivatives of the functions given in Problems 11-16 of Problem Set 3.1 2. Find the derivatives ofthe functions given in Problems 17-24 of Problem Set 3.1 33, Find the derivatives ofthe functions given in Problems 25-29 of Problem Set3.1. 4. Find the derivatives of the functions given in Problems 35-38 of Problem Set 3.1 Differentiate the functions given in Problems 5-20. ‘Assume that C is a constant b. g(x) = 30) — 4 6a. f(x) = 57 +4 b gaan? Ra fayer+e be gay =Ch+e 1 af) = 10 b gat 1 arat- kts Wse) 1 fo Favsc 12. g@) = Sext4e 27 wa peoe EH Te p= 15. f(x) = 2x +1) 4) 16 p64) = +2) (QVE+23) a ans 1 jy = S88 18. f) = Sg WD. g@=PU+2? — fi) = POx+1F +p) =0 E25) In Problems 21-24, find’, f",f".andf'. 2 fa) = 8 S03 x +12 &y 2 26, Find 4, where y = (2? +4)(0~3¥ Sarr wherey = +4)(1 — 31°), In Problems 27-32, find the standard form equation for the tangent line to y = f(x) at the specified point 21, f(x) = x2 = Bx 5, where x = —2 28. 0) 29, f(x) = 02 + UL = 2°), where x xt 30. f@) = x8 3x3 — Sx +2, wherex = 1 where x = 0 245 at ss) =~ 3, where x 1,2 aa seyat- b+, wheres =4 fons Find the coordinates of each point on the graph of the siven function where the tangent line is horigontal in Problems 33-38. 33, f(x) = 2x — Tx? + Be = 3 BM. g(x) = Gr —S)r 8) 35. f0) 36. fx) = VEG 3) 4x24 12x +9 +3 37. hw u+9) 38 h(x) = 3.2 Techniques of Differentiation 39. a. Differentiate the function f(x) = 2x? — Sx —3 Factor the function in part a and differentiate by using the product rule, Show thatthe two answers are the same. 40. a. Use the quotient rule to differentiate f(x) 2-3 ' Rewrite the function in part a as f(x) =x-3(2%—3) and differentiate by using the product rule. «Rewrite the function in part a as SG) = 2x? — 3x and differentiate, 44. Show that the answers to parts a, by and eae all the same. 41, Find equations forthe tangent line to the curve with equation y = x* — 2x +1 thas parallel tothe Hine 2 -y-3=0, 42, Find equations fortwo tangent lines tothe graph aet3 of fla) = F— that are perpendicular to the line 2e-y =. 43, Let f(x) = (3 ~ 2x) +2), a Find an equation for the tangent line o the graph of Jf atthe point where x = 1. (See Figure 3.18.) Find an equation for the normal line to the graph of | F atthe point where x = 0, Figure 3.18 Graph of fx) = (x3 — 2x2)(x + 2) with tangent ling atx = 1 44. Find an equation fora normal line to the graph of P(x) = (x ~ 247)(x +2) that is parallel to the line x — 16 +17=0, Find all points (r,) on the graph of y = 4x? with the property thatthe tangent line at (x,y) passes through the point (2,0). Determine which (if any) of the functions y = f(x) given in Problems 46-49 satisfy the equation yi" ty" ty =xtl 6. fx) = 42-3 AR Seer te 49. fo) = 24x 153, 50, ‘historical Quest When working with rational expres: sions, we need to be careful about division by zero. One of the earliest recorded treatments of division by zero is attributed to the Hindu mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in whose honor the first Indian satellite was named. He also gave rules for approximations of square roots and sums of arithmetic progressions as well as rules for basic algebraic manipulations. One example of his work isthe following calculation for 7. “Add four to one hundred, multiply by eight and add ‘again sixty-two thousand; the result is the approximate value of the circumference ofa circle whose diameter is nwenty-thousand.” Follow the steps of Aryabhata’s, approximation for x. After you have completed this ‘demonstration, discuss the procedure and technology ‘you used and contrast it with the tools that Aryabhata ‘must hive had available. 51, What isthe relationship between the degree ofa poly ‘nomial function P and the value of k for which P(x) is first equal to 0? ‘52, Prove the constant multiple rule (ef)’ = ef" 53, Prove the sum rule (f +g) =f’ +g ‘54, Use the definition of the derivative 10 find the derivative of f?, given that f isa differentiable function 85, Prove the product rule by using the result of Problem 54 and the identity deter et 56. Prove the quotient rule i" a # where g (x) # 0. Hint: First show that the difference quotient for /g can be expressed as fort dx) - £02) a fOr + Ax)e(s) ~Fo)eG +0) (Angas Angad and then subtract and add the term g(x)f (x) in the numerator. '57. Show that the reciprocal function =F has the derivative LO) (ro at each point x where is differentiable and f(x) # 0 r@=- 154 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 58 Uf, [Link] har diferentabl functions, show that the pe gh tt ta wg) = mw be ees 1b, Show that p(x) = [,f(x)]* has the derivative hy eh th gh ; a Oe ee Pw) =4[} eo (60, Find constants A, B, and C so that y = Ax? + Bx +C 59, Let be a function that is differentiable atx satisfies the equation a. Ifg(x) = [f@)] show that 4 ay" 39+ 9 =3//@F Pe) 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC, EXPONENTIAL, AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS IN THIS SECTION: Derivatives of the sine and cosine functions, derivatives of the other trigonometric functions, derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions In the last section, we developed general rules for differentiation and applied those rules to various algebraic functions involving power functions, polynomials, and rational functions. In this section, we develop differentiation formulas for the trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions Derivatives of the Sine and Cosine Functions In calculus we assume thatthe trigonometric functions are functions of real numbers or of angles measured in radians, We make this assumption because the trigonometric differen- tiation formulas rely on limit formulas that become complicated if degree measurement is used instead of radian measure. We begin by finding the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions. This requires ‘wo limits established earlier in Theorem 2.3. sink 10h am ‘Theorem 3.6 Derivatives of the sine and cosine functions “The functions sin x and cos x are differentiable forall x and 4 sinx=cosx Leos =—sine ie = a Proof: The proofs of these two formulas are similar. We will prove the first using the trigonometric identity sin(a +B) = sina cos + cosa sin and leave the proof of the second formula as a problem, From the definition of the derivative is 4 ny = tm SEE AN) = sins a ar ar sinx cos Ax +coss sin Ax ~ sine ry ar es [= cos Ax cos sar ao ar ar 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 155 = gn fies sonst] = nn) fn, 22E=2) + csr in (SB) (sin.x) (0) + (cosx) (1) = cosx ’ Example 1 Derivative involving a trigonometric function Differentiate f(x) = 2x4 + 3cos.x + sina, for constant a. Solution 10) = £ (t+ 3e0sx + sina) did a (08) +32 (cos) +4 (sina) Arend inca rae = 248°) +3(-sinx) +0 Power rule, derivative of cosine, derivative of a constant 8r3 —3sinx Example 2 Derivative ofa trigonometric function with product rule Differentiate f(x) = x? sine. inx) a Solution "a) = fM=F 0 Product rule a a =P (sing) + (sinx) =F (Ginx) + (sins) © =x? cosx +2r sinx Power rule and derivative of sine Example 3 Deriv ive of a trigonometric function with quotient rule vi Differentiate (ty = Solution Write V7 as ¢'/®, Then 4 [ A — o dt | cost. Quotient rule Power rule and derivative of sine 2 SOF _ HE (ost + tin) a = Common fator 1 ost +21 a aT 2 cost 156 Trigonometric formulas use ‘radian measure unless otherwise stared. 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Differentiation of the Other Trigonometric Functions ‘You will need to be able to differentiate not only the sine and cosine functions, but also the other trigonometric functions. To find the derivatives of these functions you will need the following identities (which are called the eight fundamental identities) tan cote = secx = —— — cox = ane costx sine = 1 1+tan?x =sectx cot? +1 Theorem 3.7 Derivatives of the trigonometric functions ‘The six basic trigonometric functions sin x, cos x, tan x, ese x, sec x, and cot x are all differentiable wherever they are defined, and cf ee eee Zinn = cose Leer = see tanx Keosx= sine Loser = —esex cotx a a Proof: The derivatives for sine and cosine were given in Theorem 3.6, All the other derivatives in this theorem are proved by using the appropriate quotient rules along with formulas for the derivatives of the sine and cosine. We will obtain the derivative of the tangent function and leave the rest as problems (see Problems 57-59) 4 erat (S88) ae = ae (cose cos (ins) ~ sins. (085) cosx (cos) ~ sla (~sinz) Trigonometric identity Quotient rule Derivative of sinx and cos 2x sin? x Trigonometric identity = sec? x Trigonometric identity Example 4 Derivative of a trigonometric function with the product rule Differentiate (6) = 36 sec 8. Solution 5'(@) = “4 s008) Product rule Example 5 Derivative of a product of trigonometric functions Differentiate f(x) = sec.x tan. Solution f(x) = (see tant) ar d seo (tan) + tan d (sec) Produet rule 83 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 187 sec. (sec?) + tans (seextan.x) Derivative of tn and see x see? x + seex tan? x = sec? x +secx (sec? x ~ 1) sec! x — see, Example 6 Equation of a tangent line involving a trigonometric function Find the equation of the angen Iie to the curve y = cot x ~ 2 ese x atthe point where ae Solution When x = 3%, we have en age 2 = 453 (248) 5 40 the point of tangency is P (3, =35), To find the slope of the tangent line at P, we frst compute the derivative ay od SF = Secox at) eemx 2 esex Linearity rte = ose? x = 2(—ese x cot) sex cotx — esc? x ‘Then the slope of the tangent line is given by * ar r=29/3 so the angnt tn t (3, 24x + 9y + 15V3 — 16 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions ‘The next theorem, which is easy to prove and remember, is one of the most important results in all of differential calculus, ‘Theorem 3.8 Derivative rule for the natural exponential ‘The natural exponential function e* is differentiable for all x, with derivative 158 Figure 3.19 The slope of at each point (64) is 8.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions Proof: We will proceed informally. Recall the definition‘of e ig (ted) + 90 that fim, (1+ Ax)!" =e, This means that for Ax very smal, Har Ax. Thus, lim Finally, using the limit in the definition of derivative for e*, we obtain” (14 Ax or Ot 14 Ax so that oO — | 7 Note: An easier verification ofthe derivative formula in Theorem 38 is given in Example 6 of Section 3.6 wing methods developed in that section, The fact that +(e") = e* means thatthe slope of the graph of,y = eat any point is m= et, the y-coorinate ofthe point, as shown in Figure 3.19. This is one of the features ofthe exponential function y = e* that makes it “natural.” Example 7 A derivative involving e* Differentiate f(x) = xe". For what values of x does f(x) = Solution Using the product rule, we find rey=4 ey =* als «+ [z ele Produc ue axe + 2ne" Exponential and power rules To find where f"(x) 0, we solve wel +2re' = 0 xr +2)e" = 0 x(V+2)=0 Since e* # Oforall x x =0,-2 Example 8 A second derivative involving ¢* e sinx, find f(x) and f(x) Solution Apply the product rule twice: For f(x f(x) =e" (sin) + (e*) sine =e" (cosx) +e" (sinx) e* (cosx + sin) e%(cosx +sinxy’ + (e*)' (cosx + sin.x) e* (—sin.x + cos.x) + €* (cosx + sinx) Fe) “ ‘The following limit rule for the natural logarithm functions follows from the composition limit rule and is proved in advanced calculus. 83 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions 159 ‘Theorem 3.9 Derivative rule for the natural logarithm function ‘The natural logarithmic function In x is differentiable for all x > 0, with derivative a 1 qumyay Proof: According to the definition of the derivative, we have Ine +40) uy ‘ar " 5 [= > a g q 5 | = = ¢ IE x x hwo de =* ant h > 20.08 Ax > 0, Ar Ma 0 5 1 => z zie Power rule for logarithms seat) = (142) nenmnetrh 4 pee Ine Solution We use the quotient rule, (sinx) (In x) ~ (n.x) £ (winx) sin? x = (nx) osx) ae Sa) = _ tains (d 160 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions: PROBLEM SET 3.3 Differentiate the functions given in Problems 1-32 1. f(x) = sinx + cos 2 fx) = 2sinx + tan 3. g(t) =P? + cost +084 4. (= 201 +3 in 5. f(0) = sin? Hint: Use the product rule 6 g(x) = cos? x Hint: Use the product rule, 7. f(x) = VE cosx +x cotx 8 f(x) = 2x? sinx — 3x cosx 9. px) =x? cosx 10. p(t) = AL. g(x) = = 13, h(t) =e" eset 1470 18, fix) =x? Inx 16 gay = 82 17, h(x) = e*(sinx — cosx) Inx 18 fo) = 2 a= oe +0086 aie cOsx 26. fx) an fx) = Vee BE= Tyee IO) = ay eos me 810) = 3 Fan 3. g(x) 2x — tan? x +cos.x 32 g(x) = cos? x +i x tsinx Find the second derivative of each function given in Problems 33-44. 33. f(@) = sind “BM. £@) = cos 35. f(@) = tan 36, f(0) = cord 37. f(0) =sec8 38. f(6) = ese xsinx = in + cos.x 39. fix) 40. foe 41. f(x) =e cosx 43. h(Q) = viint Find an equation for the tangent line atthe prescribed point for each function in Problems 45-82. 45, f(@) = tané at (5,1) 46.40 2 gnare! In 4. f0=% sect at (5,2 47. f(x) = sinx, where x = 2 t ccos.x, where x = + sinx, wherex sec x, where x SL. y =e" cosx, where.x = 0 82, y = xInx, where.x = 1 '53, For what values of A and B does y =Acosx + Bsinx satisfy y" + 2)" + 3y = 2sinx? $4, For what values of A and B does Axcosx + Bx sinx satisfy y” + y = ~3cosx? 35, Think Tank Problem Give an example of adifferen- tiable function witha discontinuous derivative 56, Complete the proof of Theorem 3.6 by showing tha cos = —sins Hint: You will need to use the identity cos(a + B) = cosercos 6 ~ sinar sin. Prove the requested parts of Theorem 3.7 in Problems 57-59. 51. dcotx = —ese?x 88, fsecx = seextanx 59, desex 60. Use the limit ofa difference quotient prove that —esex cotx a 3.4 Rates of Change: Modeling Rectilinear Motion 161 3.4 RATES OF CHANGE: MODELING RECT! NEAR MOTION IN THIS SECTION: Average and instantaneous rate of change, introduction to mathematical modeling, rectilinear motion (modeling in physics), falling body problems ‘The derivative can be interpreted as a rate of change, which leads to a wide variety of applications. Viewed as rates of change, derivatives may represent such quantities as the speed of a moving object, the rate at which a population ‘grows, a manufacturer's marginal cost, the rate of inflation, or the rate at which natural resources are being depleted. In this section, we begin by showing how rates of change can be computed using differentiation, Then we discuss the general notion of mathematical modeling and con- clude by demonstrating modeling principles in a variety of practical problems involving ‘motion along a line. Average and Instantaneous Rate of Change ‘The graph of a linear function f(x) = ax + b is the line y = ax + b, whose slope m = a can be thought of as the rate at which y is changing with respect to x (sce Figure 3.20a). However, for another function g that is not linear, the average (and instantaneous) ‘2(8) with respect to x varies from point to point, as shown in rate of change of y Figure 3.20b, Shise conan G+ any+ay etistastasdasgs® ‘a Linear function; rate of b, Nonlinear function; rate of change Ay /A.x is constant change Ay/Ax is variable Figure 3.20 Rate of change is measured by the slope of a tangent line Because the slope of the tangent line is given by the derivative of the function the preceding geometric observations suggest that the rate of change of a function is measured by its derivative. This connection will be made more precise in the following discussion. Suppose ’ is a function of x, say y =fCx). Corresponding to a change from x to.x4+Ax, the variable y changes from f(x) to f(x-+ Ax). The change in y is ‘Ay =/lr + Ax) F(x), and the average rate of change of y with respect to x is eo This formula forthe change CHANGE NY _ Ay _ fx +A) ~foe iny is important. Find Sy in AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE = SHANGEINY _ Sy fF OD)“ L0) MoE CHANGE INE ~ Ax ar Figure 3.2 {As the interval over which we are averaging becomes shorter (that is, as Ax —> 0), the average rate of change approaches what we would intuiiyely cll the instantaneous 8.4 Rates of Change: Modeling Rectilinear Motion rate of change of y with respect tox, and the difference quotient approaches the derivative ty & “Thus, we have a ™ stantancous ware or cant = tim 42 — im FE +89 LO) _ pip) aro Ax —an50 ax ‘To summarize: Figure 3.21. Achange in ay corresponding to a change ax INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE Suppose f(x) is differentiable at x =19, Then the instantaneous rate of change of y = f(r) with respect to x at xp is the value of the derivative of fat xg, That is, INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE = f"(Xp) pany Example 1 Instantaneous rate of change sinx is changing with respect to x when Find the rate at which the function y Solution For any x, the instantaneous rate of change is the derivative, 2x sinx +27 cose a ‘Thus, the rate when x = is ay! 2 B) Lansinn +x? cose =2x(0) + x°(-1) = de : the function is decreasing at the rate of ‘The negative sign indicates that when x = x7 9.9 units of y for each one-unit increase in x Let us consider an example comparing the average rate of change with the instant neous rate of change. Example 2 Comparison between average rate and instantaneous rate of change —4r +7. Let f(x) fa Find the average rate of change of f with respect to x between x =3 and 5. , Find the instantaneous rate of change of f at x Solution 5 is found by dividing the change in tor =Sis ‘a. The (average) rate of change from x = 3 10 by the change in x. The change in f from x F(8) ~f) = [S? - 45) +7] - [3° - 48) +7] =8 Thus, the average rate of change is £05) =f) _ 8 _ - 3-3 7274 ‘The slope of the secant line is 4, as shown in black in Figure 3.22.

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