Building Process

There are various processes for completing to build huge ships of 6,000tons by own weight.

All processes are essential to build a ship with a complicated function for sailing, loading

cargoes, and crew living. Ships are built according to schedules which managed effectively

by many people such as our design team with a lot of experiences and flexible ideas, and

the craftsmen who inherited a traditional technique.

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Design

The design is classified into basic design and detailed design. At the basic design stage, we

settle demands with a ship owner through the meeting an order beforehand, and make a

plan overall to provide maximum performance in various limitations. At the detailed design

stage, we subdivide the drawings and the information which is compiled at basic design,

and make detailed drawings to be able to product rationally. Based upon this drawings, we

start shipbuilding.

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Lofting

The design drawing is written by being scaled down and omitted, so we cannot cut a steel

plate based on this drawing. In addition, we have to unfold the drawing on a plane shape

because a ship is constructed in a curved surface.

Lofting means the work to make the model that we can cut actually and assemble based on

the design drawing. We have made a model of the original size before, but in recent years,

we make cutting data with a computer.

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Numerical Control Cutting

Based on a model made by lofting, NC cutting is the work to actually cut out the form of

the parts from steel plates. Craftsmen have cut it with a cutting machine before, but now it

is mechanized and is able to cut out the complicated form automatically, when we input the

data of the lofted drawing into a NC cutting machine. It does the marking to fill in the name

or the installation place of the parts at the same time.

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Bending

A ship consists of complicated curved surface, so we need to bend the steel plate because it

is a plane. Pushing it with a press machine or heating the surface by a gas burner, we bend

it carefully little by little to match the model. In particular, as for the work to bend the

smooth curved surface by thermal processing, most are done by hand by the skilled

craftsmen, and it could be said craftsmanship.

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Assembly

It is inefficient to construct a huge ship at a time, so we adopt the block construction

method which we divide the blocks according their size and assemble in the shipyard. We

weld the parts performed NC cutting and bending, and assemble in three-dimensional

block.

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Block Installation and Assembly

We install and joint assembled blocks by right order on a building berth by a crane, and

assemble them in the form of the final ship. We must fix them at the correct position

because the shape of the ship is warped if the fixed position of the block is wrong.

However, the weight of a large block is close to 150 tons, so assembling needs serious

technique and labor.

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Painting

When the assembly is over, the painting begins. The painting plays a big role not only to

improve the appearance of the ship, but also in the safety to prevent from corrosion.

Furthermore, a painting standard is strengthened for complying with environmental

problems, so the painting is a very important process on shipbuilding.

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Launching

When the block installation and the painting are over, a ship is floated on the sea for the

first time. The building berth inclines to the direction of the sea like a slide and we let a ship

slide on it and float on the sea. The launching is the tensest moment for our shipyard staffs

and is also the most important day on shipbuilding. This day is open to the public and we

hold the launching ceremony splendidly.

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Outfitting

Outfitting means to equip the completed hull with pipes, an engine, and interiors and

electric wires. By the launching, we finish their construction of approximately 70%, and

after the launching, we let the ship moor at a quay and do the rest of the construction. We

do each of the inspection for an equipment of hull fittings which completed steadily.

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Trial

After finished the outfitting, we apply performance tests such as a vessel speed and the

turning by running a ship actually, and confirm to be satisfied with the contracted

specifications between the owner and our shipyard. At the same time, we do the operation

check and the function test so that the apparatus which we put on a ship shows original

performance. After we finish this trial run, we just wait for the date of delivery.

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Delivery

A ship leaves the shipyard and sets sail for the ocean at last. On that day, all crews gather

and people of various nationalities come and go in our shipyard. If everything is ready, it is

finally a start on a voyage. A ship is seen off by the guests such as owners and our shipyard

staffs, then sails into the seas in the world.

Bon Voyage!

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01 Design

The hull form and arrangement of ship are determined on the design stage.
Research and development are also conducted at this stage.

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02 Production planning

Working and production schedules are developed, considering efficient production.

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03 The arrival of steel

The steel for hull form arrives at the factory from the iron mill by ship.

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04 Primer coating

Prior to processing operation, the steel is surface-treated to prevent corrosion.

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05 Cutting of steel

Cutting of steel is a first step of production.

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06 Processing of steel

The shape of the hull is formed in this phase.

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07 Panel line

The panels for hull blocks are made efficiently using a dedicated production line
system.

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08 Sub assembly

The steel parts assembly phase.

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09 Block assembly

Block assembly phase.

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10 Outfitting for blocks

Pipes and equipment are installed in the blocks.

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11 Block joint on the dock

Hull blocks are joined on the dock efficiently

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12 Goliath crane

A giant goliath crane is the symbol of shipyard.

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13 Sea Trial

Ship's performance is confirmed by sea trial.

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14 Naming and delivery ceremony

After the completion of all construction procedures, the naming and delivery
ceremony is held for the ship, and the ship is delivered to the owner.

Chapter 92 - Ship and Boat Building and

Repair
GENERAL PROFILE
Chester Matthews

The complex merchant vessels, passenger ships and ships of war of the 1990s
comprise tons of steel and aluminium as well as a variety of materials that range
from the most common to the very exotic. Each vessel may contain hundreds or
even thousands of kilometres of pipe and wire equipped with the most
sophisticated power plants and electronic equipment available. They must be
constructed and maintained to survive the most hostile of environments, while
providing comfort and safety for the crews and passengers aboard and reliably
completing their missions.

Ship construction and repair rank among the most hazardous industries in the
world. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), for example,

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shipbuilding and repair is one of the three most hazardous industries. While
materials, construction methods, tools and equipment have changed, improved
radically over time and continue to evolve, and while training and emphasis on
safety and health have significantly improved the lot of the shipyard worker, the
fact remains that throughout the world each year workers die or are seriously
injured while employed in the construction, maintenance or repair of ships.

Despite advances in technology, many of the tasks and conditions associated with
constructing, launching, maintaining and repairing today’s vessels are essentially
the same as they were when the very first keel was laid thousands of years ago.
The size and shape of the components of a vessel and the complexity of the work
involved in assembling and outfitting them largely preclude any kind of automated
processes, although some automation has been made possible by recent
technological advances. Repair work remains largely resistant to automation. Work
in the industry is very labour intensive, requiring highly specialized skills, which
often must be utilized under less than ideal circumstances and in a physically
challenging situation.

The natural environment in itself poses a significant challenge for shipyard work.
While there are a few shipyards that have the capability to construct or repair
vessels under cover, in most cases shipbuilding and repairing is done largely out of
doors. There are shipyards located in every climatic region of the world, and while
the more extreme northern yards are dealing with winter (i.e., slippery conditions
wrought by ice and snow, short daylight hours and the physical effects on workers
of long hours on cold steel surfaces, often in uncomfortable postures), the yards in
more southerly climes are faced with the potential for heat stress, sunburn, working
surfaces hot enough to cook on, insects and even snake bites. Much of this work is
done over, in, under or around the water. Often, swift tidal currents may be
whipped by the wind, causing a pitching and rolling working surface on which
workers must perform very exacting tasks in a variety of positions, with tools and
equipment that have the potential for inflicting serious physical injury. That same
often unpredictable wind is a force to be reckoned with when moving, suspending
or placing units often weighing in excess of 1,000 tons with a single or multiple
crane lift. The challenges presented by the natural environment are manifold and
provide for a seemingly endless combination of situations for which safety and
health practitioners must design preventive measures. A well-informed and trained
workforce is critical.

As the ship grows from the first steel plates which comprise the keel, it becomes an
ever-changing, ever-more-complex environment with a constantly changing subset
of potential hazards and hazardous situations requiring not only well-founded
procedures for accomplishing the work, but mechanisms for recognizing and
dealing with the thousands of unplanned situations which invariably arise during
the construction process. As the vessel grows, scaffolding or staging is added
continuously to provide access to the hull. While the very construction of this
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staging is highly specialized and at times inherently hazardous work, its
completion means that workers are subjected to greater and greater risk as the
height of the staging over the ground or water increases. As the hull begins to take
form, the interior of the ship is also taking shape as modern construction methods
permit large subassemblies to be stacked on one another, and enclosed and
confined spaces are formed.

It is at this point in the process that the labour-intensive nature of the work is most
apparent. Safety and health measures must be well coordinated. Worker awareness
(for the safety of both the individual worker and those nearby) is fundamental to
accident-free work.

Each space within the confines of the hull is designed for a very specialized
purpose. The hull may be a void which will contain ballast, or it may house tanks,
cargo holds, sleeping compartments or a highly sophisticated combat control
centre. In every case building it will require a number of specialized workers to
perform a variety of tasks within close proximity of one another. A typical scenario
may find pipefitters brazing valves into position, electricians pulling wire cable
and installing circuit boards, brush painters doing touch-up, shipfitters positioning
and welding deckplates, crews of insulators or carpenters and a test crew verifying
that a system is activated in the same area at the same time. Such situations, and
others even more complex, take place all day, every day, in an ever-changing
pattern dictated by schedule or engineering changes, personnel availability and
even the weather.

The application of coatings presents a number of hazards. Spray-painting

operations must be accomplished, often in confined spaces and with volatile paints
and solvents and/or a variety of epoxy-type coatings, notorious for their sensitizing
characteristics.

Enormous progress in the area of safety and health for the shipyard worker has
been made over the years through the development of improved equipment and
construction methods, safer facilities and a highly-trained workforce. However, the
greatest gains have been made and continue to be made as we turn our attention
toward the individual worker and focus on eliminating behaviour which
contributes so significantly to accidents. While this could be said of almost any
industry, the labour-intensive character of shipyard work makes it especially
important. As we move toward safety and health programmes which more actively
involve the worker and incorporate his or her ideas, not only does the worker’s
awareness of the hazards inherent in the job and how to avoid them increase, he or
she begins to feel ownership for the programme. It is with this ownership that true
success in safety and health can be realized.

SHIP AND BOAT CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

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James R. Thornton

Shipbuilding

The construction of a ship is a highly technical and complicated process. It

involves the blending of many skilled trades and contract employees working
under the control of a primary contractor. Shipbuilding is performed for both
military and commercial purposes. It is an international business, with major
shipyards around the globe competing for a fairly limited amount of work.

Shipbuilding has changed radically since the 1980s. Formerly, most construction
took place in a building or graving dock, with the ship constructed almost piece by
piece from the ground up. However, advances in technology and more detailed
planning have made it possible to construct the vessel in subunits or modules that
have utilities and systems integrated within. Thus, the modules may be relatively
easily connected. This process is faster, less expensive and provides better quality
control. Further, this type of construction lends itself towards automation and
robotics, not only saving money, but reducing exposures to chemical and physical
hazards.

Overview of the Ship Construction Process

Figure 92.1 gives an overview of shipbuilding. The initial step is design. The
design considerations for various types of ships vary widely. Ships may transport
materials or people, may be surface ships or subsurface, may be military or
commercial and may be nuclear or non-nuclear powered. In the design phase, not
only should normal construction parameters be considered, but the safety and
health hazards associated with the construction or repair process must be
considered. In addition, environmental issues must be addressed.

Figure 92.1 Shipbuilding flow chart

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Newport News Shipbuilding

The basic component of ship building is steel plate. The plates are cut, shaped, bent
or otherwise manufactured to the desired configuration specified by the design
(see figure 92.2 and figure 92.3). Typically the plates are cut by an automatic flame
cutting process to various shapes. These shapes may be then welded together to
form I and T beams and other structural members (see figure 92.4).

Figure 92.2 Automatic flame cutting of steel plate in fabrication shop

Eileen Mirsch

Figure 92.3 Bending of steel sheet

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Newport News Shipbuilding

Figure 92.4 Welded steel plate forming part of a ship’s hull

Newport News Shipbuilding

The plates are then sent to fabrication shops, where they are joined into various
units and subassemblies (see figure 92.5). At this juncture, piping, electrical and
other utility systems are assembled and integrated into the units. The units are
assembled using automatic or manual welding or a combination of the two. Several
types of welding processes are employed. The most common is stick welding, in

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which a consumable electrode is used to join the steel. Other welding processes use
inert gas shielded arcs and even non-consumable electrodes.

Figure 92.5 Working on a ship subassembly

Newport News Shipbuilding

The units or subassemblies are usually then transferred to an open-air platen or lay
down area where erection, or joining of assemblies, occurs to form even larger
units or blocks (see figure 92.6). Here, additional welding and fitting occurs.
Further, the units and welds must undergo quality-control inspections and testing
such as radiography, ultrasonic and other destructive or non-destructive tests.
Those welds found defective must be removed by grinding, arc-air grouping or
chiseling and then replaced. At this stage the units are abrasive blasted to ensure
proper profiling, and painted (see figure 92.7). Paint may be applied by brush,
roller or spray gun. Spraying is most commonly utilized. The paints may be
flammable or toxic or pose an environmental threat. Control of abrasive blasting
and painting operations must be performed at this time.

Figure 92.6 Combining of ship subassemblies into larger blocks

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Newport News Shipbuilding

Figure 92.7 Abrasive blasting of ship units prior to painting

Judi Baldwin

The completed larger units are then moved to the graving dock, shipway or final
assembly area. Here, the larger units are joined together to form the vessel
(see figure 92.8). Again, much welding and fitting occur. Once the hull is
structurally complete and watertight, the vessel is launched. This may involve
sliding it into the water from the shipway on which it was constructed, flooding of

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the dock in which it was constructed or lowering the vessel into the water.
Launchings are almost always accompanied by great celebration and fanfare.

Figure 92.8 Adding ship’s bow to the rest of a vessel

Newport News Shipbuilding

After the ship is launched, it enters the outfitting phase. A large amount of time
and equipment are required. The work includes the fitting of cabling and piping,
the furnishing of galleys and accommodations, insulation work, installation of
electronic equipment and navigation aids and installation of propulsion and
ancillary machinery. This work is performed by a wide variety of skilled trades.

After completion of the outfitting phase, the ship undergoes both dock and sea
trials, during which all the ship’s systems are proved to be fully functional and
operational. Finally, after all testing and associated repair work is performed, the
ship is delivered to the customer.

Steel fabrication

A detailed discussion of the steel fabrication process follows. It is discussed in the

context of cutting, welding and painting.

Cutting

The “assembly line” of the shipyard starts in the steel storage area. Here, large steel
plates of various strengths, sizes, and thicknesses are stored and readied for
fabrication. The steel is then blasted with abrasive and primed with a construction
primer that preserves the steel during the various phases of construction. The steel

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plate then is transported to a fabrication facility. Here the steel plate is cut by
automatic burners to the desired size (see figure 92.2). The resulting strips are then
welded together to form the structural components of the vessel (figure 92.4).

Welding

The structural framework of most ships is constructed of various grades of mild

and high-strength steel. Steel provides the formability, machinability and
weldability required, combined with the strength needed for ocean-going vessels.
Various grades of steel predominate in the construction of most ships, although
aluminium and other nonferrous materials are used for some superstructures (e.g.,
deck-houses) and other specific areas within the ship. Other materials found on
ships, like stainless steel, galvanized steel and copper-nickel alloy, are used for a
variety of corrosion-resistance purposes and to improve structural integrity.
However, nonferrous materials are used in far less quantity than steel. Shipboard
systems (e.g., ventilation, combat, navigational and piping) are usually where the
more “exotic” materials are used. These materials are required to perform a wide
variety of functions, including the ship propulsion systems, back-up power,
kitchens, pump stations for fuel transfer and combat systems.

Steel used for construction can be subdivided into three types: mild, high-strength
and high-alloy steel. Mild steels have valuable properties and are easy to produce,
purchase, form and weld. On the other hand, high-strength steels are mildly alloyed
to provide mechanical properties that are superior to the mild steels. Extremely
high-strength steels have been developed specifically for use in naval construction.
In general, the high-strength and high-yield steels are called HY-80, HY-100 and
HY-130. They have strength properties in excess of the commercial-grade high-
strength steels. More complicated welding processes are necessary for high-
strength steels in order to prevent deterioration of their properties. Specific weld
rods are needed for high-strength steel, and weld joint heating (preheating) is
usually required. A third general class of steels, the high-alloy steels, are made by
including relatively large amounts of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium
and manganese. These steels, which include stainless steels, have valuable
corrosion-resistance properties and also require special welding processes.

Steel is an excellent material for shipbuilding purposes, and the choice of welding
electrode is critical in all welding applications during construction. The standard
goal is to obtain a weld with equivalent strength characteristics to that of the base
metal. Since minor flaws are likely to occur in production welding, welds are often
designed and welding electrodes chosen to produce welds with properties in excess
of those of the base metal.

Aluminium has found increased application as a shipbuilding metal due to its high
strength-to-weight ratio compared to steel. Although the use of aluminium for hulls
has been limited, aluminium superstructures are becoming more common for both

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military and merchant ship construction. Vessels made solely from aluminium are
primarily smaller-sized boats, such as fishing boats, pleasure boats, small
passenger boats, gunboats and hydrofoils. The aluminium used for shipbuilding
and repair is generally alloyed with manganese, magnesium, silicon and/or zinc.
These alloys offer good strength, corrosion resistance and weldability.

Shipyard welding processes, or more specifically fusion welding, is performed at

nearly every location in the shipyard environment. The process involves joining
metals by bringing adjoining surfaces to extremely high temperatures to be fused
together with a molten filler material. A heat source is used to heat the edges of the
joint, permitting them to fuse with molten weld fill metal (electrode, wire or rod).
The required heat is usually generated by an electric arc or a gas flame. Shipyards
choose the type of welding process based on customer specifications, production
rates and a variety of operating constraints including government regulations.
Standards for military vessels are usually more stringent than commercial vessels.

An important factor with respect to the fusion-welding processes is arc shielding to

protect the weld pool. The temperature of the weld pool is substantially higher than
the adjoining metal’s melting point. At extremely high temperatures, a reaction
with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere is rapid and has negative effects on the
weld strength. Should oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere become trapped
within the weld metal and molten rod, embrittlement of the weld area will occur.
To protect against this weld impurity and ensure weld quality, shielding from the
atmosphere is required. In most welding processes, shielding is accomplished by
addition of a flux, a gas or a combination of the two. Where a flux material is used,
gases generated by vaporization and chemical reaction at the electrode tip result in
a combination of flux and gas shielding that protect the weld from nitrogen and
oxygen entrapment. Shielding is discussed in the following sections, where
specific welding processes are described.

In electric arc welding, a circuit is created between the work-piece and an electrode
or wire. When the electrode or wire is held a short distance away from the work-
piece, a high-temperature arc is created. This arc generates sufficient heat to melt
the edges of the work-piece and the tip of the electrode or wire to produce a fusion-
welding system. There are a number of electric arc welding processes suitable for
use in shipbuilding. All processes require shielding of the weld area from the
atmosphere. They may be subdivided into flux-shielded and gas-shielded
processes.

Manufacturers of welding equipment and associated consumable and non-

consumable products report that arc welding with consumable electrodes is the
most universal welding process.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Flux-shielded electric arc welding processes
are distinguished primarily by their manual or semi-automatic nature and the type

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of consumable electrode used. The SMAW process utilizes a consumable electrode
(30.5 to 46 cm in length) with a dry flux coating, held in a holder and fed to the
work-piece by the welder. The electrode consists of the solid metal filler rod core,
made from either drawn or cast material covered with a sheath of metal powders.
SMAW is also frequently referred to as “stick welding” and “arc welding”. The
electrode metal is surrounded by flux that melts as welding progresses, covering
the deposited molten metal with slag and enveloping the immediate area in an
atmosphere of protective gas. Manual SMAW may be used for down hand (flat),
horizontal, vertical and overhead welding. SMAW processes may also be used
semi-automatically through the use of a gravity welding machine. Gravity
machines use the weight of the electrode and holder to produce travel along the
work-piece.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is another flux-shielded electric arc welding

process used in many shipyards. In this process, a blanket of granulated flux is
deposited on the work-piece, followed by a consumable bare metal wire electrode.
Generally, the electrode serves as the filler material, although in some cases metal
granules are added to the flux. The arc, submerged in the blanket of flux, melts the
flux to produce a protective insulated molten shield in the weld zone. High heat
concentration permits heavy weld deposits at relatively high speeds. After welding,
the molten metal is protected by a layer of fused flux, which is subsequently
removed and may be recovered. Submerged arc welding must be performed down
hand and is ideally suited to butt welding plates together on panel lines, platen
areas and erection areas. The SAW process is generally fully automatic, with
equipment mounted on a moving carriage or self-propelled platform on top of the
work-piece. Since the SAW process is primarily automatic, a good portion of time
is spent aligning the weld joint with the machine. Similarly, since the SAW arc
operates under a covering of granulated flux, the fume generation rate (FGR) or
fume formation rate (FFR) is low and will remain constant under various operating
conditions provided that there is adequate flux cover.

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW). Another major category of electric arc welding
comprises the gas-shielded processes. These processes generally use bare wire
electrodes with an externally supplied shielding gas which may be inert, active or a
combination of the two. GMAW, also commonly referred to as metal inert gas
(MIG) welding, uses a consumable, automatically fed, small-diameter wire
electrode and gas shielding. GMAW is the answer to a long-sought method of
being able to weld continuously without the interruption of changing electrodes.
An automatic wire feeder is required. A wire spooling system provides an
electrode/wire filler rate that is at a constant speed, or the speed fluctuates with a
voltage sensor. At the point where the electrode meets the weld arc, argon or
helium being used as the shielding gas is supplied by the welding gun. It was found
that for welding steel, a combination of CO2 and/or an inert gas could be used.
Often, a combination of the gases is used to optimize cost and weld quality.

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Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Another type of gas-shielded welding process
is gas tungsten arc welding, sometimes referred to as tungsten inert gas (TIG)
welding or the trade name Heliarc, because helium was initially used as the
shielding gas. This was the first of the “new” welding processes, following stick
welding by about 25 years. The arc is generated between the work-piece and a
tungsten electrode, which is not consumed. An inert gas, usually argon or helium,
provides the shielding and provides for a clean, low-fume process. Also, the
GTAW process arc does not transfer the filler metal, but simply melts the material
and the wire, resulting in a cleaner weld. GTAW is most often employed in
shipyards for welding aluminium, sheet metal and small-diameter pipes and tubes,
or to deposit the first pass on a multi-pass weld in larger pipe and fittings.

Flux core arc welding (FCAW) uses equipment similar to GMAW in that the wire
is fed continuously to the arc. The main difference is that the FCAW electrode is a
tubular electrode wire with a flux core centre that helps with localized shielding in
the welding environment. Some flux cored wire provides adequate shielding with
the flux core alone. However, many FCAW processes used in the shipbuilding
environment require the addition of gas shielding for the quality requirements of
the shipbuilding industry.

The FCAW process provides a high-quality weld with higher production rates and
welder efficiency than the traditional SMAW process. The FCAW process allows
for a full range of production requirements, such as overhead and vertical welding.
FCAW electrodes tend to be a little more expensive than SMAW materials,
although in many cases increased quality and productivity are worth the
investment.

Plasma-arc welding (PAW). The last of the shielded gas welding processes is
plasma-metal inert-gas welding. PAW is very similar to the GTAW process except
that the arc is forced to pass through a restriction before reaching the work-piece.
The result is a jet stream of intensely hot and fast-moving plasma. The plasma is an
ionizing stream of gas that carries the arc, which is generated by constricting the
arc to pass through a small orifice in the torch. PAW results in a more
concentrated, high-temperature arc, and this permits faster welding. Aside from the
use of the orifice to accelerate the gas, PAW is identical to GTAW, using a non-
consumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas shield. PAW is generally manual
and has minimal use in shipbuilding, although it is sometimes used for flame
spraying applications. It is used primarily for steel cutting in the shipbuilding
environment (see figure 92.9).

Figure 92.9 Underwater plasma-arc cutting of steel plate

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Caroline Kiehner

Gas welding, brazing and soldering. Gas welding employs heat generated by the
burning of a gas fuel and generally uses a filler rod for the metal deposited. The
most common fuel is acetylene, used in combination with oxygen (oxyacetylene
gas welding). A hand-held torch directs the flame to the work-piece while
simultaneously melting filler metal which is deposited on the joint. The surface of
the work-piece melts to form a molten puddle, with filler material used to fill gaps
or grooves. The molten metal, mainly filler metal, solidifies as the torch progresses
along the work-piece. Gas welding is comparatively slow and not suitable for use
with automatic or semiautomatic equipment. Consequently, it is rarely used for
normal production welding in shipyards. The equipment is small and portable, and
it can be useful for welding thin plate (up to about 7 mm), as well as for small-
diameter pipe, heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) trunks (sheet
metal), electrical cable ways and for brazing or soldering. Identical or similar
equipment is used for cutting.

Soldering and brazing are techniques for bonding two metal surfaces without
melting the parent metal. A liquid is made to flow into and fill the space between
the two surfaces and then solidify. If the temperature of the filler metal is below
450ºC, the process is called soldering; if it is above 450ºC, the process is called
brazing. Soldering is commonly done using heat from a soldering iron, flame,
electrical resistance or induction. Brazing uses the heat from a flame, resistance or
induction. Brazing may also be done by dipping parts in a bath. Soldered and
brazed joints do not have the strength properties of welded joints. Consequently,
brazing and soldering find limited application in shipbuilding and repair, except for
primarily small-diameter pipe joints, sheet metal fabrication, small and infrequent
joiner work and maintenance functions.

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Other welding processes. There are additional types of welding that may be used in
the shipyard environment in small quantities for a variety of reasons. Electroslag
welding transfers heat through molten slag, which melts the work-piece and the
filler metal. Although the equipment used is similar to that used for electric arc
welding, the slag is maintained in a molten state by its resistance to the current
passing between the electrode and the work-piece. Therefore, it is a form of
electric resistance welding. Often a cooled backing plate is used behind the work-
piece to contain the molten pool. Electrogas welding employs a similar setup but
uses a flux-coated electrode and CO2 gas shielding. Both of these processes are
very efficient for automatically making vertical butt welds and are highly
advantageous for thicker plate. These techniques are expected to receive
considerably wider application in shipbuilding.

Thermite welding is a process that uses superheated liquid metal to melt the work-
piece and provided filler metal. The liquid metal results from a chemical reaction
between a melt oxide and aluminium. The liquid metal is poured into the cavity to
be welded, and the cavity is surrounded by a sand mould. Thermite welding is
somewhat similar to casting and is primarily used to repair castings and forgings or
to weld large structural sections such as a stern frame.

Laser welding is a new technology which uses a laser beam to melt and join the
work-piece. Although the feasibility of laser welding has been proven, cost has
prevented its commercial application to date. The potential for efficient, high-
quality welding may make laser welding an important technique for shipbuilding in
the future.

Another relatively new welding technique is called electron beam welding. The
weld is made by firing a stream of electrons through an orifice to the work-piece,
which is surrounded by an inert gas. Electron beam welding does not depend on
thermal conductivity of the material to melt the metal. Consequently, both lower
energy requirements and reduced metallurgical effects on the steel are significant
benefits of this technique. As with laser welding, high cost is a major problem.

Stud welding is a form of electric arc welding in which the stud itself is the
electrode. A stud welding gun holds the stud while the arc is formed and the plate
and stud end become molten. The gun then forces the stud against the plate and the
stud is welded to the plate. Shielding is obtained by the use of a ceramic ferrule
surrounding the stud. Stud welding is a semi-automatic process commonly used in
shipbuilding to facilitate installation of non-metallic materials, such as insulation,
to steel surfaces.

Painting and finish coating

Painting is performed at almost every location in the shipyard. The nature of

shipbuilding and repair requires several types of paints to be used for various

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applications. Paint types range from water-based coatings to high-performance
epoxy coatings. The type of paint needed for a certain application depends on the
environment to which the coating will be exposed. Paint application equipment
ranges from simple brushes and rollers to airless sprayers and automatic machines.
In general, shipboard paint requirements exist in the following areas:

· underwater (hull bottom)

· waterline

· topside superstructures

· internal spaces and tanks

· weather decks

· loose equipment.

Many different painting systems exist for each of these locations, but navy ships
may require a specific type of paint for every application through a military
specification (Mil-spec). There are many considerations when choosing paints,
including environmental conditions, severity of environmental exposure, drying
and curing times, applications equipment and procedures. Many shipyards have
specific facilities and yard locations where painting occurs. Enclosed facilities are
expensive, but yield higher quality and efficiency. Open-air painting generally has
a lower transfer efficiency and is limited to good weather conditions.

Shipyard paint coating systems. Paints are used for a variety of purposes on a
variety of locations on the ships. No one paint can perform all of the desired
functions (e.g., rust prevention, anti-fouling and alkaline resistance). Paints are
made up of three main ingredients: pigment, a vehicle and a solvent. Pigments are
small particles that generally determine the colour as well as the many properties
associated with the coating. Examples of pigments are zinc oxide, talc, carbon, coal
tar, lead, mica, aluminium and zinc dust. The vehicle can be thought of as the glue
that holds the paint pigments together. Many paints are referred to by their binder
type (e.g., epoxy, alkyd, urethane, vinyl, phenolic). The binder is also very
important for determining the coating’s performance characteristics (e.g.,
flexibility, chemical resistance, durability, finish). The solvent is added to thin the
paint and allow for flowing application to surfaces. The solvent portion of the paint
evaporates when the paint dries. Some typical solvents include acetone, mineral
spirits, xylene, methyl ethyl ketone and water. Anticorrosive and anti-fouling
paints are typically used on ships’ hulls and are the main two types of paint used in
the shipbuilding industry. The anticorrosive paints are either vinyl-, lacquer-,
urethane- or newer epoxy-based coating systems. The epoxy systems are now very
popular and exhibit all of the qualities which the marine environment requires.

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Anti-fouling paints are used to prevent the growth and attachment of marine
organisms on the hulls of vessels. Copper-based paints are widely used as anti-
fouling paints. These paints release minute quantities of toxic substances in the
immediate vicinity of the vessel’s hull. To achieve different colours, lampblack,
red iron oxide or titanium dioxide may be added to the paint.

Shipyard primer coatings. The first coating system applied to raw steel sheets and
parts is generally preconstruction primer, which is sometimes referred to as “shop
primer”. This coat is important for maintaining the condition of the part throughout
the construction process. Preconstruction priming is performed on steel plates,
shapes, sections of piping and ventilation ducting. Shop primer has two important
functions: (1) preserving the steel material for the final product and (2) aiding in
the productivity of construction. Most preconstruction primers are zinc rich, with
organic or inorganic binders. Zinc silicates are predominant among the inorganic
zinc primers. Zinc coating systems protect coatings in much the same manner as
galvanizing. If zinc is coated on steel, oxygen will react with the zinc to form zinc
oxide, which forms a tight layer that does not allow water and air to come into
contact with the steel.

Paint-applying equipment. There are many types of paint application equipment

used in the shipbuilding industry. Two common methods used are compressed-air
and airless sprayers. Compressed-air systems spray both air and paint, which
causes some paint to atomize (dry) quickly prior to reaching the intended surface.
The transfer efficiency of air-assisted spray systems can vary from 65 to 80%. This
low transfer efficiency is due mainly to overspray, drift and the air sprayer’s
inefficiencies; these sprayers are becoming obsolete because of their low transfer
ability.

The most widely used form of paint application in the shipbuilding industry is the
airless sprayer. The airless sprayer is a system which simply compresses paint in a
hydraulic line and has a spray nozzle at the end; hydrostatic pressure, instead of air
pressure, conveys the paint. To reduce the amount of overspray and spillage,
shipyards are maximizing the use of airless paint sprayers. Airless sprayers are
much cleaner to operate and have fewer leaking problems than compressed-air
sprayers because the system requires less pressure. Airless sprayers have close to
90% transfer efficiency, depending on the conditions. A new technology which can
be added to the airless sprayer is called high volume, low pressure (HVLP). HVLP
offers an even higher transfer efficiency, in certain conditions. Measurements of
transfer efficiency are estimates and include allowances for drips and spills which
can occur when painting.

Thermal spray, also known as metal or flame spray, is the application of

aluminium or zinc coatings to steel for long-term corrosion protection. This
coating process is used on a wide variety of commercial and military applications.
It is significantly different from conventional coating practices due to its

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specialized equipment and relatively slow production rates. There are two basic
types of thermal coating machines: combustion wire and arc spray. The
combustion wire type consists of combustible gases and a flame system with a wire
feed controller. The combustible gases melt the material to be sprayed onto the
parts. The electric arc spray machine instead uses a power supply arc to melt the
flame sprayed material. This system includes an air-compression and filtration
system, a power arc supply and controller and an arc flame spray gun. The surface
must be properly prepared for proper adhesion of flame sprayed materials. The
most common surface preparation technique is air blasting with fine grit (e.g.,
aluminium oxide).

The initial cost of thermal spray is usually high compared to painting, although
when the lifecycle is taken into account, thermal spray becomes more
economically attractive. Many shipyards have their own thermal spray machines,
and other shipyards will subcontract their thermal coating work. Thermal spray can
be done in a shop or on board the ship.

Painting practices and methods. Painting is performed in nearly every area in the
shipyard, from the initial priming of the steel to the final paint detailing of the ship.
Methods for painting vary greatly from process to process. Mixing of paint is
performed both manually and mechanically and is usually done in an area
surrounded by berms or secondary containment pallets; some of these are covered
areas. Outdoor as well as indoor painting occurs in the shipyard. Shrouding fences,
made of steel, plastic or fabric, are frequently used to help contain paint overspray
or to block the wind and catch paint particles. New technology will aid in reducing
the amount of airborne particles. Reducing the amount of overspray also reduces
the amount of paint used and thus saves the shipyard money.

Surface preparation and painting areas in the shipyard

To illustrate painting and surface preparation practices in the shipbuilding and

repair industry, practices can be generically described in five main areas. The
following five areas help to illustrate how painting occurs in the shipyard.

Hull painting. Hull painting occurs on both repair ships and new construction
ships. Hull surface preparation and painting on repair ships is normally performed
when the ship is fully drydocked (i.e., on the graving dock of a floating drydock).
For new construction, the hull is prepared and painted at a building position using
one of the techniques discussed above. Air and/or water blasting with mineral grit
are the most common types of surface preparation for hulls. Surface preparation
involves blasting the surface from platforms or lifts. Similarly, paint is applied
using sprayers and high-reach equipment such as man-lifts, scissor lifts or portable
scaffolding. Hull painting systems vary in the number of coats required.

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Superstructure painting. The superstructure of the ship consists of the exposed
decks, deck houses and other structures above the main deck. In many cases,
scaffolding will be used on board the ship to reach antennas, houses and other
superstructures. If it is likely that paint or blast material will fall into adjacent
waters, shrouding is put into place. On ships being repaired, the ship’s
superstructure is painted mostly while berthed. The surface is prepared using either
hand tools or air-nozzle blasting. Once the surface is prepared and the associated
surface materials and grit are cleaned up and disposed of, then painting can
commence. Paint systems usually are applied with airless paint sprayers. The
painters access the superstructures with existing scaffolding, ladders and various
lifting equipment that was used during surface preparation. The shrouding system
(if applicable) that was used for blast containment will stay in place to help contain
any paint overspray.

Interior tank and compartment painting. Tanks and compartments on board ships
must be coated and re-coated to maintain the longevity of the ship. Re-coating of
repair ship tanks requires a large amount of surface preparation prior to painting.
The majority of the tanks are at the bottom of the ship (e.g., ballast tanks, bilges,
fuel tanks). The tanks are prepared for paint by using solvents and detergents to
remove grease and oil build-up. The wastewater developed during tank cleaning
must be properly treated and disposed of. After the tanks are dried, they are
abrasive blasted. During the blasting operation, the tank must have recirculating air
and the grit must be vacuumed out. The vacuum systems used are either of a liquid
ring or rotary screw type. These vacuums must be very powerful to remove the grit
from the tank. The vacuum systems and ventilation systems are generally located
on the dock’s surface, and access to the tanks is through holes in the hull. Once the
surface is blasted and the grit is removed, painting can begin. Adequate ventilation
and respirators are required for all tank and compartment surface preparation and
painting (i.e., in enclosed or confined spaces).

Paint surface preparation as stages of construction. Once the blocks, or multiple

units, leave the assembly area, they are frequently transported to a blast area where
the entire block is prepared for paint. At this point, the block is usually blasted
back down to bare metal (i.e., the construction primer is removed) (see figure
92.7). The most frequent method for block surface preparation is air-nozzle
blasting. The next stage is the paint application stage. Painters generally use airless
spray equipment on access platforms. Once the block’s coating system has been
applied, the block is transported to the on-block stage, where outfitting materials
are installed.

Small parts painting areas. Many parts comprising a ship need to have a coating
system applied to them prior to installation. For example, piping spools, vent
ducting, foundations and doors are painted before they are installed on block.
Small parts are generally prepared for paint in a designated area of the shipyard.
Small parts painting can occur in another designated location in the shipyard that
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best matches production needs. Some small parts are painted in the various shops,
while others are painted in a standard location operated by the paint department.

Surface preparation and painting on block and on board

Final painting of the ship occurs on board, and touch-up painting will frequently
occur on block (see figure 92.10). On-block touch-up painting occurs for several
reasons. In some cases, paint systems are damaged on block and need to be
resurfaced, or perhaps the wrong paint system was applied and needs to be
replaced. On-block painting involves using portable blasting and painting
equipment throughout the on-block outfitting areas. On-board painting involves
preparing and painting the interface sections between the construction blocks and
repainting areas damaged by welding, rework, on-board outfitting and other
processes. The surfaces can be prepared by hand tools, sanding, brushing, solvent
cleaning or any of the other surface preparation techniques. Paint is applied with
portable airless sprayers, rollers and brushes.

Figure 92.10 Touch-up painting on a ship’s hull

Newport News Shipbuilding

Outfitting

Pre-erection outfitting of construction blocks is the current shipbuilding method

used by all competitive shipbuilders worldwide. Outfitting is the process of
installing parts and various subassemblies (e.g., piping systems, ventilation
equipment, electrical components) on the block prior to joining the blocks together
at erections. The outfitting of blocks throughout the shipyard lends itself to
forming an assembly line approach to shipbuilding.
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Outfitting at each stage of construction is planned to make the process flow
smoothly throughout the shipyard. For simplicity, outfitting can be divided into
three main stages of construction once the steel structure of the block has been
assembled:

1. unit outfitting

2. on-block outfitting

3. on-board outfitting.

Unit outfitting is the stage where fittings, parts, foundations, machinery and other
outfitting materials are assembled independent of the hull block (i.e., units are
assembled separate from steel structural blocks). Unit outfitting allows workers to
assemble shipboard components and systems on the ground, where they have easy
access to the machinery and workshops. Units are installed at either the on-board
or the on-block stage of construction. Units come in varying sizes, shapes and
complexities. In some cases, units are as simple as a fan motor connected to a
plenum and coil. Large, complex units are mainly composed of components in
machinery spaces, boilers, pump rooms and other complex areas of the ship. Unit
outfitting involves assembling piping spools and other components together, then
connecting the components into units. Machinery spaces are areas on the ship
where machinery is located (e.g., engine rooms, pump stations and generators) and
outfitting there is intensive. Outfitting units on the ground increases safety and
efficiency by reducing the work hours that would otherwise be allocated to on-
block or on-board work in more confined spaces where conditions are more
difficult.

On-block outfitting is the stage of construction where most of the outfitting

material is installed onto the blocks. Outfitting materials installed on block consist
of ventilation systems, piping systems, doors, lights, ladders, railings, electrical
assemblies and so on. Many units are also installed at the on-block stage.
Throughout the on-block outfitting stage, the block can be lifted, rotated and
moved to efficiently facilitate installing outfitting materials on the ceilings, walls
and floors. All of the shops and services in the shipyard must be in communication
at the on-block stage to ensure that materials are installed at the right time and
place.

On-board outfitting is performed after the blocks are lifted onto the ship under
construction (i.e., after erection). At this time, the ship is either at a building
position (building ways or building dock), or the ship could be berthed at pierside.
The blocks are already outfitted to a large extent, although much more work is still
needed before the ship is ready to operate. On-board outfitting involves the process
of installing large units and blocks on board the ship. Installation includes lifting
the large blocks and units on board the new ship and welding or bolting them into

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place. On-board outfitting also involves connecting the shipboard systems together
(i.e., piping system, ventilation system and electrical system). All of the wiring
systems are pulled throughout the ship at the on-board stage.

Testing

The operation and test stage of construction assesses the functionality of installed
components and systems. At this stage, systems are operated, inspected and tested.
If the systems fail the tests for any reason, the system must be repaired and retested
until it is fully operational. All piping systems on board the ship are pressurized to
locate leaks that may exist in the system. Tanks also need structural testing, which
is accomplished by filling the tanks with fluids (i.e., salt water or fresh water) and
inspecting for structural stability. Ventilation, electrical and many other systems
are tested. Most system testing and operations occur while the ship is docked at
pierside. However, there is an increasing trend to perform testing at earlier stages
of construction (e.g., preliminary testing in the production shops). Performing tests
at earlier stages of construction makes it easier to fix failures because of the
increased accessibility to the systems, although complete systems tests will always
need be done on board. Once all preliminary pierside testing is performed, the ship
is sent to sea for a series of fully operational tests and sea trials before the ship is
delivered to its owner.

Ship Repair

Steel ship repair practices and processes

Ship repair generally includes all ship conversions, overhauls, maintenance

programmes, major damage repairs and minor equipment repairs. Ship repair is a
very important part of the shipping and shipbuilding industry. Approximately 25%
of the labour force in most private shipbuilding shipyards does repair and
conversion work. Currently there are many ships that need updating and/or
conversions to meet safety and environmental requirements. With fleets worldwide
becoming old and inefficient, and with the high cost of new ships, the situation is
putting a strain on shipping companies. In general, conversion and repair work in
US shipyards is more profitable than new construction. In new-construction
shipyards, repair contracts, overhauls and conversions also help to stabilize the
workforce during times of limited new construction, and new construction
augments the repair labour workload. The ship repair process is much like the new
construction process, except that it is generally on a smaller scale and is performed
at a faster pace. The repair process requires a more timely coordination and an
aggressive bidding process for ship repair contracts. Repair work customers are
generally the navy, commercial ship owners and other marine structure owners.

The customer usually provides contract specifications, drawings and standard

items. Contracts can be firm fixed price (FFP), firm fixed price award fee

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(FFPAF), cost plus fixed fee (CPFF), cost plus award fee (CPAF) or urgent repair
contracts. The process starts in the marketing area when the shipyard is asked for a
request for proposal (RFP) or an invitation for bid (IFB). The lowest price usually
wins an IFB contract, while a RFP award can be based on factors other than price.
The repair estimating group prepares the cost estimate and the proposal for the
repair contract. Bid estimates generally include worker-hours and wage rates,
materials, overhead, special service costs, subcontractor dollars, overtime and shift
premiums, other fees, facilities cost of money and, based on these, the estimated
price of the contract. Once the contract is awarded, a production plan must be
developed.
Repair planning, engineering and production

Although some preliminary planning is performed at the proposal stage of the

contract, much work is still needed to plan and execute the contract in a timely
manner. The following steps should be accomplished: read and understand all
contract specifications, categorize the work, integrate the work into a logical
production plan and determine the critical path. Planning, engineering, materials,
subcontracts and repair production departments must work closely together to
perform the repair in the most timely and cost-effective manner. Prefabrication of
piping, ventilation, electrical and other machinery is performed, in many cases,
prior to the ship’s arrival. Pre-outfitting and prepackaging of repair units takes
cooperation with the production shops to perform work in a timely manner.
Common types of repair work

Ships are similar to other types of machinery in that they require frequent
maintenance and, sometimes, complete overhauls to remain operational. Many
shipyards have maintenance contracts with shipping companies, ships and/or ship
classes that identify frequent maintenance work. Examples of maintenance and
repair duties include:

· blasting and repainting the ship’s hull, freeboard, superstructure, interior tanks
and work areas

· major machinery rebuilding and installation (e.g., diesel engines, turbines,

generators and pump stations)

· systems overhauls, maintenance and installation (e.g., flushing, testing and

installation of a piping system)

· new system installation, either adding new equipment or replacing systems that
are outdated (e.g., navigational systems, combat systems, communication systems
or updated piping systems)

· propeller and rudder repairs, modification and alignment

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· creation of new machinery spaces on the ship (e.g., cut-out of existing steel
structure and adding new walls, stiffeners, vertical supports and webbing).

In many cases, repair contracts are an emergency situation with very little warning,
which makes ship repair a fast moving and unpredictable environment. Normal
repair ships will stay in the shipyard from 3 days to 2 months, while major repairs
and conversions can last more than a year
Large repairs and conversion projects

Large repair contracts and major conversions are common in the ship repair
industry. Most of these large repair contracts are performed by shipyards that have
the ability to construct ships, although some primarily repair yards will perform
extensive repairs and conversions.

Examples of major repair contracts are as follows:

· conversion of supply ships to hospital ships

· cutting a ship in half and installing a new section to lengthen the ship
(see figure 92.11)

Figure 92.11 Cutting a ship in half in order to install a new section

Newport News Shipbuilding

· replacing segments of a ship that has run aground (see figure 92.12)

Figure 92.12 Replacing the prow of a ship that ran aground

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Newport News Shipbuilding

· complete rip-out, structural reconfiguration and outfitting of combat systems

· major remodelling of ship’s interior or exterior (e.g., complete overhauls of

passenger cruise ships).

Most major repairs and conversions require a large planning, engineering and
production effort. In many cases, a large quantity of steel work will need to be
accomplished (e.g., major cut-out of existing ship structure and installation of new
configurations). These projects can be divided into four major stages: removal,
building new structure, equipment installation and testing. Subcontractors are
required for most major and minor repairs and conversions. The subcontractors
provide expertise in certain areas and help to even the workload in the shipyard.

Some of the work that subcontractors perform are as follows:

· support of ship repair

· major combat systems installations (technical)

· boiler re-tubing and rebuilding

· air compressor overhauls

· asbestos removal and disposal

· tank cleaning

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· blasting and painting

· pump system overhauls

· small structural fabrication

· winch overhauls

· main steam system modifications

· system fabrications (i.e., piping, ventilation, foundations and so on).

As with new construction, all installed systems must be tested and operational
before the ship is returned to its owner. Testing requirements generally originate
from the contract, although other sources of testing requirements do exist. The tests
must be scheduled, tracked for proper completion and monitored by the proper
groups (shipyard internal quality, vessel operation, government agencies,
shipowners and so on). Once systems are in place and properly tested, the area,
compartment and/or system can be considered sold to the ship (i.e., completed).

There are many similarities between new construction and repair processes. The
primary similarities are that they both use the application of essentially the same
manufacturing practices, processes, facilities and support shops. Ship repair and
new construction work require highly skilled labour because many of the
operations have limited potential for automation (especially ship repair). Both
require excellent planning, engineering and interdepartmental communications.
The repair process flow is generally as follows: estimate, plan and engineer the job;
rip-out work; refitting of steel structures; repair production; test and trials; and
deliver the ship. In many ways the ship repair process is similar to shipbuilding,
although new construction requires a greater amount of organization because of the
size of the workforce, size of the workload, number of parts and the complexity of
the communications (i.e., production plans and schedules) surrounding the
shipbuilding work flow.

Hazards and Precautions

Shipbuilding and repair is one of the most hazardous industries. Work must be
done in a variety of highly hazardous situations, such as confined spaces and
considerable heights. Much manual work is performed involving heavy equipment
and material. Since the work is so interrelated, the results of one process may
endanger personnel involved in another process. In addition, a great portion of
work is performed out-of-doors, and the effects of weather extremes can cause or
aggravate hazardous conditions. Additionally, a number of chemicals, paints,
solvents and coatings must be used, which may pose significant risks to
employees.

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Health hazards

Chemical hazards which pose health risks to employees in shipyards include:

· dusts from abrasive blasting operations

· exposure to asbestos and mineral fibres in insulation work

· vapours and spray mists from paints, coatings, solvents and thinners

· fumes from various welding, burning, soldering and brazing operations

· exposure to gases used in various welding, burning and heating processes

· exposure to specific toxic chemicals in epoxy resins, organo-tin and copper

anti-fouling paints, lead paint, oils, greases, pigments and the like.

Physical hazards due to the manual nature of the work include:

· temperature and weather extremes associated with work performed out-of-

doors

· electrical hazards

· ergonomic-related problems caused by repetitive handling of large and bulky

materials

· ionizing and non-ionizing radiation

· noise and vibration

· oxygen deficiency potential and other confined space hazards associated with
tanks, double bottoms and so on

· falls and trips from work on the same level as well as work from great heights.

Preventive measures

Although shipbuilding and repair is a very hazardous industry, the risks to

personnel by these hazards can and should be minimized. The basis for hazard
reduction is a well-founded health and safety programme that is rooted in a good
partnership between management and the trade unions or employees.

There are a number of approaches that can be utilized to prevent or minimize

hazards in shipyards once they are identified. These approaches may be broadly
divided into several strategies.

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Engineering controls are employed to eliminate or control hazards at their point of
generation. These controls are the most desirable of the various types since they are
most dependable:

· Substitution or elimination. Where possible, processes that produce hazards or

toxic materials should be eliminated or replaced with less hazardous processes or
materials. This is the most effective form of control. An example is the use of non-
carcinogenic materials instead of asbestos insulation. Another example is the use of
hydraulic lifting tables for handling heavy materials, instead of manual lifting.
Replacement of solvent-based paints with water-based coatings is frequently
possible. Automation or robotics can be used to eliminate process hazards.

· Isolation. Processes that are not amenable to substitution or elimination can

sometimes be isolated from employees to minimize exposures. Frequently, sources
of high noise can be relocated to place more distance between workers and the
noise source, thus reducing exposure.

· Enclosure. Processes or personnel can sometimes be enclosed to eliminate or

reduce exposures. Operators of equipment can be provided enclosed booths to
minimize exposure to noise, heat, cold or even chemical hazards. Processes may
also be enclosed. Paint-spray booths and welding booths are examples of process
enclosure that reduce exposures to potentially toxic materials.

· Ventilation. Processes that produce toxic materials can be ventilated to capture

the materials at their point of generation. This technique is used extensively in
shipyards and boatyards, particularly to control welding fumes and gases, paint
vapours and the like. Many fans and blowers are located on the decks of vessels
and air is either exhausted from or blown into spaces to reduce exposure to
hazards. Frequently fans are used in the blowing mode to direct fresh air into
compartments to maintain acceptable oxygen levels.

Administrative controls are used to minimize exposures by administratively

limiting the time spent by personnel in potentially hazardous situations. This is
generally accomplished by rotating personnel from a relatively low hazard job to a
higher hazard one. Although the aggregate amount of person-exposure time is not
changed, exposure of each individual worker is reduced.

Administrative controls are not without their negative aspects. This technique
requires additional training since workers must know both jobs and more workers
are potentially exposed to a hazard. Also, since the number of personnel exposed to
hazards has doubled from a legal standpoint, potential liabilities may be increased.
However, administrative control can be an effective method if properly applied.

Personal protective controls. Shipyards must rely heavily on the various forms of
personal protection. The nature of ship construction and repair does not lend itself

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to traditional engineering approaches. Ships are very confined spaces with limited
access. A submarine under repair has 1 to 3 hatches that are .76 m in diameter,
through which people and equipment must pass. The amount of ventilation tubing
that can pass through is severely limited. Similarly, on large ships work is
performed deep within the vessel, and although some ventilation may be smoked
through the various levels to reach the desired operation, the amount is limited.
Further, the fans pushing or pulling air through the vent tubing are generally
located in fresh air, usually on a main deck, and they, too, have somewhat limited
capacity.

In addition, ship construction and repair is not performed in an assembly line, but
in separate work sites such that stationary engineering controls are impractical.
Further, a ship may be under repair for a few days, and the extent to which
engineering control may be utilized is again limited. Personal protective equipment
is used extensively in these situations.

In shops, more extensive use may be made of traditional engineering control

approaches. Most equipment and machinery in shops and assembly platens is very
amenable to traditional guarding, ventilation and other engineering approaches.
However, some personal protective equipment must be utilized in these situations
as well.

A discussion of the various applications of personal protective equipment utilized

in shipyards follows:

Welding, cutting and grinding. The basic process of constructing and repairing
ships involves cutting, shaping and joining steel and other metals. In the process,
metallic fumes, dusts and particulates are generated. Although ventilation can
sometimes be utilized, more frequently welders must utilize respirators for
protection from welding particulates and fumes. In addition, they must employ
appropriate eye protection for ultraviolet and infrared illumination and other
physical eye and face hazards. In order to provide protection from sparks and other
forms of molten metal, the welder must be protected by welding gloves, long-
sleeved clothing and other physical protection.

Abrasive blasting and painting. Much painting is performed in ship construction

and repair. In many cases, the paints and coatings are specified by the ship’s
owner. Prior to painting, the equipment must be blasted with an abrasive to a
certain profile that ensures good adhesion and protection.

Abrasive blasting of small parts may be performed in a closed system such as a

glove box. However, most large components are abrasive blasted manually. Some
blasting is performed in the open air, some in large bays of a building or shop
designated for this purpose and some inside the vessels or vessel sections
themselves. In any case, personnel performing abrasive blasting must use full-body

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protection, hearing protection and air-fed respiratory protection. They must be
provided with an adequate supply of breathable air (i.e., at least Grade D breathing
air).

In some countries the use of crystalline silica has been banned. Its use is generally
not recommended. If silica-containing materials are used in blasting, preventive
protective measures must be taken.

After abrasive blasting, materials must be quickly painted in order to prevent “flash
rusting” of the surface. Although mercury, arsenic and other very toxic metals are
no longer used in paints, paints used in shipyards generally contain solvents as well
as pigments such as zinc. Other paints are of the epoxy type. Painters who apply
these coatings must be protected. Most painters must use a negative or positive
pressure respirator for their protection, as well as full-body coveralls, gloves, shoe
covers and eye protection. Sometimes painting must be performed in confined or
enclosed spaces. In these cases, air-supplied respiratory protection and full-body
protection must be used, and there must be an adequate, permit-requiring confined-
spaces programme.

Overhead hazards. Shipyards have many cranes, and a large amount of overhead
work is performed. Hard-hat protection is generally required in all production areas
of shipyards.

Insulation work. Piping systems and other components must be insulated to

maintain component temperature and reduce heat in the ship’s interior; in some
cases, insulation is needed for noise reduction. In ship repair, existing insulation
must be removed from piping to do repair work; in these cases, asbestos material is
frequently encountered. In new work, fibreglass and mineral fibres are frequently
used. In either case, appropriate respiratory protection and full-body protection
must be worn.

Noise sources. Work in shipyards is notoriously noisy. Most processes involve

working with metal; this typically produces noise levels above acceptable safe
limits. Not all noise sources can be controlled to safe levels by utilizing
engineering controls. Thus, personal protection must be used.

Foot hazards. Shipyards have a number of operations and processes that present
hazards to the feet. It is often difficult and impractical to segregate the facility into
foot hazard and non-foot hazard areas; safety shoes/boots are typically required for
the entire production area of shipyards.

Eye hazards. There are many potential sources of hazards to the eyes in shipyards.
Examples are various ultraviolet and infrared light hazards from welding arcs,
physical hazards from various metal working dusts and particles, abrasive blasting
grit, work with various pickling and metal baths, caustics and paint sprays. Due to

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the ubiquitous nature of these hazards, safety glasses are frequently required
throughout the production areas of shipyards for practical and administrative
simplicity. Special eye protection is required for specific individual processes.

Lead. Over the years, lead-based primers and coatings have been utilized
extensively in ship construction. Although lead-containing paints and coatings are
rarely used today, a significant amount of elemental lead is used in nuclear
shipyards as a radiation shielding material. In addition, ship repair work often
involves the removal of older coatings that frequently contain lead. In fact, repair
work requires a great deal of sensitivity and concern for materials that have been
applied or used previously. Work with lead requires full-body protection including
coveralls, gloves, hat, shoe covers and respiratory protection.

Boat Building

In some ways boats can be thought of as relatively small ships in that many of the
processes used to construct and repair boats are very similar to those used to
construct and repair ships, only on a smaller scale. Generally, steel, wood and
composites are chosen for construction of boat hulls. Composites include, in
general, such materials as fibre-reinforced metals, fibre-reinforced cement,
reinforced concrete, fibre-reinforced plastics and glass-reinforced plastics (GRPs).
Development during the early 1950s of hand lay-up methods employing cold-cure
polyester resin with glass reinforcement led to a rapid expansion of GRP boat
construction, from 4% in the 1950s to over 80% in the 1980s and even higher
currently.

In vessels over 40 m or so in length, steel rather than wood is the main alternative
to GRP. As hull size is reduced, the relative cost of steel construction increases,
becoming generally uncompetitive for hulls under 20 m in length. The need for
corrosion margin tends also to lead to excessive weight in small steel boats. For
vessels over 40 m, however, the low cost of heavy welded steel construction is
normally a decisive advantage. Unless imaginative design, improved materials and
automated fabrication can bring about a substantial reduction in costs, however,
glass- or fibre-reinforced plastics seem unlikely to become competitive with steel
for construction of ships over about 40 m in length except where special
requirements exist (e.g., for transportation of corrosive or cryogenic bulk cargo,
where a nonmagnetic hull is required or where substantial weight saving is
necessary for performance reasons).

GRPs are now employed in a very wide range of boat hull applications including
speedboats, coastal and ocean-going yachts, work boats, pilot and passenger
launches and fishing boats. Its success in fishing boats, where wood has been the
traditional material, is attributable to:

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· competitive first cost, particularly where many hulls are built to the same
design, enhanced by the increasing cost of wood and scarcity of skilled
woodworkers

· trouble-free performance and low maintenance costs resulting from leak-proof,

rot-proof qualities of GRP hulls, their resistance to marine boring organisms and
low cost of repair

· the ease with which complex shapes, which may be required for hydrodynamic
and structural purposes or for aesthetic reasons, can be fabricated.

Fabrication methods

The most common form of construction for shells, decks and bulkheads in large
and small GRP hulls is single-skin laminate reinforced as necessary by stiffeners.
Various methods of fabrication are employed in the construction of single-skin and
sandwich hulls.

Contact moulding. By far the most common method of fabrication for single-skin
GRP hulls of all sizes is contact moulding in an open or negative mould using
cold-curing polyester resin and E-glass reinforcement.

The first step in the fabrication process is mould preparation. For hulls of small and
moderate size, moulds are usually fabricated in GRP, in which case a positive plug,
commonly of wooden construction finished in GRP, is first assembled, whose
external surface accurately defines the required hull shape. Mould preparation is
generally completed by wax polishing and application of a film of polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) or equivalent release agent. Laminating is usually started by
application of pigmented gel coat of good-quality resin. Laminating is then
continued, before the gel coat has fully cured, using one of the following
processes:

· Spray up. Glass fibre rovings or reinforcements are sprayed simultaneously

with polyester resin, the latter being mixed with catalyst and accelerator at the
spray gun.

· Hand lay-up. Resin mixed with catalyst and accelerator is deposited liberally
on the gel coat or on a previous ply of impregnated reinforcement by brush, roller-
dispenser or spray gun.

The process outlined above can achieve efficient application of very heavy
reinforcement (fabric of up to 4,000 g/m2 has been used successfully, although for
large-scale production a fabric weight of 1,500 to 2,000 g/m2 has been preferred),
giving a rapid laminating rate with low labour costs. A similar process can be
applied for rapid lay-up of flat or nearly flat deck and bulkhead panels. Batch

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production of certain 49 m hulls, including installation of decks and bulkheads, has
been achieved with a completion time of 10 weeks per hull.

Compression moulding. Compression moulding involves application of pressure,

possibly accompanied by heat, to the surface of an uncured laminate, to increase
fibre content and reduce voids by squeezing out excess resin and air.

Vacuum bag moulding. This process, which may be regarded as an elaboration of

contact moulding, involves placing over the mould a flexible membrane, separated
from the uncured laminate by a film of PVA, polythene or equivalent material,
sealing the edges and evacuating the space under the membrane so that the
laminate is subjected to a pressure of up to l bar. Curing may be speeded by
placing the bagged component in an oven or employing a heated mould.

Autoclave moulding. Higher pressures (e.g., 5 to 15 bar) combined with elevated

temperature, yielding increased fibre content and hence superior mechanical
properties, may be achieved by carrying out the bag moulding process in an
autoclave (pressurized oven).

Matched die moulding. The uncured moulding material, which in a large

component such as a boat hull is likely to be a sprayed premix of resin and
chopped-strand glass or a tailored preform of pre-impregnated glass fabric, is
compressed between matched positive and negative moulds, usually of metallic
construction, with application of heat if required. Because of the high first cost of
moulds, this process is likely to be economical only for large production runs and
is rarely used for boat hull fabrication.

Filament winding. Fabrication in this process is carried out by winding reinforcing

fibres, in the form of a continuous roving which may be impregnated with resin
just prior to winding (wet-winding) or may be pre-impregnated with partially cured
resin (dry-winding), onto a mandrel which defines the internal geometry.

Sandwich construction. Sandwich hulls, decks and bulkheads may be fabricated by

contact moulding, using room-temperature curing polyester resin, in much the
same way as single-skin structures. The outer GRP skin is first laid up on the
negative mould. Strips of core material are embedded on a layer of polyester or
epoxy resin. Fabrication is then completed by laying up the internal GRP skin.

Polyester and epoxy resins. Unsaturated polyester resins are by far the most
commonly used matrix materials for marine structural laminates. Their
effectiveness follows from their moderate cost, ease of use within hand lay-up or
spray-up fabrication processes and generally good performance in a marine
environment. Three main types are available:

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1. Orthophthalic polyester, made by a combination of maleic and phthalic
anhydrides with a glycol (commonly propylene glycol), is the least expensive and
most widely used matrix material for small boat construction.

2. Isophthalic polyester, containing isophthalic acid in place of phthalic

anhydride, is more expensive, has somewhat superior mechanical properties and
water resistance and is commonly specified for higher-performance boat
construction and marine gel coats.

3. Bisphenol epoxy systems, in which phthalic acid or anhydride is partly or

completely replaced by bisphenol A, offers (at substantially higher cost) much
improved water and chemical resistance.

Safety and health hazards

Although many of the chemical, physical and biological hazards in shipbuilding

are common to boat building, a primary concern is exposure to various solvent
vapours and epoxy dusts from the boat manufacturing process. Uncontrolled
exposure to these hazards may produce central nervous system disorders, liver and
kidney damage, and sensitization reactions, respectively. The controls for these
potential hazards are essentially the same as those described previously in the
shipbuilding section—namely, engineering controls, administrative controls and
personal protective controls.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUES

Frank H. Thorn, Page Ayres and Logan C. Shelman

The overriding principal behind regulating air emissions, water discharge and
waste is protection of the public health and providing for the general welfare of the
populace. Usually, the “populace” are considered to be those people living or
working within the general area of the facility. However, wind currents may
transport air pollutants from one area to another and even across national borders;
discharges to water bodies may similarly travel nationally and internationally; and
waste may be shipped across the country or the world.

Shipyards conduct a large variety of operations in the process of constructing or

repairing ships and boats. Many of these operations emit water and air pollutants
which are known or suspected to have detrimental effects on humans through
direct physiological and or metabolic damage, such as cancer and lead poisoning.
Pollutants may also act indirectly as mutagens (which damage future generations
by affecting the biochemistry of reproduction) or teratogens (which damage the
foetus after conception).

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Both air and water pollutants have the potential to have secondary effects on
humans. Air pollutants can fall into the water, affecting quality of the receiving
stream or affecting crops and therefore the consuming public. Pollutants
discharged directly to receiving streams may degrade the water quality to the point
that drinking or even swimming in the water is a health risk. Water, ground and air
pollution may also affect the marine life in the receiving stream, which may
ultimately affect humans.

Air Quality

Air emissions can result from practically any operation involved in the
construction, maintenance or repair of ships and boats. Air pollutants that are
regulated in many countries include sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide, particulates (smoke, soot, dust and so on), lead and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). Shipbuilding and ship repair activities which produce “oxide”
criteria pollutants include combustion sources such as boilers and heat for metal
treatment, generators and furnaces. Particulates are seen as the smoke from
combustion, as well as dust from woodworking, sand- or grit-blasting operations,
sanding, grinding and buffing.

Lead ingots may in some instances have to be partially melted and reformed to
mould into shapes for radiation protection on nuclear-powered vessels. Lead dust
may be present in paint removed from vessels being overhauled or repaired.

Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) are chemical compounds which are known or
suspected to be harmful to humans. HAPs are produced in many shipyard
operations, such as foundry and electroplating operations, which may emit
chromium and other metallic compounds.

Some VOCs, such as naphtha and alcohol, used as solvents for paints, thinners and
cleaners, as well as many glues and adhesives, are not HAPs. Other solvents used
primarily in painting operations, such as xylene and toluene, as well as several
chlorinated compounds most often used as solvents and cleaners, especially
trichloroethylene, methylene chloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane, are HAPs.

Water Quality

Since ships and boats are constructed on waterways, shipyards must meet the water
quality criteria of their government-issued permits before they discharge any
industrial waste waters to the adjacent waters. Most US shipyards, for example,
have implemented a programme called “Best Management Practices” (BMPs),
considered to be a major compilation of control technologies to help shipyards
meet the discharge requirements of their permits.

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Another control technology used in shipyards that have graving docks is a dam and
baffle system. The dam stops the solids from getting to the sump and being
pumped out to the adjacent waters. The baffle system keeps oil and floating debris
out of the sump.

Storm water monitoring has recently been added to many shipyard permits.
Facilities must have a storm water pollution prevention plan which implements
different control technologies to eliminate pollutants from going into the adjacent
water whenever there is rain.

Many ship and boat building facilities will also discharge some of their industrial
wastewater to the sewage system. These facilities must meet the water-quality
criteria of their local sewage regulations whenever they discharge to the sewer.
Some shipyards are constructing their own pretreatment plants which are designed
to meet local water-quality criteria. There are usually two different types of
pretreatment facilities. One pretreatment facility is designed primarily to remove
toxic metals from industrial wastewater, and the second type of pretreatment
facility is designed primarily to remove petroleum products from the wastewater.

Waste Management

Different segments of the shipbuilding process produce their own types of waste
that must be disposed of in accordance with regulations. Steel cutting and shaping
generates wastes such as scrap metal from steel plate cutting and shaping, paint and
solvent from coating the steel and spent abrasive from the removal of oxidation
and unwanted coatings. Scrap metal poses no inherent environmental hazard and
can be recycled. However, paint and solvent waste is flammable, and spent
abrasive may be toxic depending on the characteristics of the unwanted coating.

As the steel is fabricated into modules, piping is added. Preparing the piping for
the modules generates wastes such as acidic and caustic wastewater from pipe
cleaning. This wastewater requires special treatment to remove its corrosive
characteristics and contaminants such as oil and dirt.

Concurrent to the steel fabrication, electrical, machinery, piping and ventilation

components are prepared for the outfitting phase of the ship’s construction. These
operations generate wastes such as metal-cutting lubricants and coolants,
degreasers and electroplating wastewaters. Metal-cutting lubricants and coolants,
as well as degreasers, must be treated to remove the dirt and oils prior to discharge
of the water. Electroplating wastewaters are toxic and may contain compounds of
cyanide that require special treatment.

Ships in need of repair usually need to unload wastes that were generated during
the ship’s cruise. Bilge wastewater must be treated to remove oil contamination.
Sanitary wastewater must be discharged to a sewage system where it undergoes

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biological treatment. Even garbage and trash may be subject to special treatment in
order to comply with regulations preventing the introduction of foreign plants and
animals.

OTHER RELEVANT READINGS

National Shipbuilding Research Program (NSRP). 1993. Introduction to
Production Processes and Facilities in the Steel Shipbuilding and Repair Industry.
NSRP 0382. Arlington,VA: NSRP, Office of Naval Research.

—. 1995. Characterizing Shipyard Welding Emissions and Associated Control

Options. NSRP 0457. Arlington,VA: NSRP, Office of Naval Research.

Smith, CS. 1990. Design of Marine Structures in Composite Materials. London and
New York: Elsevier Applied Science.

Todd, WF and SA Shulman. 1984. Control of styrene vapor in a large fiberglass

boat manufacturing operation. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 45:817–825.

SHIPBUILDING INDEX

SECOND PART

1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1.1 Shipbuilding
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 The manufacturing process
1.1.3 Materials
1.1.4 Movement of materials
1.1.5 Naval workshop
1.1.6 Mechanical workshop
1.1.7 Pre-fabrication
1.1.8 Sandblasting and painting
1.1.9 Construction on the stocks
1.1.10 Cleaning and painting
1.1.11 Launch
1.1.12 Fitting-out
1.1.13 Sea trials and delivery
1.1.14 Summary

SECOND PART

by S. Zanelli

1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

1.1 Shipbuilding

1.1.1 Introduction

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The shipbuilding industry has over the years developed the construction of ships with
hulls and structures in steel.

For some decades now other construction materials, such as metal alloys, have been
introduced. Aluminium alloys have been widely used in the construction of light, small-
sized vessels, while special metals such as titanium have been used in particular cases.
These are not currently used on an industrial scale and are therefore not included in this
study.

1.1.2 The manufacturing process

The manufacturing process for steel or aluminium vessels is similar and therefore one
description is given for both processes. The greatest differences are those inherent in
the difference in vessel size: aluminium vessels have a much smaller volume than steel
vessels. The sheet metal used is therefore thinner and can be cut, bent and soldered
more easily than that used in the construction of large steel ships.

Apart from requiring great skill in metal-working techniques, the construction of a ship
also calls for professionalism and knowledge of numerous technical sectors, such as
erection of scaffolding for constructing the hull and plating, electrical wiring, raising and
moving operations, sandblasting, cleaning and painting and all the details of fitting-out.

Figure 1 shows a summary of the manufacturing cycle.

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 0
Figure1 - The manufacturing cycle in metalworking shipyards

1.1.3 Materials

The variety of manufactured products which go to make up a fitted-out vessel is

enormous and entails a wide range of different materials; these include semi-worked
products such as metal sheeting and sections, finished products such as engines and
items for fitting-out which vary according to the type of ship, be it a petrol or dangerous
substance carrier, a passenger ship or a cruise ship.

The following in particular are required: joinery and insulation materials, products for
sandblasting, cleaning and painting, gas and electrodes for soldering and welding and
oils for tool machines.

On arrival material is offloaded from the relevant means of transport (transport is by

sea or land depending on the size of the material), checked and then stored in a

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warehouse.

This study refers primarily to the construction of a vessel which has a supporting
structure made in steel. Where this differs from construction using other metal alloys,
the difference is noted.

1.1.4 Movement of materials

Movements depend on how the shipyard is laid out.

Materials are divided between the various departments on the basis of the work cycle.
In the first place the sheet metal and sections are delivered to the naval workshop and
then the rest of the material is delivered to the relevant departments. Large shipyards
have a general warehouse which houses materials of general use.

Sheet metal and other bulky goods are moved using:

 Gantry cranes on rails,

 Cranes on wheels,

 Fork lift trucks,

 Wheeled trucks.

1.1.5 Naval workshop

The naval workshop can be considered the starting point in the manufacturing cycle.
Here the sheet metal and sections that will be used in constructing the hull, the plating,
and internal and external structures are laid out, cut and formed.

Cutting operations are always preceded by tracings, and are carried out in different
ways depending on the material used, the size of the steel plate and the shape that is to
be cut. Mechanical cutting is carried out by machine tools and is followed by cleaning of
the sheet metal to remove any off-cuts. Oxygen cutting, whether using oxy-propane,
oxy-acetylene or plasma is carried out by specialised operatives either with the help of a
pantograph or by hand using a simple etcher. Each type of cut requires particular
machinery and tools along with appropriate systems for moving the piece (small cranes,
hoists etc.) towards the machine.

After each cutting operation the work area must be cleaned of off-cuts and waste.
Prefabrication of non-heavy rough pieces is begun in the naval workshop and sheet
metal and sections are put together here.

Finishing operations carried out in the naval workshop include the moulding of semi-
worked products which are then delivered to the various departments. These pieces
may be used for new assembly of both small and large pre-fabrications as well as
directly on the stocks.

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 1.1.6 Mechanical workshop

The mechanical workshop features in many manufacturing cycles as it produces all the
elements for installing machinery on board, such as supports, joints, anti-vibration
couplings, pipe work, valves and pumps.

Numerous operations are carried out here, such as cutting, moulding, welding, and
cleaning and sandblasting of the metal parts which form part of the machinery on board.

The mechanical workshop also carries out maintenance work of on-site machinery,
lifting mechanisms and operating machinery.

In large shipyards the mechanical workshop has specified departments for working pipes
and for welding easily-transportable pieces.

1.1.7 Pre-fabrication

Small pre-fabrication involves the assembly, where necessary by welding, of sheet

metal and pipe work to form small-sized pieces such as walkways etc. The welding is
either done electrically or using gas in inert atmospheres.

The main aim of large-scale pre-fabrication, which can be done both in parallel or in
series with small pre-fabrication, is the construction of semi-worked items which make
up elements in the base structure and plating. When assembled with the appropriate
walls of insulation and sound-proofing this type of pre-fabrication can produce almost
complete “blocks” which are then used to construct the ship.

Interiors are made of wood which comes from the ship-yard carpenters and from other
materials which are previously worked in the appropriate department. The materials
used must retain their characteristics in a marine environment.

Different blocks of the ship are then constructed contemporaneously in different

“islands”, thus providing for better work organisation and most importantly reducing the
overall construction time.

Work from the ground is carried out using safety platforms, parapets, scaffolding,
elevator platforms and cranes, all of which are essential for working at high level on the
blocks. As work progresses it becomes necessary to work in restricted spaces,
particularly when carrying out interior work on small cabins carved out of the block.

1.1.8 Sandblasting and painting

After assembly, which is once more accomplished by welding, the parts are then
sanded, using jets of sand directed at the metal surfaces. This simultaneously cleans
and primes. The cleaned surface is then covered with a protective paint, or primer,
which preserves it against the oxidising effect of damp air and other aggressive agents.
These operations are carried out in a different place to that where the item was
constructed, and it is therefore necessary to move the blocks on trolleys or cranes to

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the sheds which are specially equipped for such operations.

1.1.9 Construction on the stocks

The completed blocks are then assembled on the stocks with the help of a bridge crane.
The stocks may consist either of two large slipways or by a dock with an opening
towards the sea. The various blocks are fixed together and then welded, thus creating
the vessel.

In addition to assembly, during this phase many of the other operations which render
the vessel operative are carried out.

During the phase of on the stocks construction all the internal and external finishing
operations are carried out on the hull in order to guarantee that the vessel will float and
to complete the parts that will be under water following the launch.

Tests are carried out on the hydraulics, the electrical wiring system, and, under
pressure, on the pipe-work and tanks, particularly for those ships which are to be used
for the transport of pressurised liquids.

1.1.10 Cleaning and painting

The final operations prior to launch are those of cleaning and painting of the hull. It
should be pointed out that all the construction operations described above, such as
welding during the assembly of the blocks and cleaning and painting, involve the use of
platforms and scaffolding for the workers and hoists for the machine tools used.

1.1.11 Launch

Launching operations depend on the type of stocks used. In practice, when the vessel is
mounted on a slip-way the stops are removed and the ship is left to slide into the sea.
When the vessel has been assembled in dry-dock, the dock is filled with water.

1.1.12 Fitting-out

Operations of loading and installing machinery and fitting-out can be carried out both on
solid ground (on the stocks) and after launching. In general it is better to carry out
these operations on solid ground, particularly for work which must be done in limited
space or where communication hatches leading to adjacent areas are restricted. These
works include finishing operations and all other auxiliary services carried out with the
aim of making the ship fit for navigation. Some of the most important of these are the
services for dealing with situations of flood or fire, those intended for the crew or
passengers (bunks, kitchens etc), navigational services, such as command and route-
finding equipment, and services connected to the distribution of electricity produced by

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the auxiliary generator which runs on engine or turbines.

During fitting-out plant and machinery are completed and tested. The cabins are painted
and the last finishing operations are finalised.

1.1.13 Sea trials and delivery

The last phases of the “manufacturing cycle” are sea trials, which are essential for
testing the propulsion system, operability, and control equipment and safety systems for
navigation, both for crew and passengers. In general a preliminary trial is carried out
prior to the official one.

Before delivery the on-board equipment is loaded.

1.1.14 Summary

To summarise the description of the production of a ship it is possible to sub-divide the

activity into two major processes; actual construction of the vessel and its fitting-out.
Operations begin with construction but as work proceeds the two activities are carried
out together. The greatest difference between these two operations is in the place in
which they are carried out; construction operations are often done in open areas, with
the help of cranes and high-level platforms. Only rarely is it necessary to work in closed
places such as cabins inside the vessel, which are narrow, badly lit and with few exits.
All the fitting-out operations however are carried out inside the ship in restricted spaces.

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New shipbuilding policies and
reviews
0

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147

New shipbuilding policies and reviews

The ship building process is based on internal factors and external
factors. Shipyard policy becomes the initial guideline and is used as a
reference for related parties in carrying out ship building. The main
parameters affecting the building of ships in the New Buildings division
include:

 Facilities, building sites.

 Development Methods, translated into 2 (two) main processes, Hull
Construction and Outfitting including Test & Trial.
 Construction Time, applied in the Master Schedule.
 Directors' policies are used to support business strategies.
The ship building policy can be detailed as follows:

a. Place of Construction.
Ship building plans at Graving Dock, by optimizing existing facilities. The
main facilities are adapted to other projects according to the SBLC (Ship
Building Line Chart).

b. Development Method.
The ship building method is divided into two processes, namely Hull
Construction and Outfitting incl Test & Trial.

c. Development Time.
The time limit in the Master Schedule is adjusted according to the SBLC. The
master schedule is an integral schedule of the ship, consisting of: design
schedule, material arrival, fabrication start, keel laying, launching and
delivery.

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d. Directors Policy.
The Board of Directors policy basically focuses on the integration of shipyard
resources, coordination between lines, smooth and sustainable projects by
focusing on QCD HSE (Quality, Cost, Delivery and Health Safety
Environment). Improvisation is carried out on each line to achieve: Efficiency
of man hours and optimization of facilities. The application of the FOBS (Full
Outfitting Block System) method is coordinated according to the Design,
Material and Production functions. Occupational health and safety (K3) is also
a policy concern of the Board of Directors.

Ship new building

Review of Ship Building Methods.

The ship building method is aimed at achieving customer satisfaction with
the principle of QCD (Quality, Cost and Delivery) achieved by maintaining the
production process through the planning and controling stages.

The construction method is divided into 2 (two) parts, namely: Hull

Construction and Outfitting incl Test & Trial. Hull Construction development
technology is called a hot process using the Block Construction System
through the production concept of the assembly line type of material
flow. The block construction process starts from fabrication, assembly to
erection. The assembly line system is a production process in the assembly
area, without interruption, starting from the simplest process to the most
complex. Outfitting technology with an "Advanced" system in the form of
FOBS, is a product oriented system development by starting the Outfitting

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process in the Hull Construction process. FOBS is a system improvement step
towards IHOP (Integrated Hull Outfitting and Painting).

Figure
[Link] Construction Process Routes (Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co.,
1989)
Hull Construction Characteristics:

 The development process.

The vertical shipbuilding system development model is in accordance with
Shipyard Lay Out and Equipment (Schloot, 1985). Namely the block system
with the assembly section method through a vertical erection process, from
the double bottom, towards ER and towards the fore part. Schloot divides the
building system into three, namely the Layer Shipbuilding System, the
Pyramid Shipbuilding System and the Vertical Shipbuilding System. Adjusted
to the level of technological readiness and completeness of the facilities.

 The order of development.

Based on the Shipbuilding Procedure for the New Building Division which is
translated into the Erection Network and Block Division. Shipbuilding
procedure is a reference for the production drawing of the Design division
and a reference to the material purchasing process and the used date
material for the Procurement division. The duration of the erection refers to
the SBLC. The dimensions and weights of the block division aim to achieve
the maximum size to get high productivity (improve working conditions and
increase in productivity). Considerations: similarity in construction, similarity
in shape and size of blocks, combined with: building systems, ship types and
specifications, drawings of designs and facilities.

 Fabrication stage.
The fabrication line system is a material flow system according to the block

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type. Block types are parallel block, curve block and cubic block. The purpose
of the fabrication line system is the ease of getting members / items
according to the place and time, because the ship construction is built from
thousands of members, hundreds of parts and tens of blocks. To optimize the
flow system, it is supported by equipment or workshop machines, according
to the characteristics of the facilities at the shipyard

Figure
[Link] of the number of parts and fabrication material flow (Mitsui
Engineering & Shipbuilding Co., 1989)
The fabrication stage is divided into plate fabrication and profile
fabrication. Plate fabrication is divided into an automatic system for irregular
shape components and a manual system for straight shape
components. Automation is used to increase shipyard productivity and the
accuracy of production results. Because the fabrication stage is the initial
stage of the ship building process. The inaccuracy of the fabrication results
will affect the smoothness of the production process. The fabrication
production process is based on the following requirements:

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a. Component form.
b. Machine work load.
c. Workshop work load.

Figure 3. Flow of fabrication (source (Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co.,

1989))
 Sub Assembly
Stage The stage of assembling fabricated items into components. Jobs in the
form of fitting, welding and grinding.

 Assembly stage automatic and semi-automated equipment to achieve

productivity.
Among others: weld care (fillet welding), mobile stiff gun tree.

The assembly process is divided into 3 (three) parts including parallel block,
curved shell block and cubic block. Figure 4-3 shows the flow of process
assembly based on the type of material in the form of plates and profiles.

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 F
igure 4. Flow of assembly (source: (Mitsui Engineering &
Shipbuilding Co., 1989))
 Block Blasting and Painting.
The process in the Blasting and Painting workshop with a layer of initial paint
until it reaches the last layer before final painting.

 Grand assembly.
Especially the block in the stock block category and has a strong and
symmetrical construction: accommodation, fore part and engine room. To
shorten the erection time in the building berth and give the block a longer
outfitting job a chance. Another consideration is the use of the Rand Area so
that it doesn't interfere with erection activities at the main dock.

 Erection.
Erection is done in pre-erection and on the dock. Order based on Network
Erection. The erection application uses zero margine for straight block joints.

Outfitting and Test & Trial.

 The concept of ship building with a Full Outfitting Block System (FOBS)
refers to Advanced Outfitting, namely the installation of outfitting in the block
assembly before painting. FOBS is planned simultaneously when determining
block dimensions (block division), Erection Network, Procurement, Design
and Safety plans.

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The flow of the ship building production process, the fabrication process,
assembly, erection, launching and delivery. Outfitting using FOBS on unit, on
block and on board.

Read more: Shipyard Industry in Indonesia; Ship Repair Cost

Analysis ;; Cost component of ship repair ; Ship Repair Process with Quality
Function Deployment Method

Open AccessArticle

A Process-Based Modeling Method for Describing Production

Processes of Ship Block Assembly Planning
by

Dongsu Jeong

1
,

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 Dohyun Kim
,
1

Taihun Choi
2
and

Yoonho Seo

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1,*
1

Department of Industrial and Management Engineering, Korea University, Seoul KS013, Korea
2

Korea Shipbuilding and Offshore Engineering, Seoul KS013, Korea

*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Processes 2020, 8(7), 880; [Link]

Received: 30 May 2020 / Revised: 14 July 2020 / Accepted: 17 July 2020 / Published: 21 July
2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Supply Chains)

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Citation Export

Abstract
Ship block assembly planning is very complex due to the various activities and characteristics of ship
production. Therefore, competitiveness in the shipbuilding industry depends on how well a company
operates its ship block assembly plan. Many shipbuilders are implementing various studies to improve
their competitiveness in ship block assembly planning, specifically regarding technology usage, such
as modeling and simulation (M&S) and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). Although these technologies
are successfully applied in some production planning systems, it is difficult to tailor ship production
planning systems with flexibility due to unexpected situations. Providing a flexible plan for these
production planning systems requires a way to describe and review the organic relationships of ship
production processes. In this research, a process-based modeling (PBM) method proposes a novel
approach to describing the production process of ship block assembly planning by redefining
production information based on changing instructions. The proposed method consists of four
modeling steps. The first creates a unit model, which includes the products, processes, and resource
information for the block. The second designs an integrated network process for linking unit models
according to the bill of materials (BOM). The third creates a process-based model that describes the
production processes by combining unit models. The fourth generates a simulation model by applying
a Petri-net to the process-based model, which analyzes the productivity of the ship’s block assembly
processes. PBM identifies the assembly process’ interrelationship and shows that productivity can be
reviewed to uncover ship production problems.
Keywords: process-based modeling; production process; block assembly planning; ship
production; shipbuilding manufacturing

1. Introduction
The Korean shipbuilding industry has been struggling to improve global competence and
maintenance, which would allow them to gain an advantage over rivals, including those industries in
Germany, China, the USA, and Japan, with traditional ship technologies. Many Korean shipbuilding
companies are making every effort to study shipbuilding for producing high value-added vessels, price
competitiveness, and production efficiency [1]. Generally, shipbuilding involves single (fixed) product
production and bay production. It traditionally is a labor-intensive assembly industry. To produce a
single vessel, it takes extensive labor, production costs, production time, products, and resources,
such as limited workplaces (large/medium/small assembly factories or workspaces), equipment
(welding machines or cranes), and manpower. Ship production has many planning activities, such as
block division, the assembly process, the outfitting process, the block erection process, and more [2].
Among these production process activities, the assembly process is extremely important, since it
determines what happens in the other process activities. Additionally, it contributes substantial time
and costs during ship production. Based on these resources and production process activities, many
companies have been conducting research on the best way to manage and analyze ship block
assembly planning and processes [3].

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 Although shipbuilding research is applicable, it is difficult to manage the block assembly
planning while considering account economics and physical constraints, such as the workplace and
equipment. It is challenging to analyze the block assembly process while considering the
interrelationship among blocks because of problems (i.e., delays in ship production, the use of
additional equipment, and excess production costs) caused by unexpected situations (i.e., short-term
delivery of ships, production schedule changes, process changes, workload overloads, and
deteriorating weather conditions) [4]. To resolve these issues, advanced companies are focusing on
production planning systems, which effectively manage the production process, assembly schedule,
and logistics planning, by simulating ship production planning. These systems use advanced
technologies, such as information and communication technology (ICT), modeling and simulation
(M&S), the digital twin technique, and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) [4,5,6].
The production planning system’s goal is to maximize productivity, with minimal costs, for
efficient resource management. The system’s core abilities are determined by its capability to provide
feasible alternatives to ship production processes for problems caused by unexpected situations.
Many shipbuilders are studying efficient production methods through ship production rescheduling,
production process changes, and business innovation. However, the new production planning system
for flexible plans, which resolves the above-mentioned issues in the ship production assembly
planning and process, still requires more research [7]. Therefore, to propose a flexible production
planning system, a novel method is needed to support efficient ship production, which would be based
on the core of the ship production process. Additionally, it is crucial to make a new production system
that can monitor the ship production process and provide the best alternatives by integrating actual
site situations and virtually simulating information.
To meet this need, this research developed a process-based modeling (PBM) method that can
describe and review the organic relationships of ship production processes by modeling the product,
process, resource, schedule, and space (PPR-SS) needed for block production. The PBM method
supports efficient ship production by quickly identifying the complex interrelation between processes.

2. Ship Production Background

Ship production carries out production processes that consider load balancing of the workplace,
loads, and facilities until the ship is ordered and delivered [5]. The production processes are produced
through sequential processes such as unloading and storage of steel, steel cutting, subassembly,
middle assembly, and large assembly, and then, the ship is constructed by the repeating movement
and assembly of blocks until erection on the dock after outfitting, painting, and pre-erection in the
shop [6]. The hull block assembly process is a particularly important task of production processes due
to accounting for about 48–50% of the production process [2]. The assembly block is sequentially
assembled into the subassembly, middle assembly, and large assembly according to assembly type,
and the painting and outfitting such as pipes and electrical work are subsequently performed, and
then, large assembly blocks are created through the pre-erection. The large assembly block, which is
the final step in building blocks before being put into dock, plays a crucial role in determining the
overall plan, resources, and processes of ship production. The blocks are assembled using various
equipment (welding, transporters, cranes, etc.), and the ship production process operates the
production plan (ship table planning, long-term planning, mid-term planning, short-term planning, and
execution planning) associated with five stages (company, plant, factory, cell, and resource level), as
shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Hierarchy of the ship production process, production layer, production planning, and
company strategies.

Production planning, which is the core task of connecting the design and production of the ship,
not only determines the assembly and erection of blocks, the work schedule, and the spatial batch
planning but, also, provides important information to support decisions for the management of
company strategies, as shown in Figure 1 [8,9]. Typically, ship production planning begins with the
overall plan for the ship table planning. Afterward, the ship table plan is subdivided to show the long-
term planning, mid-term planning, and short-term planning considering of the capacity plan. Each
planning has key information that should be considered according to a specific period of ship
production and includes various information for ship production at the shipyard. Thus, production
planning should be able to present production processes that reflect the company’s decision-making
in response to the changing shipbuilding environment [10,11]. In addition, these production plans are
being used as research to estimate the task duration in project managements such as ships and
buildings [12,13,14].
However, current ship companies are having difficulty in providing optimal production processes
due to various constraints (block relationships and characteristics, block type, timekeeping, weather,
etc.) and complex factors (human, equipment utilization, etc.) used in ship production in response to
the changing shipbuilding environment [9,10,15,16]. Additionally, the production-planning procedures
cause many complex problems due to various internal constraints and complicated business process
of the departments, which cause many setbacks in ship production. To solve these problems,
research has been conducted to support the decision-making or rescheduling of production so that
ship production could be systematically managed, but no clear solution has been offered [9,17].
Therefore, this paper presents a new method that can manage the entire shipbuilding production
process in layered detail by identifying the relationship to the schedule and space along with the
product-process resource required for the shipbuilding manufacturing process.

3. Literature Review
Most shipyards have production plans that consider the process, facilities, and capacity of ship
production. However, it difficult to identify production plan delays and process problems in advance by
considering only these factors. It is impossible to analyze the production site’s various physical
constraints that change over time.
Since the 1990s, studies regarding managing and predicting the process plan for ship
production have been conducted in earnest [3]. Cho et al. [2] conducted a study on the development
of an automatic shipbuilding process planning system for block assembly. Sladoljev et al. [17]
explained problems and offered a simple model for the production management of shipyards with
unforeseen production processes. Furthermore, Alfeld et al. [18] introduced simulation technology for
checking complexities in shipyard production processes. However, these studies found it difficult to

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systematically express the production process relationships, and there was a limit to utilizing the
information on ship production.
To solve these problems, various studies have been conducted on the M&S method that
supports ship production processes. Seo et al. [16] proposed that production methods can be
generalized as multi-processes, where multi-bay production planning uses multiple machines to
analyze the production process during the parts fabrication stage of the ship hull construction. Woo et
al. [19] studied the simulation modeling method when constructing a digital shipyard for in-house
processes during the shipbuilding process. Moreover, Han et al. [20] and Seo et al. [21] analyzed
manufacturing cells and modeled shipyard panel lines through Petri-net, which is a set of graphical
and mathematical tools for modeling complex and dynamic systems, and the integrated definition for
function modeling (IDEF0), which is widely used in engineering process modeling, and considered the
characteristics of the ship production process. Kilincci [22] conducted line balancing using a Petri-net
model and evaluated the production capacity of an assembly line. Kim et al. [23] studied a product
model-centric simulation model of the shipyard production process using the product, process, and
resource (PPR) criteria and the Unified Modeling Language (UML). These studies were limited to
products from certain fixed processes; however, they do not reflect the production processes and
resources that changed under a flexible production plan. Thus, virtual manufacturing technology was
required to predict and manage the production process and ship planning by building a virtual
simulation model [15,24].
Regarding research on modeling and simulations for virtual manufacturing, Lee et al. [3]
proposed process-centric modeling (PCM) methodologies, considering the shipyard’s production
environment, since the shipyard’s production management system is structured around this process.
Based on the PCM methodology, shipyard simulation systems and shipyard block logistic simulations
for virtual manufacturing were developed [1,7]. The PCM method has the advantage of effectively
expressing the product, process, resource, and schedule (PPR-S) information in the shipbuilding
process. However, it is difficult to identify the space interrelated with the production process of the
block considering resource constraints, and there is a limit to expressing the flow of the production
process and analyzing productivity in the factory using a simulation. Therefore, virtual manufacturing
research that can verify production processes, and plans have become important considering the
actual production situation. Studies on CPS and a digital twin for this research are being actively
carried out [5,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]. CPS are generally characterized as physical and engineered
systems whose operations are monitored, controlled, coordinated, and integrated by a computing and
communicating core, and they consist of the integration of computational components in the cyber
system with the physical system [26,33]. Digital twin technology, which verifies and optimizes the
shipyard production process, construction method, and yard operation, is used to predict the effects of
production, verify efficiency, optimize the simulation-based process, and validate and verify a new
construction method [34,35]. Among them, the CPS research has increased the technologies for the
physical system that can collect data due to a variety of tools and machines, but there is still a lack of
modeling methods to build a cyber-system suitable for the production process of the shipbuilding
situation.
Therefore, this study researches a new modeling method that can analyze the productivity of a
large assembly factory, including the block design, resources, schedule, and space information based
on the ship production process and support the cyber system of virtual manufacturing based on CPS.

4. Problem Definition
Complex manufacturing lines can be represented by a bill of material (BOM) and their processes
that correspond to a bill of process (BOP) [12,18,21]. The BOM is a list of the raw materials,
assemblies, and components; parts of each are needed to manufacture an end product. A typical
block is constructed by a BOM structure. The BOP shows information about the BOM and
manufacturing process. It provides the relationship of assembly and disassembly and the precedence
of processes. Basically, the ship’s block is produced on the basis of three pieces of information:
products, processes, and resource (PPR) based on the BOM and the BOP. However, due to frequent
changes in schedules caused by unexpected situations, the PRR-S (product, process, resource, and
schedule) model, with schedule information added to the PPR model, was suggested [3]. Later, the
PPR3-S (Product, Process, Facility, Space, Labor, and Schedule) model, which detailed the
breakdown of resource information in the PPR-S model into facility, space, and labor, was presented
as a solution [10]. However, PPR-S alone had limitations in expressing blocks produced in the spatial
space of the factory. To construct a simulation model for virtual manufacturing, this study defined a
PPR-SS model that can systematically describe the block production process by classifying

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production information from one block to the factory, as shown in Table 1. The model is based on
information used in real-life shipyards and can help improve the reliability of simulation results.
Table 1. The product, process, resource, schedule, and space (PPR-SS) information and productivity
based on the PPR-SS. BOM: bill of materials.

Currently, different approaches have been applied for the modeling and analysis of
manufacturing systems. Analyzing manufacturing systems requires the consideration of a variety of
factors, and this study allowed an analysis of productivity through elements of PPR-SS. Productivity
depends on the form and product of the manufacturing industry and can be analyzed based on PPR-
SS for make-span, throughput, resource usage, and resource cost, as highlighted in block production,
as shown in Table 1 [5,6,12]. The make-span is the total length of the schedule of the product
production. The throughput is the capacity of production or the ability at which the block is processed.
The resource usage is the available amount of resources used in the workspace, and the resource
cost is the cost of the resources used. The PPR-SS to analyze this productivity is used as systematic
configuration information and can help build a more complete production simulation model.

5. Process-Based Modeling Method for Ship Production Processes

Based on the related research in Section 3, this study concluded that the following four
requirements should be met to model the ship production process. These include:
1. The many elements of production (PPR-SS) should be systematically comprised.
2. Interrelations of process features inherent to the block production should be logically presented.
3. An integrated model should be designed where entire blocks and their processes are connected to
describe large assembly factories.
4. Analyze how effectively the blocks are produced in ship block assembly planning and how
appropriately the resources are used.
To meet these requirements, this study presents a PBM method that can virtually model the
production processes of blocks. The PBM is a new method representing a series of flows by
redefining mutual relations between production processes [5]. Figure 2 shows the entire PBM
method’s flow. This modeling method is composed of three parts: unit modeling, process-based
modeling, and process-based simulation modeling. Unit modeling designs a model including product,
process, and resource information on one block produced in a large assembly factory. Constraints in
the modeling designs can be conditions such as the workspace and process schedule for producing a
large assembly block based on the information of the unit models. Process-based modeling presents
an integrated model of describing the factory by linking unit models as one process through the
integrated network process, which links unit models according to the PPR-SS conditions of the
factory. Afterwards, to verify the feasibility of implementing a process-based model, process-based
simulation modeling designs a simulation model using a Petri-net simulator and analyzes the
productivities of the ship block assembly planning.

Figure 2. Overall flow of the process-based modeling methods for ship production planning.

5.1. Unit Modeling

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 In spaces for block production, both equipment and manpower are limited. Therefore, to check
the capacity or availability for block production by simulation in advance, a simulation model is
required for the large blocks produced in each space. The simulation model should include products,
processes, and resource information for one block. Generally, the shipyard separately manages
production schedule information and the assembly design information of blocks. This is for efficient
ship production management from the working departments. To develop a system with this
information, it needs to be used as integrated information [32].
To represent the large assembly block as a simulation model, this section creates unit models.
This unit model is based on the PPR information in Table 1, and this section introduces the methods
for designing the unit model.
5.1.1. Structure Definition
A ship consists of many large assembly blocks, and a large assembly block is assembled in the
BOM design structure. Most block assembly sequences are defined in long-term planning, while
additional block production, block assembly sequence, schedule, and block type are defined in
middle-term planning.
The block assembly sequence is identified by the block number and former relationship from the
middle-term planning information, as shown on the left side of Figure 3. Block information is
represented by the work breakdown structure (WBS), which represents the shipbuilding process, as
shown on the right side of Figure 3 [3,12,32]. On the left side of Figure 3, the hierarchy structure
information includes various information for block production and, in this figure, represents six
information. Assembly block represents the name of the block and the hierarchy structure. Number
(Num.) represents the number of blocks. The upper assembly block represents the upper block that is
assembled after the production of the assembly block. The construction number (C/N) is the number
for managing the block production, and the goal block (G/B) represents the final assembly block.
Finally, the activity number represents the management code for managing the assembly blocks as
data. The WBS is, as a planning element, widely used in shipbuilding industries and has a hierarchical
structure of project components that are defined for the entire ship production process. The WBS is
based on middle-term planning information, and this study defined each block as a unit block [12].
The unit block is used as basic information to determine the order in which the blocks are produced
and the process to produce one large assembly block. On the right side of Figure 3, the names of the
blocks vary depending on the shape of the block and the compartment of the ship. First, TT1 and TT3
are expressed by the letter T (Transverse bulkhead), which means an area or structure, and in two
words, T1 and T2 (Top 1 or 2), indicating the length, direction, or height of the hull. SS1A also
represents the area (S, Side shell) and location (S, side 1A). GR5A and GR6C represent the letter G
(pre-erection block), R (Hatch cover) and location (5A and 6C). Sub blocks are also defined, like
GR5B~GR6B (G: Pre-erection block, R: Hatch cover, 5B–6C: Location), FR45C~FR54B (F: Fore end
construction, R: Hatch cover, 45C–54B: Location), BX1A (B: Bottom, X: Additional block, 1A:
Location), and TT5 (T: Transverse bulkhead, T: Top block, 1: Location). These block names are
defined and managed differently depending on different shipyards and the type of blocks.

Figure 3. Typical structure information of large assembly blocks (Left: hierarchy structure information
of large assembly blocks. Right: work breakdown structure of TT1 blocks based on the bill of materials
(BOM)).

5.1.2. Process Definition

Generally, blocks have different production processes depending on their type [5,16]. Figure
4 represents the process of assembling panel blocks and curved blocks in a large assembly factory,
while Table 2 introduces the process details. The main difference between the panel and curved
blocks processes is if it includes or not plate forming. Plate forming refers to bending works for
processing members at certain angles using a welding machine. In this study, the panel block process

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and curved block process, according to the type of blocks, are implemented using general-welding
and digital-welding machines, respectively. Depending on the characteristics and types of
blocks, Table 2 represents process tasks according to the production processes, as shown in Figure
4. The blocks are produced by performing these tasks sequentially. Current block production
processes vary by block type. They are not standardized, because only processes that can be
identified at cost are stored and utilized as information. Therefore, this study used only the shaded
processes in Figure 4 to design the unit model. The process was named the unit process.

Figure 4. The production process definition of large assembly blocks: (a) production process of a
panel block, and (b) production process of a curved block.

Table 2. Production process detailed descriptions for large assembly blocks.

5.1.3. Unit Model of a Block

Describing the large assembly factory simulation model requires the main object, including the
production process and the block’s unique information. This section introduces a unit model of
describing the assembly block by combining a unit block with the unit process, as shown in Figure 5.
The unit model is a fundamental modular model that can represent modular representation and the
analysis of complex processes and is a key model that expresses a process-based formal description
[36,37,38].

Figure 5. An example of a unit model that combines the products, processes, and resources.

A unit model includes a block of unique specifications, process information to produce it, type
and quantities of the resources used in the process, man hours, and production locations. These unit
models contain specific processes for the block and are used as a major model for analyzing the
productivity, such as the capacity, production rate, and throughput, in the factory.

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5.2. Constraints Modeling
The simulation model for block production presents different productivity results depending on
the mutual relation of the blocks and constraints, such as the workspace, schedule, and resource
allocation. This is because the type of blocks varies depending on the workspace of the large
assembly factory, and the production process and plan are managed differently. Therefore, it is
important how the interrelationships and constraints of the blocks can be included in this simulation
model. This section introduces data integrating the production information, such as the mutual relation
of the blocks, workspace, schedule, resource allocation, and the interrelation definition of the blocks
based on the integrated data.
5.2.1. Integrated Data for Interrelations between Unit Models
To identify the block production situation accurately, large assembly blocks require information
on the resources and processes used in block production. Information used in actual block production
is BOM data, activity data, and activity relationship data, as shown in Figure 6. To quickly check
interrelations between the blocks, this study constructs integrated data based on the assembly
transmission line and activity number in each dataset, such as in Figure 6. The integrated data saves
information from the unit blocks and includes major information (i.e., quantity, mutual process
relationships, schedules, and space). Unit model data within integrated data represents the data
structure, as shown in Figure 6. Each table row represents a unit model and consists of a block
name, upper-level block, quantity, from-to relationship, schedule, duration, spatial numbers, activities,
and attributes. The upper-level block, form-to relationship, schedule, and spatial numbers are used as
conditions for creating a process-based model. The schedule is expressed in the form of dates, from
start time to finish time. The difference between these two times is used to calculate the resource
capacity, the total amount of resources used in the processes for block production. The from-to
relationship represents the activity that moves after the block process is completed. The attribute is an
index value for the resource types used in the unit process model. If the attribute value is 1, then the
general-welding machine is used, and if the attribute value is 2, then the digital-welding machine is
used.

Figure 6. Creation of integrated data through the relationships between the BOM, activities, and
activity relationships data.

5.2.2. Interrelational Representation

For a systematic description of the block assembly sequence and the process of large assembly
factories using integrated data, the fore-back relationship of factory blocks and the interrelationships
between the processes should be modeled as an integrated system. As a way of expressing the
assembly sequence of large assembly blocks, the workflow and Petri-net models are the most
appropriate ways to describe the BOM structure as the bill of process (BOP) [20,21]. These methods
can express not only the interrelationship of the tasks but, also, the contents, such as task
dependencies, resource allocations, and due dates [39]. This study focused on the interrelationships
between blocks, and other issues were designed to be added in turn at each modeling stage.
Workflow is a modeling method for scheming and managing works in production and information
processing areas. It represents flow patterns in specific processes, as shown in Figure 7.

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Figure 7. Workflow modeling patterns: (a) sequential operation, (b) parallel operation (AND-split), (c)
choice operation (OR-split), (d) synchronized operation (AND-join), and (e) join/merge operation (OR-
join).

(a)
Sequential operations are used to express the serial flow according to the project management.
(b)
Parallel operations are used when two or more processes are in sync.
(c)
Choice operations are used to indicate the choices of a particular process.
(d)
Synchronized operations mean that, when all prior processes are completed, they proceed to the next
process.
(e)
Join/merge operations are used when one of the several prior processes is completed and the next
process is finalized.
From a workflow perspective, an arc connected to a higher-level part in the BOM means the
production process and assembly of a lower-level part. The TT1 block in Figure 8 is the large block,
produced by assembling ten lower-level blocks. Therefore, the lower-level blocks’ production process
must be completed before the production process for the next large block (TT1) can proceed. This
can be expressed through the AND-split and the AND-join workflow relationship. Figure 8 shows the
BOM conversion for the TT1 block into the workflow, and P1_1_n represents the manufacturing
process for the subblocks.

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Figure 8. A TT1 block workflow example.

5.3. Process-Based Modeling

Most shipyards individually manage the production planning, processes, and workspace
planning of large assembly factories [4,32]. These management methods make it difficult to identify
the interrelationship in factory planning and processes. This causes many problems due to the
differences between production planning and site situations. This section introduces an integrated
network process for designing a process-based model, which describes the whole production situation
of large assembly factories by combining unit models.
5.3.1. Integrated Network Process
To automatically generate the block workflow and the order of the block production, an
integrated network process is proposed in the current manuscript. The integrated network process is a
method for representing the hierarchical modeling of connecting PPR-SS conditions by reference to
Jeong et al. [12], and this modeling hierarchically represents the modeling steps of various areas,
such as manufacturing systems and biomedical reaction networks [40,41]. The integrated network
process proposes to link the processes and defines the interrelations of the unit models using PPR-
SS information.
Figure 9 shows an integrated network process flowchart. First, the block products, processes,
and resource information are loaded from integrated data. Thus, a unit model that includes products,
processes, and resource information. Connecting unit models requires interrelations from the high-
level blocks to the low-level blocks. The next stage consists of two steps, including defining the
interrelations between the blocks through the BOM and creating unit models through PPR conditions.
Furthermore, unit models are connected according to BOM-based interrelations and expressed in the
AND/OR graph. However, that alone by itself is not enough to describe a large assembly factory.
Therefore, production processes for the blocks should be indicated by adding SS conditions (space
and schedule) to the graph. For space, unit models are allocated according to the spatial numbers
in Figure 6. Afterwards, in the schedule, allocated unit models are arranged based on their start and
finish times. The integrated network process is the initial step in order to create a process-based
model that represents a large assembly factory. These steps support the integration of unit models
based on PPR-SS and play a major role in creating an integrated model that represents the
production processes.

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Figure 9. Flowchart of the integrated network process. PPR: product, process, and resource.

5.3.2. Process-Based Model

All production processes for large assembly factories should express intimate relationships
between the blocks and their processes, according to unit models as the logical procedures. A
process-based model for large assembly factories is conceptual and closely combines unit models
according to the abovementioned integrated network process, as depicted in Figure 10. This figure
illustrates a process-based conceptual model. The unit models that make up this model are placed by
the time and space of the integrated data in Section 6. The interrelationships of the deployed unit
models are identified according to the BOM structure, and the unit models are connected using the
AND-split and AND-join relationships of the workflow. These processes are expressed by the rules of
the integrated network process, and the information is stored in the same form as the integrated data.
It interconnects all unit models based on the workspace and factory schedule and includes
procedures for the production processes with different unit models. This process-based model
presents a new PPR-SS-based simulation model, with added space and a schedule, in the study of
the existing PPR-S-based ship simulation model. It shows that the factory can be schematically
represented.

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Figure 10. Process-based model for describing a large assembly factory.

5.4. Process-Based Simulation Modeling

Based on the PBM method, this study proposes a process-based model, a conceptual model to
effectively describe the interrelation of the large assembly blocks. However, since the process-based
model does not provide a formal description, the model needs the formal systems model for users and
developers to understand it. This section designs a Petri-net model so users can utilize the PBM
method and the model can be analyzed in public simulations and carried out as a mathematical
formalization for easier analysis.
5.4.1. Process-Based Petri-Net Model through a Mathematical Formalism
A process-based model conceptually describes block interactions, but it should reflect
mathematical formalism to execute the actual simulations. Mathematical formalism enables dynamic
executions of modeling and simulations for virtual manufacturing through various tools, which support
the formal analysis and verification of the unit models [21].
To support the validation and formal analysis of the process-based model, this study used Petri-
net, which can quickly identify interrelationships between entities among various classical formalisms
and check status changes logically and visually [20,22]. The Petri-net (PN) model, a graph model, can
model and design discrete event systems with interactions and concurrent components. This is a
theoretical and visual tool, as well as a mathematical model, and facilitates the development of
structural models [33,42,43]. PN formalism is a bipartite-directed graph with six tuples defined as: PN
= (P, T, I, O, F), where P = {p1, p2, p3, …, pn} is a finite set of places, and T = {t1, t2, t3, …, tm} is a
finite set of transitions. P and T make subscripts in the p and t indexes. P ∩ T = Ø and P ∪ T ≠ Ø, and
I ⊆ (P × T): a set of arcs, where I is an input mapping P × T → {0,1} corresponding to the set of
directed arcs from P to T, O ⊆ (T × P): a set of arcs, where O is an output mapping T × P → {0,1}
corresponding to the set of directed arcs from T to P, and F: distribution function to assign. Seo et al.
[21] proposed a production method of describing multi-processes and multi-bay productions planning
through the PN model to analyze the production process at the parts fabrication stage of the ship hull
construction.
This study proposes the following steps for executing the simulation by applying the Petri-net
model by referring to Seo et al. [21]. The first step is to analyze the conceptual model’s
characteristics. The process-based model has large assembly block characteristics. Although these
blocks and characteristics can be depicted within the production environment, they cannot be
dynamically simulated or formally analyzed, such as the productivity, including make-spans,
throughputs, resource usage, and resource costs, of large assembly factories. Therefore, the process-
based model’s main concern is how to describe the task concurrency, since the unit model needs to
concurrently cope with different types of large assembly blocks. The second step is to select a petri-
net model adequate for the process-based model. Petri-net is a suitable choice for analyzing the
concurrency, boundedness, and reachability, which can be used to effectively validate various factory
state changes and the complex interrelations between the blocks. The third step is to transform the
process-based model into the Petri-net model. If the Petri-net model is chosen, then the process-
based model needs to be transformed into a process-based Petri-net model. The following three steps
depict this transformation:
1. Load the process-based model generated by the PBM system. Information on the process-based model
is saved, in table form, as integrated data and is designed to allow connections with other programs.

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2. Make rules for the process-based model transforming into the XML form that the Petri-net simulator
can read. The Petri-net simulators capture the semantics of formalism through interactions between the process-
based model and the Petri-net, as shown in Table 3.
3. Transform the process-based model into the XML form based on the mapping relationship shown
in Table 3.
Table 3. Mapping the relationship between the process-based model and the Petri-net model.

An example of the TT1 block represents the relationship between the Petri-net model and TT1
block. Basically, a unit model represents the places of the Petri-net according to the number of
processes the model has. Each place represents each process with a block, and the transition
represents the state after the block production. The process of entering the unit model based on
input/output is different, which sets the scope of the process of the modular description that the unit
model has. Finally, token shows the corresponding block number and movement. These three
processes can be used to satisfy the diverse requirements.

6. Case Study: TT1 Block’s Production Processes of the Large Assembly Block
To demonstrate the usability and applicability of the proposed PBM system, this section presents
the process-based models of an aircraft with a stealth function and a radar with a detect function. The
way the PBM method is modeled from combat scenarios is presented first, followed by a study of how
formalism can be used to support the formal analysis and verification of the process-based model.
6.1. Process-Based Modeling of TT1 Block Production
This section presents a scenario for producing a TTL1 block of a large assembly block to
illustrate the applicability. Figure 11 represents the one illustration example to demonstrate the TT1
block’s production process for each modeling step of the PBM method.

Figure 11. Illustration demonstrating a TT1 block’s production process through the process-based
modeling (PBM) method.

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 Resource modeling generates unit models through the process information of producing
subblocks and blocks needed to produce TT1 blocks. The unit model includes unit blocks with basic
specifications for blocks (name, space, man-hour, and machine) and unit processes corresponding to
the type of unit block. Constraints modeling represents the integrated data, including the interrelation
between the unit models and constraints such as the workspace, schedule, and resource allocation.
Process-based modeling creates a process-based concept model that integrates the processes,
subblocks, and spatial information for the TT1 block. First, this study uses the five representative
blocks (TT1, SS1A, TT3, GR5A, and GR6C) of the subblocks for the TT1 block identified through the
BOM. This is important, because the five blocks are middle blocks that are important for the
production of TT1, and the remaining blocks are small blocks that do not have much impact on the
production process and planning. Therefore, this study modeled the production process of the TT1
block using the five blocks mentioned above. Additionally, the naming of the blocks is expressed
according to the area and production processes of the blocks located on the ships, and this
information is stored in the integrated data. This study used unit models in an integrated database
with information about the blocks. Subsequently, an integrated network process with PPR-SS
conditions creates a process-based model by using unit models and the BOM information.
Process-based simulation modeling, to provide a formal description, creates a process-based
Petri-net model by combining a Petri-net simulator (quick Petri-net: QPNet) into the process-based
model [44]. QPNet is a fast Petri-net emulator, created by students of the Moscow State Technical
University of Radio Engineering, Electronics and Automation. This simulator provides basic Petri-net
model functions, such as distribution and time and statical analysis, and can run the simulator,
especially with the XML-format model of the process-based model presented in Section 5.3.1. This
study developed the PBM system to show the feasibility of implementing the PBM method, and by
analyzing the Petri-net model, this approach analyzes the productivity for the production of the TT1
block.
6.2. Petri-Net Analysis of the Process-Based Petri-Net Model
Following the transformation steps specified in Section 5.4.1, this section transforms the
process-based model for large assembly factories into a process-based Petri-net model, as shown
in Figure 12. The structure of the Petri-net can model situations describing logical flows, and the
marking of the Petri-net shows the active situation or event. The process-based Petri-net model
contains 18 places (p01–04, p11–14, p21–24, p31–33, and p41–43) that replace all common
functional elements of unit models 0–4, which are indexed in Table 4. This study set the initial token
number for places 01, 05, and 09 (initial elements of UM0-2) to 1 for starting the state transition. The
tokens can move to the next place if unit models’ tokens are located on an interrelated place, and they
should wait until the number of tokens are met.

Figure 12. Process-based model through the Petri-net model (QPNet: quick Petri-net simulator).

Table 4. Process-based Petri-net model analysis.

Based on the process-based Petri-net model, this study can perform various kind of analyses,
such as state boundedness, reachability, and liveness. This section shows the process-based model
analysis by presenting a series of markings. The rows and columns in Table 4 represent the places

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and token numbers (markings). The 18 places represent the unit processes of the unit models. The 17
markings represent the unit model flows for the large assembly block TT1 production. Unit models
have actions for producing blocks, such as the GR6C block: UM0 actions p01–04, GR5A block: UM1
actions p11–14, TT3 block: UM2 actions p21–24, SS1A block: UM3 actions p31–33, and TT1 block:
UM4 actions p41–43. The markings represent the block production processes. First, the GR5A block
is produced by adding additional work to the GR6C block. After the production processes for the
GR5A and TT3 blocks have been completed, the SS1A block is produced by assembling GR5A and
TT3. TT1 block production is performed after SS1A block production is completed. To analyze the
concurrency and interactions of the process-based Petri-net model, this study analyzed this model in
terms of the boundedness, concurrency, and conflict, which are core characteristics of the Petri-net
model. The analysis was as follows:
(1)
Boundedness analysis: Places (p31 in Figure 12) reflecting the interactions between two blocks can
have three tokens, and other places can generally have one or two tokens. This petri-net model can
generate new tokens during the block assembly process but only represents changes of limited
boundaries. Therefore, considering the concurrency of this Petri-net model, the boundedness value is
three (markings 04–17), including places with interactions. This means that the number of subblocks to
produce the TT1 block requires, at most, three.
(2)
Concurrency analysis: The Petri-net model’s concurrency exists when the number of tokens is more
than two, which means that there are more than two blocks currently producing processes (markings
02–17). The GR5A (markings 04–05) block has a stay action of one token until the next block, and
assembly begins immediately after the GR6C (marking 05) block is produced. The SS1A (marking 10)
block can also start production only after the GR5A (markings 04–09) and TT3 (markings 02–09)
blocks have been completed. Thus, the large block means that the lower block must complete
production before it can begin production. Block assembly is determined by the subblock production
completion. Concurrency of the block assembly means that the overall block production time depends
on how much time is reduced for the subblock.
(3)
Conflict analysis: Conflicts are necessary for modeling special situations of block productions, such as
concurrent tasks and mutual exclusions, and generally require special treatments for user interventions.
The GR6C (markings 01–05) and the GR5A (markings 04–09) blocks are produced in the same
workspace (SS1A). The general ship production process should complete the GR5A assembly process
after the GR6C assembly process. However, the GR5A block has a fit-up process (markings 04–05)
during the GR6C block grinding process (markings 03–04). This is because the fit-up process can
perform tasks in different workspaces, not just in one workspace. This situation is difficult to identify
in the normal product production process, and it is caused by a special situation in the ship production
process where complex and numerous works are performed. Therefore, to the extent that there is no
problem with the randomness, the duplication of the fit-up process is less than three and sets a conflict
resolution policy.
Overall, although the process-based Petri-net model can depict the large assembly factory in an
exact and formal way, the Petri-net model can clearly observe the task concurrency and conflict and
can support the formal analysis. Based on this analysis information, this study can effectively analyze
the functions of the processes inherent in ship production.
6.3. Ship Production Process Analysis
The process-based Petri-net model represents the number of tokens located in the place and
the time to stay, representing the process of each unit model by using the rules of Table 3 in Section
5.4.1. However, the model alone has limitations in analyzing the productivity of the ship production
process. Therefore, this section presents the productivity analysis for the PPR-SS of Table
5 and Table 6 by utilizing information from the Petri-net simulation results. Based on analysis
information from the process-based Petri-net model, this study can effectively analyze the productivity
inherent to the ship production process. This approach analyzed four key elements (make-span,
throughput, resource usage, and resource cost) regarding the productivity of the ship’s production
process, as shown in Table 5 and Table 6 [3,5,6,12,16].
Table 5. An example of the TT1 block-based product and process among the PPR-SS through the
process-based Petri-net model.

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Table 6. An example of the TT1 block-based resource, space, and schedule among the PPR-SS
through the process-based Petri-net model.

To analyze the four key elements, we arranged basic information from the PPR-SS using
information from Table 1 in Section 4 and from the Petri-net model in Section 5.2, as shown in Table
5 and Table 6. The product consists of unit blocks, types (panel and curved blocks), and quantities.
The process consists of processes (fit-ups, welding, grinding, and inspection tasks) for the block
assembly. The resource consists of resources according to the processes. Specifically, the welding
process for the panel blocks and curved blocks uses general-welding machines and digital-welding
machines, respectively. The space indicates the large assembly factory location where each block is
produced, and each space has a daily production capacity. The schedule shows the time required for
each block to be produced, which is determined by the token production wait time total, as shown in
the Petri-net model in Table 4.
Based on the PPR-SS information in Table 5 and Table 6, we have derived the below formula
for analyzing the four key elements. This study generated productivity analysis results, such as those
in Figure 13.
Make−span=SCni

(1)

Figure 13. Productivity analysis of the ship production process through four key elements: (a) make-
span, (b) throughput, (c) resource usage, and (d) resource cost. SP: space. SC: schedule.

Make-span (1) is calculated for each process time based on information obtained through the
Petri-net model. The total processing time (SCni) is calculated by adding them together. Figure 13a

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shows that the average value of a make-span for five blocks is 9.4, and the GR5A (10) and SS1A (15)
have greater-than-average values, which can be found to take a long time to produce. Among these,
the SS1A has the longest production time, which means that problems may arise during the
production process after SS1A production.
Throughput=(SPni,j × SCni) − PDni,j,k,l

(2)
Throughput (2) is calculated as the difference between the production availability ( SPni,j × SCni)
of each workspace and the block’s production capacity (PDni,j,k,l). If the product availability is greater
than the block production capacity, then the production throughput will be wasted, and if it is less,
there will be a problem with production processing. Therefore, the optimal throughput is to use a block
production capacity similar to the product availability. Figure 13b shows that the throughputs in the
SS1A (−746.67) and TT1 (−7769.95) blocks have problems in the processing production. The TT1
block has a production throughput that exceeds the workspace capacity, which means that the
resource utilization to produce the block is not properly implemented.
Resource usage=(PRni,j,k,l × RSni,j,k,l)−PDni,j,k

(3)
Resource productivity consists of resource usage (3) and resource costs (4). Resource usage
(3) is calculated as the difference between the resource capacity ( PRni,j,k,l × RSni,j,k,l) for the block
production and the block’s production capacity (PDni,j,k). Large resource-use capacity means that it is
efficient in producing blocks with large capacities. Figure 13c shows that the TT1 block has a strong
impact on the resource use compared to the other blocks. Thus, the TT1 block’s production capacity
is too large for the resource capacity. Effective production requires increasing the resource uses or
reallocating to a workspace suitable for the block’s production capacity.
Resource cost=PRni,j,k,l × Ci,j,k,l

(4)
The resource cost (4) is calculated as follows. The resource usage is multiplied by the number of
tasks for each process in the process column corresponding to each block and the resource cost
corresponding to each process. Subsequently, the calculated resource costs for each process are
totaled. The resource costs for each process include a fit-up machine: 1600, welding machine for
general panels: 2500, welding machine for curved panels: 5000, grinding machine: 2600, and an
inspection machine: 1200. Figure 13d shows that the resource cost’s average value for the five
blocks is $21,700, and the GR5A (30,800) and SS1A (30,900) blocks above these are costly. When
inferring problems regarding the throughput and resource usage for the TT1 block, this study should
plan to re-batch the workspace according to the block capacity and plan the resource uses suitable for
each block production.

7. Conclusions and Future Works

The objective of this research is to propose the PBM method for describing ship block assembly
planning production processes by redefining the products, processes, resources, schedules, and
spaces (PPR-SS). The PBM method constructs unit models by combining the products, processes,
and resources of assembly blocks in large assembly factories. Furthermore, it creates the process-
based model, for describing the factory, through the integrated network process by linking unit models
according to the BOM structure, workspace, and schedule. Unlike existing ship production modeling
studies, this modeling method highlights how to combine the products, processes, and resources;
how to describe the factory as a series of processes; and how to analyze the factory productivity. The
method provided the process-based Petri-net model for a mathematical analysis by assessing the
productivity (make-span, throughput, resource usage, and resource cost) of a large assembly factory
using the Petri-net model.
The PBM method is a process-oriented model design method for ship production planning
systems, which analyzes the entire factory production process and quickly identifies various problems
within the block production. This approach determined that this research could provide the following
contributions to the requirements shown in Section 5.
(1)

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 A unit model provides a design method for systematically constructing products, processes, and
resource information, which are crucial to block assembly planning.
(2)
The process-based model links the interrelations between the processing features inherent in the blocks
produced in large assembly factories.
(3)
The process-based Petri-net model analyzes how the factory blocks can effectively be produced and
how the resources are appropriately used through the mathematical formalism of Petri-net technology.
(4)
The process-based modeling method provides ship production process modeling, supporting the virtual
manufacturing, which models the ship block assembly planning.
The PBM method can identify the ship production complexity in advance and reduce block
production costs and time by reviewing the ship production capacities through the process-based
model. This method also represents a strategic direction supporting the cyber system for the ship
Cyber-Physical Production System (CPPS), which forms a new paradigm for implementing CPS-
based smart shipbuilding. By applying this study, producers and workers can identify the results of
various ship productions through simulations without using physical assets, and they can prevent
unexpected problem situations in advance.
In the future, we plan to conduct further research. This would include analyzing large assembly
block schedules, including workspace and production schedules, and the PBM system’s framework.
Research designs for integrated network processes include linking unit models through factory
workspaces and the schedule of the block production. However, the process does not provide new
production plans that consider the resources used to produce the blocks and their costs. For optimal
ship production planning, we plan to study the algorithm for resource constraints project scheduling
(RCPS), the facility layout problem (FLP), and block space planning. Moreover, we plan to study the
system development framework that presents the production situations and optimal production plans
by applying the algorithms to the PBM method.

Author Contributions
Conceptualization, D.J. and Y.S.; methodology, D.J.; software, D.J.; formal analysis, D.J.;
investigation, D.J. and D.K.; writing—original draft preparation, D.J.; writing—review and editing, D.J.;
visualization, D.J.; supervision, D.J.; project administration, Y.S.; funding acquisition, T.C. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding
This work was supported by a National IT Industry Promotion Agency (NIPA) grant funded by
the Korea government (MSIP) (S0607-18-1004, the development of the Shipyard IHOP process
standard simulator and decision support system).

Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank the six anonymous reviewers and editors for reviewing this paper.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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