atom t% called the ve CONDUCTION BAND* prsRoeSEiy || 2 aK Soe = The conduckten cat os the band op thes-orbitals thats are hteh in energy and generally “empbys Gonduction g electricity ts tm the Conduction band. + Nalence band is the outermost orbit with alectrons Elecbrons onthe valence band can | assume gree_sbate, by th Whoo they do, tearm they gato 3 rr ale enemy viz: = Thermal energy Erom the _surreun ae ig ~ Photo energy (photons) prom Léght s Voltage seurce / tgp tn _potenbéal. a Each shell has__spectgec energy «levels “ aséocitated | with electrons _ orbiting zt: The parthers:the _dlactrons | Sfpm the _ovcleus , the higher the enerjy state and be > , meq) 520 electron volts be Vols)<+ a Energy = QV. oy L CLASSLF SCAT ION OF — ElecprstAl _MATEREALS-DATE ’ & 3. Semte- conductors: {- Insulators 2. Conductors = Electrical materials tan be dassigved on_the bases Of _enerqy _gap btw _themvyalence «6 conduction band ~_Gnduction takes place wheo the electrons _fump From the valence _band to the conduction band» the gap_biw them % called _ ENBRGY GAP-, Whele the move _srom valence band to enemy required to as y conduction, \' band t& to es = The wider the energy gap the : }4 J requered to move, From we to C8 —c8 Fer f iit ~ The olechrom of the valence band 2% called ELECTRONS 5. they possess more the — enerqu ay VALENCE \ew _ bendéng- energy. vd When an electron ts a leads: ig 9 ichected from the valence break tn eovalenb bond» It band leaves a p04 vbeve yas ZeDATE , 4 te V6 € tho C8 of a conductor overlap - theregare there % no enemy gap- Less energy t% used to move elect rons From the wR to the CB; thus eb bas large gree _electrond+ In conductors, conductton vw due to only flow of eleébe tm the CB when an clectric peeld és applted, therefore - ‘mereasing the _ ELECTRON ENERGY. Addcbional energy absorbed desstpated as heate 4 ; Insulator am. poor conductors = The enemy gap we Large and the _ valence slectrons _ are __held begbtly ty the tr parent abems, and they. yequere very large J ¥ 3 enegy to __move _grom__the VB to C8. There _& 0 conduction og _ electricity tn __ insulator a | Semt conductors properties lte bbw that of the conductor and znsylater » The enemy qap 2 amall. compared to Less energy the ensulatoss Be requered tb move electrons .¢rom VBA 6B + At absolute zero temp-, there 3 no cond Hewever at room temp, __ elec trons gatn__energy due to iecrease do tempy bleos __the covalent bond: breaks, 5 there ts x @nerqy tor shtpb- pom Ae VB to theres: Example fF Semtronductor + sblicony -germantum- = En Silian, a» to.c8 the Bhe enemys required to _ move_from VB ip bat —3exsot xT es Th Gormantum, feqptred, Bg = 0795 ~ 22x 10x T eV Tz temperatue Ck)- “fe What iw the energy _raquered to _ move be Bak Book th a_Seleeon? _— Se ms _Bgz tar - (36xto*v 300) a Eg z 4.t02ev A Nat Tnceence =o temp. lead to decrease tm eon of 8 Semt-conductor se ea | Solve gor energy raquered to move _¢rom V8 tee | an a -garmancum = at 300k CLASSIFICATION OF = SEMr- CONDUCTORS: They are clasigted on = PURE or © LMPuRE corm 4 w % the electrons are generated _etntera lly or_the | | “mtroductson og “impurtties Cother elements) 40 tha avaterrat. «The = pure germ ts _called tha" INTRENG TE le te pe pee called the EXTRINATY INTAINsics ¥__ femt-conduetor en _ pure conn. the noo ; electrons pat _W, _the ne of boles. _Conductove ty! - wy low 9% valence electrons are cova LentDATE a there ts no cbt pAb absolute or zero temperature, beret ope Aes 304. temp: above absolute zero, the electron leaves tho 8 tthe C8 the energy required. to mdve! J ___destpp désstpated as cheatg gee ae A GDS ES : Sianaiay Oty MONON asic ceaemet a pare: 19- April- 2019 - syd acne ‘. a CONE AOA T SoH: to$9 vb O32» EE Pz 7. Feet a si: tem | Nez nat @ led Bas qe - apploed voltage oa KT where Mo = tntrinséc —_constant__ “4 T = absolute temp Vr = teemrnal voltage gq: charge’ cea Kz Bolkemangs constants | 2 138° LO F/E : 25- Apr- 2017 SEAL - CONDUGTOR _CONDUCTBVETY , __ Cendustiny (o) = A - fen thee ee z 4 (Hy 0 + p). od eee for intrinsic, =P 2 = nt yeodt sa __ wna x. Mo 2 electron mobility — gz otharge.o¢ the -earrbast— , ihendaad y= bole —_mobélety yng eeDATE holee = ne wobrinséc semt-conductor, Oe OF electrons~ = _EXIRINSIC seprrconpuctors: are semeconductors to _tmpum —Focms “Ths formed bys adding 2 smal__armounb OF tmpurtties also called. opawts « The act of adding : an___wmpurdty __to_an__tabrinste _semé-conductor ts called ae 1 am 2 types wbzs () Petype and (ON-ypa | an, totrinste semi-conductor VB A2Boped 9 woth a Naty | anal amount Of Boron, whieb wp, _ beets eppect |<: 90 of ‘electrons: and petben” BP esacennae semi-conductor corm? of gen | Dopants are etther pentavalen’ or trevalent> ~PN-TYPE (E¢rect of adding a pentavalent element) : Pentaval elements _enclude Phosphorus LP), Arsene (Ar) Antimony (Sb) » The! A-type _extrenstc _semé-conduetors arg formed by adding 4 __penta- valent Impurtty to an tobrinste semecondudFour of the . eve elechrons of the with. four of the fsbzeon electrons of the thininses semiconductors The pogth electron dectron whéch can move. Tr you. - cther becomes a free. “vanyway aeross\ othe crystal apply am __oledtrés _potentval, the Free alecbrons move from the valence band to the conduction . Every eh “Rpire ty “contrebutes one elethtor wrthout leaving, a hole. adj chences % called 2 negabey type or K- TYPE semiconductecmoThe - dopants én the N=type ae__called DONOR -AEOMS., The Majoréty carréers in the R-typs are the = ELE CTRONY 2 while the menoreby carrtes are WOLES- eee a : : . Nes Conductevity tn Extrensee emit ~conductor: 62 4lHon + Hyp) Where N= mafortty - carréer : P= _mworty ‘tarve. ~> P-TYPEL Effect of adding 2 4_tetvalant element¢ Tar valeat elements ineludes' Boron (8), ee) 2 Alumeneom (AU) The P-type extrensie — semteonductory are formed by adding a___trevalent —empurety 0 an chtrtase semconduchor —Uutal. On adde tion of the jeostl ent Srhputl ty, See the valence —_ electrons combine wth oe the four a ~alence electrons oF the tntrensee —_ Semé-cohductor roy , aeDATE wD more ng og holes than electrons « I; - the temperabires %Wereased) 30 elecbren leaves 87 from | one crystal to anothe resulting + tn more holes screabed.s\s the) dopants added arg called ACE ERT OR ATOMS g/8 The mayorety camter tn the P=type we athe | HOLE , while thes onsnorety career to the Petype % the ELECTAON. 9209!sv art mica NB. Conducbevety, 28 2 Adon Me Bs dite wh ete Passa gorety carder 2 iow | et tial ctncgdh 2 emitnortiby>: carter “ut perm yi) ALIA re 4EML~ COND UCIOR, GoOAMUCTLEN- N~TyPe~ §& P-TYPE © REPRESENTATIONS + | [8 June! ae So oe holesro ere 22 Free’ - electrons ‘energy tevelb near thes top. Ais snergy gap: They can _be easly _exotbed nto thie eonducttion bend _ gor conducbton Sidhe: P-tyse matectals hove extra holes: dy athe oer: g2p allowtng axcthation of valence band electro Wearing mobile holes in the valence bana! News i HAL absolute zero temperature, the Semt - conductor achs-as ain Ingu LABOR. Ab- room temperature, the covalent baad ‘Wg broken, there by makrag electrons gath enemyirto imeve Furst to the conductron band, and then Leaves vs. own atom 40 another +o occupy ree holes tniily Tots movement & _censtebubes con ducktorty in Seme- conduchors - > Conductiv tty seme -tonductom _ts_the movement oF iclestroris (-ve charge movement) _and__ holes Gve charge moveinen P-N- JunctzON breve:DATE and A= typ P-n, quocbtoo Bw the __pornb where _prt 2 semiconductors are jorned ae gopth _ electron _ leaves the donor 26-Apr-9200. DiteeustON -occus __ when atom (parent atom) _ and _occupees 3 When the Pebype and the N-type ore placed together, the _epth electron of «the donor atom (w-type)_ leaves tbs parents neb-poscbove _ charge: _pree postteve void (bole) » avon, The atoms rematning _acqurres 2 The eleckons w the _Nrtype degpuses - into. the P~ type regtony thereby _omming 2 _DEPLETLON REGLON: The depletion eg» %* gormed once _a\l_the __free _elechrons have been absorbed l|.vrbo the —-P- types FERMY LEVEL Ys the highest elerbron energy) levebe SEP -o anv rcseeeeemad BIAS ING Basing % application of external _ voltage across the _ two __ terminals of a dtodes Tp the postteve — termtnal % te be connected to the P-type op the _matercal and the Negateve terminal connec bed to the N-Yype oF the _matectal, the applied volfaga “tn the’ . v gorward_dtrecbe austeb the pletion mn orercoming the deplebidn regen: © © O|\- Ft 6 6 © 6@ O|_ Fe 6 € 1@O.O e denetion tegqvon >DATE 5 When all the free electrons have moved across the juncbeor, andthe __Formélevel $3 at - oquilibrum, “2 polentesl_barree &_gormed ab both stdes of the _qunction, and thes segecr » called deplebron regton« DATE: 2NbD KAY 2047 on The __potenteal _barréer called the knee voltage. + eewecd< Bras: When the voltage source Pd = knee there will be a rae nom the P-N — Forward Bras: En thts, the _posrtéve terminal 05 _conneched tothe P-scde op the matertal, and the _ Negabeve ferment connected bo the Nvsede- The _gppleed volbage vn _theforward bras direcbeon assests the _ electrons t__overcomeng the _poteobtal —_barreer [depteteon reqton. The electrons w™ the P-type matertal_are__ attracted tothe tve termtnal, whele the holes are repelled te the _unckton- The holes. ‘ms the | Ns type — matercal are abtracted towards the Ne. berménal, while the electrons are repelled te the junction the Cause op this e¢prect produces continous Flow OF curredty Remse-Biaw As you__tocrease the _ volbage inthe foward bias the _ depletion lay er _reduces- Reverse Bias: ‘ ‘ :DATE In 4he reverse bvas, the -ve ts connected to the po P-type & the ive +» the N-type This arrangement tends sthodoempedé the glow of _ electrons __from the N- vype swhtles elechron plow ~ fromthe ~ve terminal occupy the yord th the Pty pe thereby. causing the _ depleteon suregton to tnerease, _ thereby preventtng conduction .. . Y “an the P-yPe A reves voltage _dreves_the electrons a towards the te terminal, preventing conduction» A gurther _tnerease to the wolkaqe causes electrons across the Juncbiton scthe’_eppect that causes a forcepul movement of. eo 'the electrons ——_acrwss the P-N quneteon due 40. an thease #0 _woltage ts called ZENER BREAK DOWR, SSSA OR, bead #9G Oe can AVALANCHE flew oF current. to the _geverze __derecttons.. a 4 TA ___OUARACLERT4T 163. aAt 7 OWN DATE Gehs — gallium 4 Resentde Nps Flow of currenb to a deed 2 tN an, exponentaal oa Q ‘Zener barter Form. ge 9 current, low tna. dvode: _ te tfe vn - 4). wheres 16 = sabucatton | currents a. Vr = AT _Vrz Terminal voltage- % Vo = forward — beas voltage: = _emesseon _coerpéctent- Ne: a For Gorrrasin aekea tdealtty fagere 9, for Selecog ts the eqn _ gor the current” flowtng thea peer ate : - : ee oo a Vay; A tz Lie Miea] a 93 but Vee AT. = £88 107 nna) . wel 2 pont gcd. Aga. Vr =<. 0:0259V__ = 25.9mV.DATE doe 2 G60mA _ with forward bees ee operaten: ab reom Juncbroo ws nu oa “abate ; Bx Tp a “Stlécon _dvode of O-dvy and the temp op 30°C, what os Sotn t- ule -s] Vrz KT =z (38x 107 x (30+ 273) 49 4q 16X30 ‘ 3 Vr z 0-0264V- = 26-2mV: Se (eo soos wai Is =. 60 x10 34 [ ekioicn -14 4.904 x107% a. fu A germantum diode draws _40mA__ woth a __ Forward bas of Or25V_* The Juncbeon ws + ab com temp erature 290K, What 6 the saturabion current Ans: Ts =. 1-825 MA- Sekn ~ Saat APPLICATION OF DLODE There _are__d¥pe~ types op dvodes » vtzz : PERE < BLO E: Normal Representabton Of a dtodesTUNNEL punove: Em SOURREL vuope: —Cathode th Anode - ZENER prope: ‘ = Zener . Diode: Conducteon ts reverse _bsas._ thy applica tity b-2 A > power Supply stabdlety For____constant -volkagg Supply ~ Leo Light Emmeting Deede]; conduction ts forward betas. Its applicatvons are: desplay, endecator, Segnal,, rots Fate, : . 2 7 Photo -beode: operates %h the pen 5 the PN juncté on Fegton carter, Tks revese bvass When baght _tnoreases the shana applecations include switching ’ ight preg atko a cereycbing » 1 SOG ¢: “Tunner » Diode? Conductcon & F ge memory storage + rf AGS ans, reverse bvas+ Lb ta, epplecablepaTe >| = = photo diode photons on ae = kOSaH ET e-N quocbion a3 erpect of Ques; What w_ the Ans The photons ( beght) peneb turrent = rate__ the Encreastng the revome | . ; ‘ b —_RNEE youTAGE/ THRESHOLD vouTAGE: For _conductvon take place én the for ward beas, applied - wvolkage needs te ax esadiiorercone 2 pactecular value 5 called KNEE voutage. [Vo 7 Vk] i | As the applwed voltage C\b > és Rductng : thereby éoereastng flow oF current thereased the depleton Fegtoo heaps Ques: What 2% the xbée —_ behavaour og the forward currents ence the _knee voltage has been ‘overcome? Forward ; ¥ Anst sor the a current rere ases exponentta Uy » Ng: Koee . volbage for Germantum = 0-3y Rnee voltage por -sizwo =e O-1N: Quesi Wheat % the xdheo behaviour or cna bias ? Date. 09- May - 2617) see continuatton: "ec ee AOS etna EERE ST UE 3 Begore conduction can eccur gi 2 PN a 00, eed a PN une rd __beas voltage has tp be . greater than knoeLoap “LINE ANALYSTS. —E-~ vk = .Io(r] 2 1 Ib s EM. R Si Bis BV and load ts 22k, what wetl be thes current. floweng onthe — cereuct Ip. With 4 germantum diede? ._ Soto . To 2 (8203S) S:Smk . 2.2¥10 : be Dertve an expression for the _eurrent glowrhg %» the crreutlh R Soto , > te = E-Vk = 05-007 = Sas — R R eal? Since Nu 7E, there wodt be + )-conductton . of Lecgree tty + sortdey eh : set * -ogib “S pailoy: SreeFend Ib- — 4otn ae ae i 7 Ip = 1a-[03 +07) ee esO eee : : [fo = 16-2mA] - a Ip= E-Ve z (t0#5)- 0:7 = 2-07 mA, ce 100 + 2200) __ DIODE PARAMETERS 4 Temperature Range 2. Peak-davese voltage | ee ae Ere Se Forward vlage orp ——— esRESISTANCE: ae hb Dc condrbvon, the -dtede has a voltage drop OF Vk ab any level of the dtode con currents Under thts Dc condttion , there % the BULK RESTSTANGE. Bulk resistance comprises _OF 2 components _vizs = Body resistance ~ Contact _ resistance For body __reststance, Teta = Mody - ~ The body resistance 8 the resistance | antroduced | dus te the —_semt-conducbor _matervals 2 the Somt~conductor- “Linateria. ; Be = the contach resistance ts 5 to the connecbeon bEN the _gemeconductor and the | the .reststance _entroduced | ¢astng + at 2 F¥.O2 Ve - Vk To Toody + Seas tng- 2 tpth ree, Consider 2 dvede made of Ge wrth a forward bias voltage op 0-6V and the curren gloweng through _ the f Siceuct ts 120mA*» Whabd & the bulk cegestance of the H diode? Sobn Ra= Ve-Ve ; te Nees 0-G 5 Ve forGe= O3V, {p= 120 x10%A | Re = 06- 0-3 0-12 Re =z a59 Y =7_At AC wndébion, there & the A-C _resestance _& also called =D Namec res os banca. hy TTT ere Ree Pun améc res cs bantee #5 the castatance tntroduced by _ the déode CP-N suncteon) ab Ac endetron Ge = 25eV # To AG _ restsbarice._ What well be the _junctéon _. resestance ofa Ge_deode cnith _porward current og _5mA-- Soto ui ee = 5. 5 The reverse resistance © tnbroduced tothe dtode wha wh wt rvese bras bo bic condttron- Reverse reséstance = Revese betas voltage, Saturetton — Cyrrent~ a Asc diode has 2 ferwart volhage of F2V gov Eforward oc curio ¢ 100mA. fp +b has ai reverse Saturabioy current « of {HA for_a “eversé voltage uF 10% Fehd sc) Bulk resistance (Ra). ese — Ge Revese mescstance (Re). 40.2 é = a= aay tie} AC ‘tepdbbance for a gorward _ de cirrand of f > 228/ oy tO pad smA_ RspectevaDATE {0-Maj- io, BIPOLAR yaseTTON. TPANSLS TOR Thee ame PNP The tranststor = Swietching J and NPN brans éstors = has 2 bastc punctcons Vizt = Ampleptcatcon [voltage or current], 3 | There ae 3 marn parts en a bransésbor —vezy - Emetter + Base = Collector, The _ eméther % | doped: The te_the collector heavely doped » The base vs Leghbly 3 a heavily doped but not compared base 2 sandwiched Joe sauthhae emitters The emtbher and between — the collector,is DATE : about — Base ¢ ¢ i _Read asec operatcons _o¢ transestom on Googlel = Baste _notakion: ce nh : Pee eae ona th | [ [-d €8 — junctton must be forward bias. Bipolar regers_ te the use of both holes and electrons. — Yoaln order por the _tanséstor fo operate properly, the two —juocbions must have ‘correct’ de bras voltages» 6B guncbion = forward _beas: (o-7 Se, 03 Ge]. cB _Juncteon - revese bias as , ge ménorety carrter curren’ ——mayor ty carer curren: { | 3 Aiseng _convenkconal 'p + * { ae current glow’ FRAN STSTOR OPERATION XIICS. es the 80 PN sector acts at _ gorward bias and large : From, 2 e —Majordby cares current elow _occuta ‘Lbs_juncbeor stinto wv + athe N= types > Sthe, N- type t% very then and beghtly doped, a vey Letble __amounb_o¢ _the canter well. glow bhrough the| iis Tee = mcero/nano~ «babe _(micero amperes) + | = ec PN _secbéon #5 reverse biased - ses i. Menorcky carter due tw 9c. PN secbton wall cause a mienoréby carters current flow. — Also) the mayorety camer__low__rom the EB sector 9 _* %% seen 39 manoreby- carter ‘ nreched tnbo the Neregtony 2 Trenses bor Te< Vee - Vae © ReTx = 200mV¥ 2 10m 202 | ATe= Ia ax = 0-9 or 1omA Te z 9MA. Ne >9mA x SEX i z 4sv What & the voltage amplépt cater Ay = #5N 2 295 200MM 4 BON: From the Féq: above, For @_emcbter current Je @ ‘collector curren CO determine the valueTez Vee~-Vee = 15-07 ©:00095.A === 45000 = O'95mA, 0198x O95MA 0 0-934 mA: Fe to Te = Vec- Veo Vee = reverse vpltape ¢ ao s Re (Re: Re]: 0934 2 30-415 Re 4 &. 2 -35 z j 0934x410" Await - \ 4 Bxplan 4 ways oF bras‘ing a transestor & meotton on that ts not generally sed, tonmon pase x ITs" 03 06 0.9 42 Vee ayLeto Input < Avee - MO care Dale: 31-MAY- 2017. COMMON EMETIER- aeApPLcATION: of common base’ congeguretton’ = For segnal__ampligicatéon - Fer current, wolbage § power ampligecatcon Te: Ic + Isr Ieeo Ne: Yez Fe majortty + Ieao_menorcty wATE: O6- JuNeE - 2017 ComMon EMLITER ! Te B SS le, I | pnp Draw the Syqbol represent abcon bp _2n_-NPN ‘transcs ter’ \ 4 common emitter modetec Ya +Ia +, Keo ae in, Be i where _Te< ‘tn put. current Ze Te = output cucenb Icz Pile Tuzo = leakage current Reo Common emitter due to mevese __beas tesJB( B+) + Tce. But Tceo<< 01996, Tez 0A, iceo = 4HA- 249, s. Bae Ps 0996 e949, 1-3 1-0:996 Teeo> (Pro hego = 49 +1) x ir = 250mA. = 250A, cette = Ble + ceo < 24900) +950DATE What ts the voltage requrted to bras 2 diode te sxtteh ~on_a__bulb of 4mA fora germancum diode _ : ze = Sotn . i foe Gaver oe R ee eer loe Ve for Ge, Vez o3v. | e(4utoR AOS. : 010048 + 0-3 a or Legh up What t» the voltage fequired to _brasa an LED @ f Segnal Senstoc btap am or 2 Stmple e oe PHL tk electrical measuement —_systea eee az Ao___hm-moter % used to Measure reststance men Measurene _ eibs en lave _cereuth) ——— oo cy Meving. pel galvenometer_¢s oe ee -» In 2. _transcoter, the terminal = with 2 tolkape -"c detecmene the NOTCH clay 45DATE the Collector. A mater ad yusted to chm ange neede to determene the emitter A base berminal, * Wattmeter t% ued te measure Power. A wattmetber must have 2 corls $ sre current cork (one that senses went) and voltage covl_(one that senses voltage) Pole measyre power tm a three phase crravt a must be _detecmened te__the lead % balanced or noby 7 Tntwment _trosgermes are used tp scale down tunent oF 2 hgh Level connectcon L b ivoltage ate a level that can be used by the consumers