Chapter 2

The Physical Layer

The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication
P Fourier Analysis
P Bandwidth-Limited Signals
P Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
Fourier Analysis

P Where f= 1/T which is the fundamental frequency

P an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitude of the nth harmonics
P c is a constant
 Bandwidth Limited Signals

P A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.

P (b) % (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

P (d) % (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.

 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

P Relation between data rate and harmonics. Assuming 8 bit data

P b is the speed in bit per second
P T = 8/b seconds
P First Harmonics is b/8 Hz
P # of harmonics sent 3000/b/8 or 24000/b
Maximum Data Rate Channel
P 1924: Henry Nyquist realized that even a perfect channel has a finite
transmission capacity
P Nyquist derived the equation for the maximum data rate for a finite
bandwidth noiseless channel
P 1948: Claude Shanon (the Father of Information Theory) carried
Nyquist work and extend it to the case of a channel subject to
random noise
P Nyquist theorem states
< A signal of frequency f Hz can be reconstructed if sampled at 2f
sample/sec
< Maximum data rate = 2H log2(V) bits/sec
P Where
< H is the bandwith in Hz
< V is the number of discrete levels
P Example
< A 3K Hz channel transmitting a binary signal
< The maximum data rate is 2(3000) log2(2) = 6000 bits/sec
Maximum Data Rate Channel (2)
P Shanon extented Nyquist works because the maximum data rate
deteriorate quickly under noisy channel
P Shanon’s theorem
< Maximum number of bits per second = H log2(1 + S/N)
P Where
< H is the bandwidth
< S/N is the signal to noise ratio in dB
Guided Transmission Data

P Magnetic Media
P Twisted Pair
P Coaxial Cable
P Fiber Optics

Concept to look at
P Attenuation
P Distortion
P Noise
Magnetic Media

P Standard Ulrium tape holds about 200 GB of data

P A box would hold about 1000 of these tapes
P Total of 200 TB = 1600 Tb
P A box can be delivered anywhere is the US in 24 hours
< Bandwidth = 1600 Tb/84600 s = 19 Gbps
< No computer network can reach this!
Cable Specification
Speed, data type and distance (Ethernet)

P Speed : 10, 100, or 1000 Mbps

P Data Type : Digital - Baseband or
Analog - Broadband
P Distance (Cable Length) :
< T : 100 m
< 2 : 185 m
< 5 : 500 m
Wires
Coaxial

P RG - 58U : Black, slow (0.4c) , very flexible, 50 Ù

P RG - 8 : Black, Thick, slow (0.4c), 50 Ù
P RG-11 : Yellow, Thick, Fast (0.6c), 50 Ù
Twisted Pairs
Twisted Pairs (Shielded)

P Shielded Twisted Pairs

STP

P Screened Twisted Pairs

ScTP
Twisted Pairs
Twisted Pairs (Unshielded)

P UTP : less expensive, high

speed, simple cabling
P Uses RJ-45 connectors
UTP performance/standard
EIA/TIA-568-A

P CAT 1: 1 Mbps, Analog Voice

P CAT 2: 4 Mbps, Token Ring
P CAT 3: 16 Mbps, 10BaseT
P CAT 4: 20 Mbps, 16 Mhz Token ring
P CAT 5: 100 Mbps, Ethernet
P CAT 5E: 155 Mbps, Ethernet and ATM
P CAT 6: Up to 400 Mbps, Broadband
P CAT 7: 600 to 700 Mbps, Broadband
UTP Cabling
UTP Connection
Connector (RJ 45)

P Looks like RJ11 (Telephone)

P 8 pin connector)
UTP Cabling
EIA T568A or T568B
UTP Cable
Straight Through
UTP Cable
Crossover
Cable Usage

P Use straight-through cables for the following connections:

< Switch to router
< Switch to PC or server
< Hub to PC or server
P Use crossover cables for the following connections:
< Switch to switch
< Switch to hub
< Hub to hub
< Router to router
< PC to PC
< Router to PC
Cable Usage
Cable Usage
Cisco Notation
UTP other use
Rollover Cable (CISCO device management)
P Connection to manage Hubs, Repeaters or Routers
P RJ45 on the Hubs, Repeaters or Routers
P DB-9 on the PC (serial Port)
< 9600 bps, 8 bit, no parity, 1 stop bit, no flow control
P Connection
< 1-8
< 2-7
< 3-6
< 4-5
< 5-4
< 6-3
< 7-2
< 8-1
Optical media
Light is an electromagnetic energy

P All share the same property : wavelength

P All have the same speed : 300,000 km/s
P Human eyes can see : 400 - 700 nm
P Other invisible lights are used to transmit data : 850, 1310, 1550 nm
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum
Visible Spectrum
Light Rays
Model

P Rays travel in straight line from the source

P Light rays travel at different speed in different medium
P Light ray crossing the boundary of two different material is called an
incident ray
P Light ray being reflected back is called a reflected ray
Index of Refraction
Optical density
P Light Rays can be bend
P Index of Refraction (n)
< Air : 1.000
< Glass : 1.523
< Diamond : 2.419
< Water : 1.333
Reflection
Light strikes a shiny surface

P Ray 1 : Incident Ray : è1 degree from Normal

P Ray 2 : Incident Ray : è2 degree from Normal
P Law of reflection : è1 = è2
Refraction
Light strikes an interface between two transparent
materials

P Ray 1 : Incident ray

P Ray 3 : Reflected ray
P Ray 2 : Refracted ray
P Law of reflection : è1 = è3
P Law of refraction : nglass > nair -> è2 > è1 -> n1/n2 = è2/è1
Total Internal Reflection

P A light ray inside a fiber optic cable must stay inside until it reached
the other end
P A ray must not refract -> all must be reflected
P “wave guide” of the light ray
 Critical angle

P There is an incident angle èc where the ray will be reflected but not
refracted
P Ray 1 : è1 < èc : rays are reflected and refracted
P Ray 2 : è2 = èc : rays are reflected and refracted
P Ray 3 : è3 > èc : rays are reflected
 Numerical Aperture and Mode

P Two parameter of a fiber optic design involves the control of

< Core material : n2
< Clading material: n1
P The rules are
< n2 > n1
< è > èc
P Numerical Aperture : a range of incident angle that is > èc
P Mode : light path
Critical Angle
Fiber Optic Structure
Single mode vs Multimode

P Multimode 50/125 or 62.5/125

P Single mode 5/125
Optical Cable Design
Transmission Device
Connectors and Cables
Signal Loss

P Scattering : microscopic non-uniformity (distortion)

P Absorbtion : microscopic impurities -> heat
P Manufacturing irregularities (roughness) in cladding and core
P Dispersion : chromatic dispersion (light traveling at slightly different
speed)
P Non-Ideal Source (LED and LASER)
< one frequency
< A range of wavelength
Installation Care
Improper Instalation

P Strectched and curved too

tightly
Fiber End Face Finish and Splicing
Transmission of Light through Fiber

P Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region.

Fiber Cables

P (a) Side view of a single fiber.

P (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
Fiber Cables (2)

P A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs as light sources.

Fiber Optic Networks

P A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.

Fiber Optic Networks (2)

P A passive star connection in a fiber optics network.

Wireless Transmission

P The Electromagnetic Spectrum

P Radio Transmission
P Microwave Transmission
P Infrared and Millimeter Waves
P Lightwave Transmission
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
P Electron movements creates electromagnetic waves
P James Maxwell predicted this is 1865
P Heinrich Hertz is the who first observed this in 1887
P frequency is f : measured in Hz (in honor of Heinrich Hertz)
P The distance between two maxima (or minima) is called the
wavelength (designated as ë - lambda)
P All electromagnetic wave is travelling at light speed (c)
< 3x108 m/sec
< 1 ft/ns
P The relation is ëf = c
P Since c is constant and if ë in meters and f in MHz then ëf . 300
P Example
< 100 MHz wave is about 3 meters long
< 1000 MHz is about 0.3 meters
< 0.1 meter wave is about 3000 MHz
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

P The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.

Bandwidth
Carrying capacity

P Äf = frequency band
P Äë = width of a wavelength band
P c is the speed of light
P ë = wavelength
P Example :
< 1.3 ì wavelength (ë)
< 0.71 ì wavelength band (Äë)
< So Äf = 30 Thz
< If 8 bit per Hz -> 240 THz
Radio Transmission

P (a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature
of the earth.
P (b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
Antenna

P Antenna design is extremely important

P Effects:
< Range
< Covarage pattern
< Transmission efficiency
Microwave Transmission

P Above 100 MHz, the waves travels in a straight line

P A focused narrow beam gives much higher S/N ratio
P Require an aligned parabolic antenna
P MCI - Microwave Communication Inc
P Higher frequencis at 4GHz -> problem with absorption by water
Politics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

P The ISM bands in the United States.

P International body : ITU-R
P USA -> FCC
< How to get frequency license?
– Beauty contest
– Lottery
– Auction
Lightwave Transmission

P Convection currents can interfere with laser communication

systems.
P A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.
Communication Satellites
P Geostationary Satellites
P Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
P Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
P Satellites versus Fiber

P Arthur C. Clarke describe a communication satelite system in 1945

Communication Satellites
P First people experiment to bounce signal off a metalized weather
baloon
P We have a permanent satelite - The Moon
< Navy built a communication system (ship to shore)
P Satelite has transponder : a microwave repeater
< Listen to a particular spectrum
< Amplify incoming signal
< Rebroadcast in different frequency (to avoid collision)
P The downward beam can be
< Broad or narrow (bent pipe mode)
P Altitude:
< 35800 km : 24 hrs
< 384000 km : one month (the moon)
< Orbital period >< altitude
Communication Satellites

P Communication satellites and some of their properties, including

altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and number of
satellites needed for global coverage.
Geostationary Satellite
P Telstar 1962 (after transistor)
P 2 degree separation
< 360 degree -> 180 satellites
< ITU governs the parking space (orbital slot)
P Large (4000 kg) and consumes several kilowatt power
P Finite rocket motor fuel (about 10 years)
P Modern satellite has 40 transponders
P Large footprint (1/3 of earth area) for broadcast
P Transponder can be programmed for spot beam (small footprint)
< Elliptical
< Few hundred kms in diameter
Geostationary Satellite

P The principal satellite bands.

Geostationary Satellite

P VSAT: Very Small Aperture Terminal (1m)

P VSATs using a hub.
Medium Earth Orbit Satellite
P Lower Orbit than GEO (between the Van Allen belts)
P Smaller footprint
P Less power
P Orbiting about 18000 km -> 24 GPS satellites
 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites Iridium

P (a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth.
P (b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.
P Each satellite has 48 spot beams and 3840 channels
P Total of 1628 cells and 253440 channels
Globalstar

P (a) Relaying in space.

P (b) Relaying on the ground.
Teledesic
P Iridium replacements
P Paul Allen and Craig McCaw (1990)
P 100 Mbps uplink and 720 Mbps downlink
P VSAT type
P Orbiting at 1350 km
P 30 satellites at Ka band
Satellite vs Fiber

P Fiber has more potential bandwidth

P Satellite advantages
< Mobile communication
< Broadcast
< Hostile or poorly developed terrain
< Coverage
< Rapid deployment
P Mainstream -> fiber optic with cellular radio
P Satellite for special usage
Public Switched Telephone System

P Structure of the Telephone System

P The Politics of Telephones
P The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless
P Trunks and Multiplexing
P Switching
Structure of the Telephone System

P (a) Fully-interconnected network.

P (b) Centralized switch.
P (c) Two-level hierarchy.
 Structure of the Telephone System (2)

P A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.

Major Components of the Telephone System

P Local loops
< Analog twisted pairs going to houses and businesses
P Trunks
< Digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices
P Switching offices
< Where calls are moved from one trunk to another
The Politics of Telephones
P 164 LATA
P 1500 LEC

P The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the circles are LEC
switching offices. Each hexagon belongs to the IXC whose number
is on it.
P 1984: AT&T becomes 23 Bell Operating Co (BOC)
The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL, and
Wireless

P The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to

computer call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.
Transmission lines
P Suffer from
< Attenuation : loss of Energy
< Distortion
– Each harmonic travel at different speed
< Noise
– Thermal noise
– Crosstalk
– Atmospheric
– Solar system... etc
P Signal must be transmitted using AC waveforms to reduce problems
P Signal must be modulated
 Modulation

P (a) A binary signal

P (b) Amplitude modulation

P (c) Frequency modulation

P (d) Phase modulation
Modem
P Modem : modulator - demodulator
P Inserted between computer and the analog telephone line
Bandwidth, Baud, Symbol, and Bit rate
P Bandwidth of a medium is the range of frequencies that pass through
it with minimum attenuation. Unit in Hz
P Baud rate is the number of samples per seconds. Each sample sends
one information or one symbol.
P Symbol rate is the same as baud rate
P Bit rate is the amount of information sent
< Symbols/sec times bits/symbol
P Example:
< Baud rate is 2400 samples/sec
< If each symbol contain only 0 and 1 -> 1 bit per symbol
< Then bit rate is 2400 bps
P Example (QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)
< Baud rate is 2400 samples/sec
< Each symbol has 0, 1, 2, 3 volts -> 2 bit (4 possible combinations)
< Then bit rate is 4800 bps
Modem communication direction
P Simplex: one way
P Duplex: two way at the same time
P Half-duplex: two way, one way at a time
Modems (2)

P (a) QPSK.
P (b) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation : QAM-16.
P (c) QAM-64.
Modems (3)

(a) (b)
P (a) V.32 for 9600 bps.
P (b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.
P V.90 achieved 56Kbps using 8000 samples/s with 7 bits
QAM-16 Gray Code Mapping
Digital Subscriber Line
P Telephone line was meant to carry voice between 300 to 3000 Hz
P The local loop is connected to a 3KHz filter.
P DSL works because the local loop is connected to a line that does not
have the filter
Digital Subscriber Lines

P Bandwidth versus distanced over category 3 UTP for DSL.

Digital Subscriber Lines (2)

P Operation of ADSL using discrete multitone modulation.

P By standard ANSI T1.413
< 8 Mbps downstream and 1 Mbps upstream
< Typical offers 512 Kbps downstream and 64 Kbps upstream
< Modulation v.34 with 4000 Baud instead of 2400 Baud
Digital Subscriber Lines (3)

P A typical ADSL equipment configuration.

Wireless Local Loops

P Architecture of an LMDS system.

P 1.3 GHz : Must avoid trees
Trunk and Frequency Division Multiplexing

P (a) The original bandwidths.

P (b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
P (b) The multiplexed channel.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

P Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

P 1990: 8 channels, each 2.5 Gbps, total 20 Gbps
P 1998: 40 channels, each 2.5 Gbps, total 100 Gbps
P 2001: 96 channels, each 10 Gbps, total 960 Gbps
P Theoritical limit: single fiber 25000 Ghz : 2500 10-Gbps channels
 Time Division Multiplexing

P The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

Time Division Multiplexing (2)

P Delta modulation.
Time Division Multiplexing (3)

P Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

Time Division Multiplexing (4)

P Two back-to-back SONET frames.

P Each block is a byte
Time Division Multiplexing (5)

P SONET and SDH multiplex rates.

Circuit Switching

P (a) Circuit switching.

P (b) Packet switching.
Message Switching

P (a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching

Packet Switching

P A comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks.

The Mobile Telephone System

P First-Generation Mobile Phones: Analog Voice

P Second-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice
P Third-Generation Mobile Phones:Digital Voice and Data
Advanced Mobile Phone System

P (a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells.

P (b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.
Channel Categories
P The 832 channels are divided into four categories:
< Control (base to mobile) to manage the system
< Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls for them
< Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel assignment
< Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data
Call management
P Each cell phone has 32 bit serial number and 10 digit phone number in
its PROM
P Telephone number
< Area code 3 digit -> 10 bit
< Phone number 7 digit -> 24 bit
< Total 34 bit
P Phone send announcement (serial number and phone number)
P Base station or MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office) will
< Record the cell phone
< Inform the “customer home MTSO” of its current location
D-AMPS
Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System

P (a) A D-AMPS channel with three users.

P (b) A D-AMPS channel with six users.
GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications

P GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an eight-slot

TDM system
GSM (2)

P A portion of the GSM framing structure.

CDMA % Code Division Multiple Access

P (a) Binary chip sequences for four stations

P (b) Bipolar chip sequences
P (c) Six examples of transmissions
P (d) Recovery of station C’s signal
Third-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice and Data
P Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide
P High-quality voice transmission
P Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.)
P Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
P Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)
Cable Television

P Community Antenna Television

P Internet over Cable
P Spectrum Allocation
P Cable Modems
P ADSL versus Cable
Community Antenna Television

P An early cable television system.

Internet over Cable

P Cable television
Internet over Cable (2)

P The fixed telephone system.

Spectrum Allocation

P Frequency allocation in a typical cable TV system used for Internet

access
P 6 MHz with QAM-64 -> 36 MHz, subtract overhead we got 27 MHz
Cable Modems

P Typical details of the upstream and downstream channels in North

America.