Training Course on Farm

Electrification for Agricultural

and Biosystems Engineers
(Module II)
Farm Electrification Basic Principles and Concepts

ENGR. JUANA T. TAPEL, PhD, ACPE

Professional Regulatory Board for Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering
Definition of Farm Electrification
Farm Electrification refers to the design, construction and installation,
operation and maintenance of electrical power source, wiring and
lighting and electric system for farm production and processing of
farm products.

This include off-grid farm electrification which uses stand-alone

power system not connected to the distribution system of any electric
distribution utilities.

This comprises both the generation, transmission and distribution

components using renewable energy technologies and hybrid
systems. (R.A 10915)
Rationale
1. Reduce costs
2. Save time
3. Improve productivity
4. Mitigating risks
Basic EE Concepts
Current /Electric Current – flow or rate of flow of electric force in a
conductor
Units of Measurement: Ampere (Frenchman Andre M. Ampere)
1A = 1 C/s
=1V/Ω
Classified as:
1. Direct Current – flows in one direction, negative to positive
(battery)
2. Alternating Current – constantly reverses its direction of flow
(generator)
Basic EE Concepts
Voltage - the work required to move a unit
charge from one location to another

Unit of Measurement: Volt (Italian Alessandro

Volta)
1 V = 1 J/C
= 1 A-Ω
Basic EE Concepts
Resistance - the relative difficulty with which current can be transmitted in a
material
Unit of Measurement: Ohm (German Georg Simon Ohm)

• The resistance of a conductor or wire is dependent upon the nature of the

material and the physical dimensions.
• Resistance is directly proportional to length of the path and inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area.

Where: ρ = resistivity of the material (varies with temperature)

L = length of the material
A = cross-sectional area of the material
Example
What is the resistance of a copper conductor whose diameter is 0.205
cm and length is 30 m?
Comparison of AC and DC
• In DC, Power is the product of voltage and current.
Watts = Volts x Amperes

• In AC, the product of volts and amperes is equal to

the quantity of volts called volt-amperes (v.a.)
Volt Amperes = Volts x Amperes

• To convert volt-amperes to watts or power, a power

factor is introduced. In AC circuit,
Watts = Volts x Amperes x power factor
Example
A 12 amperes electric fan and blower with a power factor of 0.85 was
connected to a 240 volts convenience outlet. Calculate the power in
the circuit.

Power (watts) = Volts x Amperes x power factor

= 240 v x 12 amp x 0.85
= 2,448 watts
 OHMs Law

Where: I – current, Amperes

R – resistance, Ohms
E – potential, Volts
Assumptions:
 Conductor wires have negligible resistance
 Resistance of load is constant

The higher the voltage, the higher the current; and the higher the
resistance, the lower the current.
Example
Determine the current flow in a circuit having a resistance of 5 ohms on
240 volts current supply.

I = E = 240 = 48 amperes
R 5

The advantages of using 240 volts over 120 volts current supply;
1. Economy through the use of smaller wires.
2. Lower power loss
3. Smaller percentage of power drop
Series and Parallel Circuit
• SERIES CIRCUIT - components are
connected end-to end in a line to
form a single path for electrons to
flow

• PARALLEL CIRCUIT - all

components are connected
between the same set of
electrically common points

• SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
SERIES CIRCUIT

RTotal = R1 + R2 + . . Rn
ITotal = I1 = I2 = . . In
ETotal = E1 + E2 + . . En
Exercise:

R1 R2 R3 Total
E or V E1 E2 E3 ETotal
I I1 12 13 ITotal
R R1 R2 R3 RTotal
SERIES CIRCUIT

RTotal = R1 + R2 + . . Rn
ITotal = I1 = I2 = . . In
ETotal = E1 + E2 + . . En
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Exercise

R1 R2 R3 Total
E or V E1 E2 E3 ETotal
I I1 I2 I3 ITotal
R R1 R2 R3 RTotal
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• The variables used in Ohm’s Law equations must be common to the same
two points in the circuit under consideration.
Exercise

R1 R2 R3 R4 R1//R2 R3//R4 Total

E E1 E2 E3 E4 E1//2 E3//4 ETotal
I I1 I2 I3 I4 I1//2 I3//4 ITotal
R R1 R2 R3 R4 R1//2 R3//4 RTotal
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Power and Energy
Power - the rate at which energy is used
- the rate at which work is done.
Energy – Fuel expressed in gallons, liters, kwh, BTU (calories),
joules
Electric Power (Watt) = I2 x R
By Ohms Law:
V = IR, W = I2 R W = VI
Where:
W in watts R in Ohms I in Amperes V in Volts
Example
A mercury lamp having a hot resistance of 50 ohms is connected to a
socket with 240 volts current supply. (a) How much current flows
through the lamp? (b) Calculate the power drawn.

a. I = V = 240 = 4.8 amperes

R 50

b. W = VI x pf = 240 x 4.8 x 1.0 = 1.152 watts

W = I2 R = (4.8)2 x 50 = 1,152 watts
Alternating Current (AC)
These three types of power are
trigonometrically related to one another.

The opposite angle is equal to the

circuit’s impedance (Z) phase angle.
 Alternating Current (AC)
True, Reactive & Apparent Power
Power dissipated by a load is referred to
as true power.

True power is symbolized by the letter

P and is measured in the unit of Watts
(W).
Power merely absorbed and returned in
load due to its reactive properties is
referred to as reactive power.
Reactive power is symbolized by the letter
Q and is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps-
Reactive (VAR).
Power Factor
For the purely resistive circuit, the power factor is 1 (perfect), because
the reactive power equals zero.
Here, the power triangle would look like a horizontal line, because the
opposite(reactive power) side would have zero length.
For the purely inductive circuit, the power factor is zero, because true
power equals zero.
Here, the power triangle would look like a vertical line, because the
adjacent (true power) side would have zero length.
For a purely capacitive circuit, the true power must be equal to zero,
making any power in the circuit purely reactive.
The power triangle for a purely capacitive circuit would again be a
vertical line (pointing down instead of up as it was for the purely
inductive circuit).
 Power Factor

If a circuit is predominantly inductive, we say that its power factor is lagging

(because the current wave for the circuit lags behind the applied voltage wave)
Conversely, if a circuit is predominantly capacitive, we say that its power factor
is leading.

 Power factor can be an important aspect to consider in an AC circuit,

because any power factor less than 1 means that the circuit’s wiring has to
carry more current than what would be necessary with zero reactance in the
circuit to deliver the same amount of (true) power to the resistive load.
 The poor power factor makes for an inefficient power delivery system.
Example
A water heater draws 10 amp at 240 volts current supply. Determine its
resistance.

R = V = 240 = 24 ohms
I 10
Voltage and Voltage Drop
The sum of the voltage drop around a circuit is equal to the supply of
voltage.
Voltage drop in wire = Carried Current x Resistance of wire

Power Loss P is equal to the component resistance times the current

squared.

P = I x (I x R) = I2 R
Illustration
A 1200 watts appliance rating has 10 amp current flow on 120 volts
current supply compared to 5 amp only on 240 volts current supply.

A. For 120 volts

Current drawn = 1200 watts = 10 amp
120 volts
B. For 240 volts
Current drawn = 1200 watts = 5 amp
240 volts
 Conductors and Wiring Accessories
• Electric Conductors – materials or substances used to convey
or allow the flow of electric current.
• Insulators – materials or substances that resist the flow of
electric current
• Conductor Insulators – serve as physical shield of the wire
against heat, water and other elements of nature.
- Insulation are rated by voltage from 300 to 15,000 volts.
- Ordinary conductors wires for buildings is normally rated
at 300 to 600 volts.
CONDUCTORS
• Junction and Pull Boxes - provide access points for pulling and feeding
conductors into a raceway system
CONDUCTORS
Cross sections and ratings of common copper wire gauges
CONDUCTORS
• Mil - is equal to 1/1000 inch and is used to measure a round wire
diameter
• Circular mil - used to describe the cross sectional area of a round wire
but it is not the true cross sectional area of the wire
• circular mil = d2 square mil = (π/4)d2

Conversion Factor
square mil = (square inch)
(1 x 10 -6) square inch = (square mil)
(1 x 10 6) square mil = (circular mil)
(0.7854) circular mil = (square mil) (1.273)
CONDUCTORS
• Insulated Wire Coding with manufacturer’s wire markings give:
• Wire gauge
• Maximum voltage rating
• Insulation code (R for thermoset, T for thermoplastic, X for cross-
linked polyethylene thermoset)
• Maximum temperature code (H for 75 for 60 °C)
• Abbreviation for sheath if present (e.g. N for nylon)
Insulation
1. Thermoplastic - typically plastic resins, soften and
flow when they are heated and subjected to
pressure, but they become rigid when cooled
2. Thermoset - initially set or cured when heated,
but after curing they will not soften, flow, or
distort

• letter code has been established to simplify the

selection of the optimum insulated wire for specific
tasks while considering operating temperatures and
application environments
Wires and Cables
• Wires – electrical conductors 8 mm2 (AWG No.8) and smaller in sizes.
• Cables – larger than wires.
- Stranded wire (group of wires twisted to form metallic string)
- Solid wire
- Cord (term to an insulated stranded wire)

Mil – equal to 1/1000 of an inch used to describe or measure a round

wire diameter.
With SI (mm2 ), Circular mil = d2; Square mil = 3.1416 r2
Example
What is the equivalent size in mm2 of a
cable 250 MCM (thousand circular
mil)?

250 MCM = 250,000 circular mils

2 mm2 = circular mil x .0005067

= 250,000 x .0005067
= 126.67 mm2
Table of Circular Mil – Area Equivalent
Different types of Cables
1. Armored cable (AC) – fabricated assembly of insulated conductors
enclosed in flexible metal sheath used both exposed and concealed.
2. Metal clad cable (MC) – factory assembled cable of one or more
conductors each individually insulated and enclosed in metallic
sheath of interlocking tapes of a smooth or corrugated tube used for
service feeders, branch circuit, and for indoor and outdoor work.
3. Mineral insulated cable (MI) – factory assembled of one or more
conductors insulated with a highly compressed refractory mineral
insulation enclosed in a liquid and gas tight continuous copper
sheath used in dry, wet or continuously moist location as service
feeders or branch circuit.
 Different types of Cables
4. Non-metallic sheathed cable (NM) – factory assembles of two or
more insulated conductors having a moisture resistant, flame
retardant, and non-metallic material outer sheath used for one or
two family dwellings not exceeding 3 storey buildings.
5. Shielded Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable (SNM) – factory
assembled of two or more insulated conductors in an extruded core
of moisture resistant and flame retardant material covered within
an overlapping spiral metal tape used in hazardous locations and in
cable trays.
6. Underground Feeder and Branch Circuit Cable (UF) – moisture
resistant cable used for underground connections including direct
burial in the ground as feeder or branch circuit.
Different types of Cables
7. Service Entrance Cable (SE or USE) – single or multi-conductor
assembly provided with or without an over all covering primarily used
for service wire.
8. Power and Control Tray Cable (TC) – factory assembled two or
more insulated conductors with or without associated bare or
covered grounding under a metallic sheath used for installation of
cable trays, raceways, or where it is supported by messenger wire.
9. Flat Cable Assemblies (FC) – assembly of parallel conductors
formed integrally with an insulating material web designed for field
installation in metal surface or raceways.
Different types of Cables
10. Flat Conductor Cable (FCC) – consist of three or more flat
copper conductor placed edge to separated and enclosed within an
insulating assembly used for general purposes such as appliance
branch circuit, and individual branch circuits in hard smooth
continuous floor surfaces and the like.
11. Medium Voltage Cable (MV) – single or multi-conductor solid
dielectric insulated cable rated at 2,000 volts or higher used for
power system up to 35,000 volts.
Ampacity of Conductors
Ampacity - the ability of the wire or conductor to carry current without
overheating. Conductor resistance to current flow generate not only
heat but also contribute to voltage drop.
Voltage drop in wire = Circuit current x Resistance of wire
Power loss in wire = Circuit current x Voltage drop

Conductor size and rating shall have sufficient ampacity to carry load.
They should have adequate mechanical strength and shall not be less
than the rating of the branch circuit and not less than the maximum
load to be served.
Table: Wire Size and Ampere Capacity
Table of Allowable Ampacities
Raceways
Raceways are channels or wiring accessories so
designed for holding wires, cables or busbars that
are either made of metal, plastic, or any insulating
mediums.
Common raceways for household wiring
installation;
• Conduits
• Connectors and other accessories
• Other types such as conduits couplings, elbows
and fittings; conduit supports like clamps,
hangers etc; cable trays and other
Table: Characteristics of Raceways
Conduits
Conduit (pipes) is a common raceways
used in all types of construction.

Classified as:
a. Rigid metal
b. Flexible metal
c. Rigid non-metal
d. Flexible non-metal
Standard Size of Conduits
Connector
Connector (splicing sleeve) is a metal sleeve usually made of
copper that is slipped over and secured to the butted ends of
conductors in making a joint.
Electrical Outlets
An outlet is a point in the wiring system at which current is taken to
supply utilization equipment.
• Convenience outlet (wall outlet) or attachment cap –a device that by
insertion into receptacle established connection between the
conductor of the flexible cord and the conductors connected
permanently to the receptacle.
• Lighting outlet is an outlet intended for direct connection to a lamp
holder, lighting fixture, or a pendant cord, terminating in a lamp holder.
• Receptacle Outlet is an outlet where one or more receptacles are
installed with accessories such as junction box, receptacles, pull box,
switches etc.
Receptacles
Receptacle is a contact device installed at the outlet for the connection
of a single attachment plug (NEC).

Mounting the receptacles (NEC);

1. A wall convenience receptacle is vertically mounted between 30 to
45 cm above ffl.
2. In industrial areas, workrooms and the like, the mounting height is
from 105 to 110 cm. This is above the table height horizontally
mounted so the cords will not hang on top of each other.
3. The GFI or GFCI (ground fault circuit interceptor) receptacle should
be installed on locations where sensitivity to electric shock is high
such as in wet areas.
 Switch
Switch is a device that open or closed the circuitry in
an electric circuit.

Switches are classified into;

1. General use switch – intended for use in the
general distribution and branch circuit rated in
amperes.
2. General use snap switch – form of general use
switch installed in flush device boxes or an outlet
box cover.
3. Isolating switch – intended for isolating an electric
circuit from the source of power.
Branch Circuit
Branch circuit is the entire house wiring installation. NEC defined
branch circuit as the circuit conductors between the final over current
protective device and the outlets.

1. General purpose branch circuit – supplies outlets for lighting and

appliances, including convenience receptacles.
2. Appliance branch circuit – supplies outlets intended for feeding
appliances. Fixed lighting is not supplied.
3. Individual branch circuit is designed to supply a single specific item.
Division of Circuit into its Components
Branch Circuit
• A circuit is an unbroken loop of conductive
material that allows charge carriers to flow
through continuously without beginning or end.

• If a circuit is “broken,” that means its conductive

elements no longer form a complete path, and
continuous charge flow cannot occur in it.

• The location of a break in a circuit is irrelevant to

its inability to sustain continuous charge
flow. Any break, anywhere in a circuit prevents the
flow of charge carriers throughout the circuit.
Good Practice in Circuiting
1. Lighting and receptacles should not be combined in a single circuit.
2. Avoid all building lights on a single circuit.
3. Lighting and receptacles should be supplied with current from at least two
circuits so that, if a single line is out, the entire area is not deprived of power.
4. Do not allow combination switch and receptacle outlets,
5. Provide at least one receptacle in the bathroom, and one outside the house.
Both must be Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) type.
6. Provide switch control for closer lights. Pull chain switch is a nuisance.
7. Convenience outlet though counted as part of the general lighting load shall be
limited to 6 convenience outlets on a 15 amperes circuit and 8 convenience
outlets on a 20 amperes circuit.
8. The Code requires that, at least one 20 amperes circuit supply shall be installed
to the laundry outlets.
9. Convenience outlets shall be laid out in such manner that no point on a wall is
more than 2 meters from an outlet. Use a grounding type receptacle only.
Protection of Branch Circuit
• Branch circuit should be protected from over current.

• Over current is any current in excess of the rated capacity of the

equipment or the rated ampacity of the conductor.

Causes of over current

 Overload in the equipment or conductors
 Short circuit or ground fault

NEC provides that Conductors shall be protected against over current in

accordance with their ampacities.
Fuse
An over all current protective device with a circuit opening fusible element
which opens (break) when there is an over current in the circuit.
It is made with low melting point links that are calibrated to melt when a
specified current is reached.
 Cartridge type – enclosed in an insulating fibre tube
Plug type – enclosed in porcelain cap

Advantages of Fuse over Circuit Breaker

1. Reliability and stability – stay on its position for years, act when called on
to act as designed.
2. Cost is much lower.
3. Requires no maintenance and periodic testing to be in good condition.
Fuse
Circuit Breaker
• An over-current protective device designed to
open a circuit automatically at a
predetermined overload current without
damage to itself.
• Most circuit breakers are of the inverse time
type and have a bimetallic strip connected
with the contacts.

Advantages of Circuit Breaker over the Fuse

1. Act as switch aside from being an over-
current protective device.
2. Trips automatically and after correcting the
fault, readily available for switch on.
Panel Board
A single panel or group of panel limits designed for assembly in the
form of single panel (NEC).
• Use to house overcurrent devices
• Overcurrent protective devices are installed in series with the hot
conductors and are designed to open the circuit if a specified current
level is exceeded.
a. Fuse Panel
• Time Delay
• Non-Time Delay
b. Circuit Breaker Panel
• Instantaneous
• Inverse Time
Panel Board Parts
Figure: Typical Schematic Diagram of Panel Board
Installation of Panel Board
• Panel board with 100 cm high or less should be located 135 cm from
the ffl to the center lien of the box
• Panel board with boxes over 100 cm high should be located 75 cm
from ffl to the bottom of the box, except that the highest branch
circuit unit should not be more than 195 cm from ffl.
• If necessary, the box maybe lowered to a distance not less than 45 cm
from ffl to the bottom of the box. However, where a maximum height
of 195 cm above ffl to the upper circuit or a maximum distance of 45
cm above the ffl cannot be done, the panel board should be divided
into two sections.
• If two or more boxes are adjacent on the same wall, they should be
installed with the horizontal center line of each box equidistance from
the ffl. The center line distance of the higher box controlling the
boxes should be installed with a minimum spacing of 10 cm apart.
Symbol List

Appendix A. Electrical Sysmbols

Philippine Electrical Code
SERVICE ENTRANCE
Electric service - the conductors and equipment that deliver
electrical power from the electric power utility’s distribution
system to the customers being served.

Service entrance - the interface between the overhead or

underground cable from the local transformer where the
power utility’s responsibility ends and the building owner’s
electrical system and responsibility begin
SERVICE ENTRANCE
SERVICE ENTRANCE

Underground Electrical Service

Grounding of electrical service (PEC)
SERVICE ENTRANCE
▪ overhead service
connection uses type
SE(service entrance)
cable

▪ can be with or
without protective
conduit
Underground Electrical Service
▪ underground service
connection uses type
USE (underground
service entrance) cable

▪ grounding is the same

with overhead
electrical service
Grounding Electrode
(1) Metal underground water pipe with at least 10 ft (3 m) in the earth;
(2) Metal frame of the building where effectively grounded;
(3) Concrete-encased electrode (an electrode encased in at least 2 in. (50
mm) of concrete, located within or near the bottom of a concrete
foundation);
(4) Ground ring encircling the building in direct contact with the earth,
consisting of at least 20 ft (6 m) of bare copper conductor;
(5) Rod and pipe electrodes not less than 8 ft (2.5 m); and
(6) Plate electrodes not less than 2 ft2 (0.186 m2) of surface to exterior
soil.
 Comparison of Overhead and Underground
Overhead Underground
• overhead transformer pad-mounted transformer

• service drop service lateral

• type SE cable type USE cable

Service Entrance Cables
• Type SE cable
- contains two insulated wire and a bare grounding cable
- has flame-retardant, moisture-resistant covering

• U-style SE
- contains 2 insulated conductors and a multi-stranded braid
that encloses the two insulated conductors
- has flame-retardant, moisture-resistant and sun-resistant
jacket
Service Entrance Cables
▪R-style SE
-contains three insulated conductors and a grounding wire
-conductors are wrapped in a glass-reinforced tape and enclosed in a
PVC jacket

• Type USE cable

- contains three insulated conductors because the neutral/grounding
conductor must be insulated
- has moisture-resistant covering (cross-linked polyethylene insulator)
Watt-hour Meter Base
 LOAD CENTERS
• Load Center
- accepts the service entrance wires from the meter base and
distribute power to branch circuits within home or building
- used interchangeably with main service panel and panel board

• Panelboards are metal enclosures for mounting overcurrent-

protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers positioned
upstream of all branch circuits in the distribution of power within
the building for lighting, appliance, and other loads
LOAD CENTERS
Panelboards classification
▪ Lighting and appliance panelboard - a panelboard having more
than 10 percent of its circuits assigned to lighting and branch
circuits that are protected at 30A or less, for which neutral
connections are provided

▪Power panelboard - a panelboard having 10 percent or fewer of

its circuit assigned to lighting and appliance branch circuits that
are protected at 30A or more, for which neutral connections are
provided
LOAD CENTERS
Loadcenter Enclosure
- can be flush-mounted within a wall or surfacemounted on a
wall

▪ flush-mounted loadcenter - recessed within an opening in a

wall, usually fastened between joists

▪ surface-mounted loadcenter - fastened to the outside of the

wall, usually concrete or cinder block, with masonry anchor
bolts
 Load Center Enclosures

Main breaker – a heavy-duty circuit breaker that limits the total amount of
current entering the building; located at the top of the load center
LIGHTING
Light - is defined as visually evaluated radiant
energy
- it is a small portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum
- visible light varies in color, color being
determined by wavelength
• a good lighting system will place the proper
quantity and quality of light where it is needed in
a cost-effective way
• the amount of light needed is highly dependent
on the tasks being performed
• having good lighting is vital to health, comfort,
convenience, and safety
LIGHTING
Natural Sources of Light:
• Sun – dominant source of light
• Moonlight
• Lightning
• Bioluminescence (such as produced by fireflies)
• Thermoluminescence (produced by heated objects)
Manmade Sources of Light:
• Incandescent - producing light by heating a filament
• Gaseous Discharge - producing light when excited atoms return to
their normal state and radiate energy in the process
Lighting Quantities and Units
1. Lighting effectiveness - amount and quality of light received at a
particular surface from a source per unit of power input
Variables affecting lighting effectiveness:
• type of light source how much the surroundings reflect and diffuse
the light
• distance from the lamp to work
2. Illuminance - the intensity at a point and is measured in units of lux
(lx) for the SI-system or in footcandles (fc) for the inchpound system
3. Luminous Flux - the quantity of light output by a source and is
measured in lumens
Lighting Quantities and Units
4. Lumen (lm) - is the amount or quantity of light needed to illuminate
one square foot of area at an intensity of one footcandle.

Example:
To produce a level of illumination of 20 fc, 20 lm for every square foot
would be required - a level of 215 lx would require 215 lm per square
meter
 Lighting Quantities and Units
5. Footcandle (fc) - unit of measure used when describing the amount of
light in a room and is expressed in lumens per square foot

6. Footlambert (fl) - defined as the luminance of a surface reflecting,

transmitting, or emitting one lumen (lm) of illumination per square foot
of area in the direction being viewed

𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑡 = 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 × 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
 LIGHTING

Light intensity.
1 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 = 1 𝑙𝑢𝑥 × 0.0929 1 𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 × 10.76 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑
Lighting Quantities and Units
7. Efficiency - refers to the amount of energy converted to visible light
8. Efficacy - is a measure of the lumens per watt produced by the lamp
Types of Light Source
• Incandescent Lamps
• Fluorescent Lamps
• High Intensity Discharge Lamps − Mercury Lamps −
Metal Halide Lamps − Sodium Lamps
• LED Lamps
Incandescent Lamps
- critically dependent on the wattage
that even for a small fluctuation of
the current or voltage, its life,
output and efficiency is affected

- less than 10% of the wattage is

utilized to produce light and the rest
produces heat - considered as poor
choice for energy conservation
Incandescent Lamps
Fluorescent Lamps
• considered as the best and widely
used type of lamp
• requires ballast, made of coil with
a purpose to limit the current in
the circuit, in its circuit
• about 20% of its energy input
becomes light and 80% is
converted to heat including the
ballast heat energy loss
Fluorescent Lamps
 Mercury Lamps
• combination of the arc
discharge characteristics of a
fluorescent lamp and the
compact focusable shape of an
incandescent lamp
• requires ballast which could be
mounted away from the lamp
• dimming of mercury lamp is
possible with a dimming ballast
• not suitable for installation
which is subject to constant
switching
Mercury Lamps
Metal Halide Lamps
• are mercury lamps which have been
improved by the addition of halides of
metal such as Thallium, Indium, or
Sodium to the arc tube
• the addition of these halides makes the
light frequency radiate other than the
basic mercury colors and at the same
instance increases its efficacy
• strike time is shorter than mercury
lamps which is around 2 to 3 minutes
Metal Halide Lamps
High Pressure Sodium Lamps
• the efficacy including the ballast losses is double of the corrected
mercury lamps
• has a yellowish color similar to low wattage incandescent lamp
• not sensitive to voltage changes unlike metal halide lamp
High Pressure Sodium Lamps
 LED Lamps
• lamps have a lifespan and electrical
efficiency that is several times better
than incandescent lamps and
significantly better than most
fluorescent lamps
• come to full brightness without need
for a warm-up time
• do not emit light in all directions, and
their directional characteristics affect
the design of lamps
LED Lamps
Principles of Illumination
• Illumination - intensity of light per unit
area
• Electric Illumination - production of light
by means of electricity and its application
to provide efficient, comfortable, and safe
vision
• Quantity of Light - refers to amount of
illumination or luminous flux per unit area
• Quality of Light - refers to the distribution
of brightness in the lighting installation
Factors that Affect Illumination
• Brightness - is the light that seems to
radiate from an object being viewed
• Contrast - the brightness ratio between an
object and its background Glare - is a
strong, steady, dazzling light or reflection
• Diffuseness - refers to the control of
shadows cast by light

Perfect Diffusion - is an equal intensities of

light clashing from all direction producing no
shadows
Characteristics that Define Coloration
• Hue - is the quality attributed by which
we recognize and describe colors (e.g.
red, yellow, green, blue)
• Brilliance or Value - is the difference
between the resultant colors of the
same hue (e.g. navy blue, sky blue,
royal blue)
• Saturation or Chroma - is the
difference from the purity of the colors
(e.g. light or dark)
Types of Lighting Systems
Luminaire - is the complete lighting unit made
of a light source together with other parts

Classification by layout and location

a. General lighting system
b. Localized lighting system
c. Local or supplementary lighting system

Classification of luminaires
a. Direct System
b. Indirect System
Classification by layout and location
a. General lighting system
- provides an approximately uniform level of illumination over the entire area
- the chief advantage is that it permits flexibility in task location
- the luminaires are usually arranged in a symmetrical plan to fit the physical
characteristics of the area
b. Localized lighting system
- has luminaires located such that lighting is more concentrated at designated area
b. Local or supplementary lighting system
- provides lighting only over a relatively small task area and its immediate surroundings
- this is an economical means of providing higher illumination levels over a small area
- it usually permits some adjustment of lighting to suit the requirements of the
individual
- example are table lamps and spot lights
Classification of luminaires
a. Direct system - have the most efficient use of light
b. Indirect system - tend to give better glare control
 Lighting Calculations for Interior Areas
• lighting calculations can determine how many luminaires are needed
to provide the needed illumination
• involves both photometric and environmental data
• photometric data - describe the light-emitting characteristics of the lighting
equipment
• environmental data - describe the nature of the interaction of light and
surfaces and the physical dimension of the space

the level of illumination could be calculated as:

𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒 × 𝐶𝑈 × 𝐿𝐿𝐹 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

if the area is in square meters, the illumination is in units of lux (lumens per
square meter)
if the area is in square feet, the illumination is in units of footcandles (lumens per
square feet)
 Lighting Calculations for Interior Areas
• in actual application, a portion of the light produced will be lost before it
reaches the work plane
• losses occurs both in the luminaire and at the room surface
• losses are described by coefficient of utilization (CU) and light loss factor
(LLF)

coefficient of utilization (CU) - represents the portion of light that reaches

the work area
light loss factor (LLF) - include the estimated deterioration in the light
source and estimated losses from dirt collection on the luminaires and room
surfaces
Lighting Calculations for Interior Areas
Uniformity of Light
• the purpose of footcandle lighting calculation is to determine the
average illumination in a room to a working level
• this working level refers to a height of about 75 cm above the floor
• the average illumination at the working level is directly related to the
maximum spacing of the light to the mounting height ratio (S/mh) S –
spacing of light fixture mh – mounting height
END OF MODULE 2.