Engineering Properties of Rocks

Objectives :
The aim of this lesson is to understand the important physical properties of rocks and their determination, geological
characteristics, general characteristics, modulus properties of rocks, building stones and their occurrences. The role of
a geotechnical engineer is also highlighted.
1.0 Introduction :
Engineering properties of rocks is a collective nomenclature which includes all such properties of rocks that are
relevant to engineering application after their extraction from natural beds or without extraction i.e. insitu
[Link] first set include all those properties for which a rock must be tested for selection as a material for
construction such as a building stone, road stone or aggregate for concrete [Link] second set of the properties
include the qualities of a natural bed rock as and where it exists. That would determine its suitability or otherwise as a
construction site for aproposed engineering project.
Obviously, in both cases, the economy and safety of an engineering project are greatly dependent upon the proper
understanding and determination of theengineering properties of [Link] properties of rock are controlled
by the discontinuities within the rock mass and theinherent properties of the intact rock. Therefore, engineering
properties must account for the properties of the intact rock and for the properties of the rock mass as a whole.
A combination of laboratory testing of small samples, empirical analysis, and field observations should be employed
to determine the requisite engineering properties. Rock properties can be divided into two categories: intact rock
properties and rock mass properties. Intact rock properties are determined from laboratory tests on small samples
typically obtained from coring, outcrops or exposures along existing cuts. Common engineering properties typically
obtained from laboratory tests include specific gravity, point load strength, compressive strength, tensile strength,
shear strength, modulus, and durability.
Rock mass properties are determined by visual examination and description of discontinuities within the rock mass. It
should follow the suggested methodology of the International Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM 1978), and how
these discontinuities will affect the behavior of the rock mass when subjected to the proposed construction.
2.0 Physical properties of rocks:

In most of the engineering applications, rocks are used as building stones. A building stone may be defined as a rock
that can be safely used as a rough unit or as a properly cut and shaped (dressed) block or slab or column or sheet in
different situation in an engineering [Link] following physical properties are considered to be important for
a rock to be used as a building material.
2.1 Crushing Strength
It is also termed as compressive strength of a stone. It may be defined as maximum force expressed per unit area
which a stone can withstand. Any force beyond the compression strength will cause a failure of the stone.
Mathematically, compressive strength is expressed by simpler method as follows
Where Compressive strength, P= Load at failure, A = Area of cross section of stone under P
The determination of compressive strength of a building stone involves making standard test specimens (which are
either cubes of 5cm side or cylinders of length: diameter ratio of 2 or 2.5). These specimens are then loaded gradually
one at a time after placing on the base plate of a universal testing machine, till the first crack appears in the specimen.
Any further loading will crush the [Link] compressive strength determined in this way using the above
relationship is called “unconfined or universal compressive strength”. Because the test specimen has no lateral
support or restraint.
When the compressive strength is tested by a method providing a lateral support , as by keeping the specimen in a
special cell filled with a liquid under pressure. The value obtained, then it is called as confined or triaxial compressive
strength.
The crushing strength of a rock depends on a number of factors, such as its
i. Mode of formation
ii. Composition
iii. Texture and structure
iv. Moisture content and

v .extent of weathering it has already suffered

Igneous rocksare crystalline rocks. They are compact and characterized by interlocking in texture and uniform in
structure. These rocks possess very high crushing strengths compared to sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. In the
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, the presence of planes of weakness along bedding planes, foliation and
schistosity and cleavage, greatly affects the compressive strength, both in direction and magnitude.
The sand stone may show a very low crushing strength when loaded parallel to bedding planes than when loaded
perpendicular to the same [Link] for sandstone, quartzite and most other sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks are composed of clays, calcareous and hydrated silicate minerals which are inherently weak is strength.
Crushing strengths of common types of building stones are generally higher than the loads that they are supposed to
withstand, in ordinary type of building constructions. The compressive strengths of some rocks and their range are as
follows. They are expressed in Kg/cm2. Dolerite=1500-3500, Basalt= 1500-3500, Quartzite=1500-300, Granite=
1000-2500, Marbles=700-2000, Gneisses=500-2500, Sand Stone= 200-2500, Limestone= 200-2000.
During the last few years thousands of tests have been made to classify the rocks on the basis of uniaxial compressive
strength in to grades. The following classification proposed by Deere and Miller has been found usefull.
Class Description Uniaxial compressive strength(Kg/cm2
A Very high strength More than 2240
B High strength 1120—2240
C Medium strength 500—1120
D Low strength 200—500
E Very low strength less than 200
2.2 Transverse strength:
It is defined as the capacity of the stones to withstand bending loads. Such loads are only rarely involved in situations
where stones are commonly used. But when a stone is intended for use as a beam or a lintel, its transverse strength is
determined as modulus of rupture using the following relationship.
R = Modulus of rupture; W = weight at which sample breaks; l= length of the specimen; b = width of specimen; d =
thickness of the specimen.
This property is determined practically by loading transversely a bar shaped test specimen generallyof
20cmsx8cmx8cm dimension and is supported at ends from below.
It has been found that in stone, the transverse strength is generally 1/20 th to 1/10th of their compressive strengths.
2.3 Shear Strength :
Shear strength is the resistance offered by a stone to shear stresses, which tends to move one part of a specimen with
respect to the other. It is obtained by using the relationship. Shear strength of a stone is also not commonly
determined except when the stone is to be used as a column
Where P = load at failure; A = area of cross section of the specimen.
It has been observed that shear strength of most common building stones ranges from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.
In laboratory testing, a bar shaped specimen is held with grip andis supported at ends below, is loaded from above.
Rupture occurs when the shear strength is exceeded.
2.4 Tensile Strength:
Tensile strength of a rock is related to its ability to withstand breakage. It happens after some level. That level is its
[Link] may be determined directly or indirectly. The tensile (pulling) strength that has to be applied to a material
to break it. It is measured as a force per unit [Link] direct method would require elaborate means to avoid bending
while applying tensile forces by gripping the specimens at the ends. Since tensile stresses are seldom required
accurately, an indirect method is commonly applied.
The indirect method is calledthe Brazilian test. It consists of loading a test cylinder diametrically in such a way that
the applied loads would develop tensile rupturing along the diametrical plane of the specimen.
Loads are gradually increased till the cylinder fractures. The load P, at rupture being thus known. Transverse strength
Ts is calculated by using the formula
D = diameter of the specimen; L = length of the specimen
2.5 Porosity :
The shape, size and nature of packing of the grains of a rock give rise to the property of porosity or development of
pore spaces within a rock. Numerically it is expressed as the ratio between the total volume of pore spaces and the
total volume of the rock sample. Porosity is commonly given in percentage terms. Presence of interlocking crystals,
angular grains of various sizes and abundant cementing materials are responsible for low porosity of stones.
Conversely the rock will be highly porous it composed of spherical or rounded grains, (sandstone) or if the cementing
material is distributed unevenly or is of poor character.
Porosity is an important engineering property of rocks. It accounts for the fluid absorption value of the stones in most
cases and also that a higher porosity signifies a lesser density which generally means a lesser compressive strength.
Porosity values for a few common building stones. Granite-0.1 to 0.5%, Basalt- 0.1 to 1%, Sandstone- 5 to 25%,
Limestone- 5 to 20%, Marble- 0.5 to 2%, Quartzite- 0.1 to 0.5%,
2.6 Absorption Value:
It defines the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when immersed in water for 72 hours or till it gets full
[Link] is generally expressed in percentage terms of original dry weight of the mass. . It maybe obtained from
the relationship
Where Ws = weight at saturation; W0 = dry weight of the sample used.
2.7 Permeability:
It is the capacity of a rock to transmit water. Sand stones and limestones may show high values for absorption or 10%
or even more. Selection of such highly porous verities of these stones for use in building construction, especially in
most situations, would be greatly objectionable.
Presence of water within the pores not only decreases the strength of the rock but also makes the stones very
vulnerable to frost action, in cold and humid climatic conditions.
2.8 Density :
It is defined as weight per unit volume of a [Link] in the case of rock it is not only the solid mineral matter
which wholly accounts for the total volume of a given specimen.A part of the rock may comprise of pores or open
spaces, which may be empty, partly filled or wholly filled with water. Accordingly, three types of density may be
distinguished in rocks. They are a)Dry density, b) bulk density and c) saturated density.
[Link] density: It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried rock specimen, it includes the volume of the
pore spaces present in the rock.
[Link] density: It is the weight per unit volume of a rock sample with natural moisture content where pores are only
partially filled with water.
[Link] density: It is the density of the saturated rocks or weight per unit volume of a rock in which all the pores
are completely filled with water.
The fourth type is also recognized as true density. Itis the weight per unit volume of the mineral matter(without pores
and water) of which a rock s made up. The most engineering calculations, it is the bulk density which is used
frequently.
Bulk density values in gram/cubic cm for some common building stones are granite-2.7, basalt-2.9, sandstone-2.6,
and limestone-2.2 to 2.6.
2.9 Abrasive Resistance :
It is more a qualitative than a quantitative property. It may be broadly defined are the resistance which a stone offers
to rubbing action of one kind or [Link] of this is of considerable significance when stones are
intended for use in situations where rubbing by natural or artificial causes is involved as a [Link] a) stones
used in paving along roads, b) Facing stones in buildings of arid region where strong sand laden winds are
[Link] type of situations demand stones that have not only high abrasive resistance but also of essentially
uniform, composition. So that thewear is as uniform as possible.
Stones composed of more than one mineral like granite may look quite appealing. In such cases, when freshly used,
but within short time, they may get pitted or disfigured because of unequal wear of the different mineral components.
2.10 Frost and fire resistance
Many building stones show quick disintegration of building stones or rocks when used in situations involving frost
formation (excessive cold) or heating. Frost causes disintegration by expansion of water on breezing within the rock
pores.
In the case of fire, the unequal expansion in different mineral components and also at different depths from surface
inwards may cause disintegration. This effect becomes more pronounced when the rock is first heated and then
suddenly cooled by water by water. Heavy stones including granites crumble to piecesunder such a treatment. It is
easy to understand that rocks which are found porous and weak in strength are easily deteriorated in cold humid
climates by frost action. Limestone and sandstones fall in this category. They show very poor frost resistance.
Fire resistance is especially determined when the stone is intended for use around stoves, heating places and in the
wall of furnaces. Only compact and massive sandstones and quartzites suite reasonably well in fire and heating
places.
3.0 Methods of Determining and Rock Properties :

Subsurface rock properties are generally determined using one or more of the following methods:
• In-situ testing during the field exploration programme;
• Laboratory testing, and
• Back-analysis based on site performance data
3.0 In-Situ Field Testing :
The Geotechnical Engineers are expected to determine various soil and rock parameters under natural in-place
conditions. This type of testing is useful for projects, where obtaining representative samples suitable for laboratory
testing is difficult, such as those involving soft clays, loose sands and/or soils below the water table.
Common in situ tests are performed in conventional drilled borings, whereas specialized tests require a separate
borehole or different insertion equipment. Field in situ borehole tests can be grouped into three categories:
a)Correlation Tests
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Dynamic Penetration Test (DPT)

b)Strength and Deformation Tests

Penetrometers, such as Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) and Piezocone
Penetrometer Test (PQS)
Pressure meters (PMT), such as Menard, Self-Boring, and Dilatometer
stress or Shear Devices, such as Vane Shear and Borehole Shear Tests

c)Permeability Tests
Pump Tests and Slug Tests
Water Pressure Tests
Hydraulic Conductivity Tests
Percolation Tests

3.2 Laboratory Testing of Rock :

Rock strength is measured by laboratory testing. Strengths are very different depending on the stress field applied to
the rock. All rocks and soils are very much stronger inpossessing compression strength than in tensile strength.
The two common laboratory tests to determine the compressive strength of rock are:
a)Uni-axial Unconfined Compression Test –In this method a cylindrical rock core is loaded axially until it fails.
b)Tri-axial Confined Compression Test – In this method a cylindrical rock core is placed in a cell, subjected to all
around (confining) pressure by hydraulic oil acting through a thin impermeable membrane, and loaded axially to
failure.
There are a variety of testsused to determine the tensile strength of rock:
Direct Pull Test - A cylindrical rock core sample is anchored at both ends and stretched.
Brazilian Test - A relatively thin disk is load across the diameter until it splits.
Beam Flexure Test - A thin slab of rock is loaded vertically when supported at three or four points along its length.

3.3 Back-analysis based on site performance data:

Back-analysis is a quantitative approach to adjust soil or rock properties to match measureable site performance.
Back-analysis is a method used to determine engineering properties of soil or rock. It is often used with geotechnical
failures. When failures occur, back analysis can be used to model the conditions, and loads which resulted in failure.
Back-analysis can also be used in some situations where failure has not occurred but the geotechnical performance
can be quantified (e.g., deformations). Back-analysis is a quantitative approach to adjust soil or rock properties to
match measureable site performance.
Most back-analyses in geotechnical engineering are based on methods that utilize field displacement monitoring data.
Following are the methods of back analysis.
Back-Analysis of Slopes
Back-Analysis of Soil Settlement Resulting from Changes in Loading
Back-Analysis of Foundations
Use of Numerical Modeling for Back-Analysis

4.0 Geological characteristics of rocks

4.1 Mineralogical composition :

Rocks are made up of smaller units of the minerals. Their properties depend upon the nature and composition of these
minerals. It has been observed that rocks composed chiefly of silica (SiO2) especially in free form, are the strongest
in all respects Quartzites are the strongest in all [Link] Quartzite, Sand Stone and granite are some of the
examples.
Carbonate rocks show a wide variation in their properties. A particular deposit of these rocks has to be tested by
taking random representative samples before the stone is recommended for use in engineering construction of any
importance. Presence of some minerals even in small quantites is to be viewed with caution while using in building
stones. These minerals are mica, gypsum, sulphides, tremolite, flint and chert and clays. These destroy the inherent
strength of the rock.
4.2 Texture and Structure:
Texture defines the size, shape and mutual relationship of the mineral compounds in a rock. Whereas structure
determines the development of large scale features in the rock mass as a whole. Rocks may be coarse grained,
medium grained or fine grained.
The fine grained equigranular textured rocks are better building stones compared to coarse grained and inequigranular
rocks. In the later cases different compounds often tend to behave as separate units under the imposed loads and
thereby reaction offered is of a complexes and certainly weaker character.
Structurally speaking features like bedding planes, foliations, cleavage, joints and flow structures which might not be
fully represented in small sized test specimens, but which may be present in rock masses on a large scale, have to be
given due considerations.
4.3 Resistance to weathering (Durability):
It is essentially a geological character of a stone that is commonly determined by its composition, texture and
structure on the one hand and the climate environment where the stone is ultimately used on the other hand.
A stone may remain almost fresh and untarnished for 500 years or more when used in the interior of a building. But
the same stone used on the exterior might get pitted and weathered badly within 100 [Link] example is granite.
Similarly, limestone used in building construction, in industrial townships may weather badly and quickly due to
reaction with sulphorous acid polluted air. Whereas the same rock used only a little amount in temples and forts and
historical buildings may last for centuries. An engineer and especially a town planner has to bear in mind this fact that
rocks also live and sensitive to the environment in which they are placed.
Durability of a stone can be experimentally determined by subjecting the stone sample to disintegrating action of
Sodium sulphate. Test specimens generally of 5cm side cubes, are dried perfectly and weighed. They are suspended in
14% solution of Sodium sulphate for 4 hours at 27 degree Celsius and then air dried and oven dried at 105degree
Celsius. The stone samples are subjected to 30 such cycles and lots of weight determined which gives a measure of
the durability of the rock. Greater the loss in weight after these cycles, poorer is the durability of the stone.
5.0 General characteristics of rocks: In addition to these engineering and geological properties of rocks, there are
certain other characteristics that may add value or otherwise to them. They are a) cost, b) colour.

5.1Cost: It is an important consideration similar to engineering properties or geological character.A stone may be
quite suitable for use in building construction on first two considerations, but still it may not find use for the simple
reason that it is [Link] of a building stone depends upon its availability, accessibility and workability.
Good quality building stones are not available elsewhere.
Their transport from one place to another might be a very costly [Link] workability of a stone is understood the
ease in effort and economy with which it can be extracted from its place of occurrence
and dressed to the desired dimensions and shapes. Harder and stronger rocks become costlieron these accounts.
5.2 Color: Color is the property of appears and gets involved only where the stone is used in construction exposed to
public [Link] stones to be used in foundations is dams or in situations where they are ultimately to be given
covering, color of a rock has no relevance in its selection.
In the case of residential or official building, it becomes a property of major importance. The color of a rock is a
geological character depending upon the type of rock and more precisely upon the composition of rock. Eg. Granites
are light coloured, Basalt are dark, and Sandstone are lighter shades.
6.0 Modulus properties or Flexible strength or Elastic properties of rocks
The elasticity of rocks indicates their deformation under loads. The deformation is recovered when loads are removed.
It is determined in accordance with Hook’s law which states that in elastic substances stress is directly proportional to
strain.
It is expressed by the relationship
Q/E=E
Where Q= stress, E= Strain, E= Modulus of elasticity, It is also termed as young’s modulus.
It is tested for rocks by loading test specimens usually a cylinder of L/D ratio 2, Under uniaxial compression and
sometimes tension.
The axial deformation i.e. change in parallel to stress direction is determined at the application of each increment of
load using strain gauges. This process of loading and determining the strain is continued till the specimen actually
breaks.
That is the ultimate limit up to which the specimen could be deformed. The limit up to which it remains elastic i.e.
recovers the original shape when the load is removed is reached slightly earlier.
Rocks arehighlyanisotropic so far as their elastic constants are concerned. They show all varieties ranging from
perfectly elastic to practically inelastic. This depends on their composition, texture and [Link] is possible to
broadly group the rocks into three categories, based on their Modulus of elasticity.
6.1 Quasi elastic:
These are rocks in which the stress-strain relationship is expresses by almost a straight-line till the point of failure.
Such rocks include massive, denselypacked uniformly structured verities of igneous sedimentary and metamorphic
groups such as Syenites, Diorites,Dolerites, gabbros, basalts and [Link] elastic rocks show E values ranging
from 6x10 to the power of 5 to 11x 10 to the power of 5 kg/cm2.
6.2 Semi elastic Rocks:
Are coarse, grained slightly open packed with some porosity and very minor in any structure discontinuities. The semi
elastic rock show E value range between 4x10 to the power of 5 to 6x10 to the power of 5 kg/cm2.
Coarse grained igneous rocks like granites, some massive compact sediments like Sandstones and dolomite may often
show semi elastic properties. In this group the curve indicating the modulus of elasticity. Such a characteristic that is
slope tends to decrease with increasing loads.
6.3 Non elastic Rocks :
Are those in which stress strain relationship tends to break in two zones.A initial zone of steep slope followed by a
curve of least slope. These are open textured coarse grained and rich in structural [Link] of E obtained
with such rocks are commonly of the order of less than 4x10 to the power of 5 kg/cm2.
7.0 Important Building stones
Any type of rock that satisfies the above considerations may be used as a building stone. Granites, Sand
stones,Limestones, Marbles and Quartzites and others like Dolerites,Syenites, Basalts and Gneisses etc. are some of
them are not available , because they do not possess all the requisite properties.
Let us see one by one…
7.1 Granites: These are the most commonly used building stones of all the igneous [Link] generally possess all
the essential qualities of a good building stone showing very high crushing strength, low absorption values, least
porosity, interlocking texture, variety of appealing colors, and susceptibility to perfect polish.
Indian occurrence: India has got good reserves of granite and granitic rocks. The archean group of rocks of
peninsular India are comprised chiefly of Gneisses and Granites
7.2 Sandstone: Massive sandstones consisting of closely interlocking and angular grains and free from structural
defects find extensive use of building stones. Ferruginous and calcareous varieties should not be used for exterior
work, especially in industrial towns. Argillaceous sandstones are generally weak in character. Massive varieties with
siliceous cement possess sufficient strength and are easily workable.
Indian occurrence: India has got immense reserves of Sandstones fit for construction purposes. The most important
supplies come from two important stratigraphical systems, namely the Vindhyan and Gondwana systems. Vindhyan
sandstones are fine grained in texture and available in abundance in a variety of colours like white, cream and deep
red and grey etc. They are easily quarried and economically workable.
These stones are available in a large area of the country for over 350,000 [Link] extending from Bihar to Aravallis.
Many buildings of Delhi, and Agra are built of these stones. No other rock formation of India posseses such as
assemblages of characters rendering it so eminently suitable for building or architectural work.
The gondawana formations of India have also yielded very good quality of sandstones. The fine grained sandstones of
Cuttack( known as Athgarh sandstones) have been used most widely and famous temples of Jaganathpuri are built of
them. 7.3 Lime stones: These sedimentary rocks are veryextensively used as building stones. It is not due to their
physical properties. It is due to the crushing strength. They may be weak showing values much below 300 kg/cm2 or
as strong as 1500 kg/cm2 or even more.A similar variation in other property like absorption, specific gravity and
porosity may be observed.
The use of limestones as facing stones even if they are sufficiently hard should be avoided in situations where
a. The air is polluted with industrial gases
b. The air from sea can approach them easily.

The reason for first precaution is that sulphuric acid vapours contained in the industrial gases react with calcium
carbonate of limestone producing gypsum (calcium sulphate) crystals. This change involves an increase in the volume
and results in disintegration of the surface layer of the [Link] crystals, may be formed from moist air from sea and
cause dampness and disintegration of the stone.
Indian occurrence:Lime stones occur in many geological formations of this country. i. The cuddapah system
outcropping in Andhra, Chennai, Delhi and Chattisgarh, ii) The Bijawar, Kondalite and Aravalli groups iii)
TheVindhyan system of Madhya Pradesh, vi)The hill limestone, exposed at many places in northern India.
7.4 Marbles: These are metamorphic rocks that are used for ordinary structural work as well as for decorative
purposes.
Marbles are varying intheir texture, color and composition. Their absorption value is generally below 1% and
normally they possess sufficient crushing strength.
They have been extensively used as decorative stones and this is because of their susceptibility to brilliant polish and
beautiful colors.
Indian occurrence: Most important source of commercial marbles in the crystalline formations of Rajasthan. i)
Makrana in Jodhpur-white and pink, ii) Kharva in Ajmer – green and yellow, iii) Kishengarh and Jaipur are famous
for black and dense marbles.
7.5 Slate: It is another metamorphic rock, characterized by a perfect cleavage and because of this property it does not
find any use in building stones except for paving roofing purposes.
8.0 Conclusion :
It is a well-known fact that rocks play a vital role in constructing the structures which are destined to be strong,
appealing and economical.
All the factors which have been considered so far give a clear guideline for an engineer to choose the right type of
naturally occurring rocks or stones to be used to build such structures.
By choosing all the properties judiciously in conjunction with one another, it is possible to adhere to the safety
regulations prescribed in building standards. A combination of laboratory testing of small samples, empirical analysis
and field observations should be employed to determine the requisite engineering properties.
Engineering properties of rocks are very essential properties to be determined in every project of civil engineering,
construction engineering and structural engineering.