CHA PTER

11
ainabil ty
50,SyTergtwjeso
ssatSustieoepntainiinn
enh asthemcu Sustainable Food and Agriculture
geening
lf pubic
ets will be Learning Objectives
laCosts
nd-usefor Appreciate the contribution that farmers make to providing food for millions in
society under challenging conditions.
Describe the three types of agriculture, as defined by the Brundtland Commission,
that developed during the twentieth century.
Define the terms food system and food security, and describe the main factors of
oULiinsecurity for DCs in the twenty-first century.
List three drivers of global food demand until 2050.
Explain what sustainable agriculture is and list a few behavioural, technological and
institutional measures to speed up the sustainability transition in agriculture.
chapter. They
OWn country.
Define the term food waste, indicate its global share of food produced and list the
main reasons behind it in lICs and DCs.
bfast-groning

nd affordable
ke it work s INTRODUCTION
cities. Whih Afood system is the total of stages of production, distribution, consumption and disposal of
t, arid climate
food products, including inputs, infrastructure and outputs at each stage. Production includes
income of the the growing and harvesting of crops, the rearing of animals and their processing into consumer
products. Distribution is about marketing, packaging and transporting to sales outlets. Afood
system is a specific manifestation of what economists call a value chain. This term emphasises
that each stage of the chain adds value to the product.
The UN FAO states in a text on post-2015 goals:
Food is life. It is the fundamental connection between people and the planet. The fruits of the earth
have long sustained us, but there are increasing signs that our way of working the land and
ensuring all are nourished will have to be revisited.

According to the literature, the existing global food system has numerous strengths and
Weaknesses. We have arranged them by their economic, social and environmental dimensions:
226 Introduction to Sustainable Development
the
dimension: Agriculture (farming, cattle breeding, forestry and fisheries) is and
Economic economic activity,
economic sector in the world. It is the basis for a lot of other contribution toGhn
biggest Agriculture's
work and income for over 2.5 billion people.
a source of
Africa and 30% for South Asia, and under 10% tor Latin ofAmerica
0s SO% for most of
agriculture, forestry and fisheries affect all sociot
the problems of
Everywhere, however,
example, deforestation in mountainous areas invariably causo
and other forms of life. For
downstream populated regions. Also, conversion of land to fuel or industriat
flooding in fluctuations.
and greater vulnerability to global price
crops may lead to higher importssufficient that prices are
total food production is to feed everyone, this must mean
Since prices for fuel crops provide an incentive for
too high for those who need food. Higher Next, about 60% of worldwide child labour ie
tarmers to prioritise this typefood of demand. other
in agriculture, and the system fails to realise the potential of women and
found and services keeps their productivity down
Smallholder farmers. Lack of access to inputsagriculture, livestock breeding and fisheries is
The number of species and breeds used forsector very vulnerable to disease and collapse of
small and declining. This makes the food
species. Finally, a third of food produced islong-term lost or wasted, and all resources invested in
economic security.
them are wasted too. These are big risks to
Social dimension: The planet has the physical potential to feed all people adequately.
we have seen in the last 50 years
This is remarkable given the fast population growth ways. About 800 million people or
However, the food system feeds the world inhave uneven
This could been much worse because of population
11% are hungry, mainly in DCs. by 167 million in the last decade.
growth, but targeted policies have reduced their number development chances. Yet the
Food insecurity reduces people's health, strength and
universal right to food goes beyonda moral obligation; it is enshrined in international law,
micronutrient deficiency, which
We should also note that two billion people suffer from a that there is more to sufficient
the FA0 nicknames 'hidden hunger'. This demonstrates
contributor to disease in the world.
food than quantity. Malnutrition is the single largest that 161 million
leading to a health bill the size of 5% of global income. The FAO estimatesto chronic under
children (27%) under age 5 are stunted (too short for their age) due
under-nutrition and
nutrition, and 6.3 million die each year. It is not uncommon that or even individual. It is
(extreme) overweight exist side by side in one country, household
unsustainable
important to note that degrading ecosystems, the combined result of
resource handling and climate change affect the poor more than other social groups.
Governments and international development agencies have underinvested in agriculture
since the 1980s, which could indicate a bias towards urban-industrial needs.
Environmental dimension: The FAO recognises that our 'enormous gains in agricultural
production and productivity were often accompanied by negative effects on agriculture's
natural resource base, so serious that they jeopardise its productive potential in the future'
(FAO 2011). Ahealthy soil is a key ingredient of long-term productive agriculture. Yet a
quarter of global soils is now unusable due to erosion, build-up of salt or chemical pollution,
and another 44% slightly to moderately degraded. Useful varieties of crop (75%) and breeds
of livestock (22%) are disappearing, while pests build up resistance against ways to combat
them. Agriculture is a big user of water, especially in irrigated regions; it gets 70%-95% of
withdrawals, with the remainder going to households and industry. In many places,
irrigation was done from over-extraction of ground water. Due to the expected growth in
population andwealth in several large DCs, the demand for irrigation water could go up
 Agriculture 227
Chapter 11: Sustainable Food and
needed to produce the food
than half. Between 2,000 and S,000 litres are
thirds of the world population could be
more
by one person in a day. By 202S, two The
by
consumed shortages or restrictions, if current use continues.
i n ccountries with severe
water
fuels products made out of them, such as
iving
system makes heavy use of
fossil and century. Resources
doubled in the last half
food
fertilisers. As
a result, GHGs from agriculture natural environment.
lost or wasted food nevertheless add pressure on the
investedin previous
\nd showsthat global food prices have been higher in recent
years than in thecontinue,
walons 11.l
Figuredecades. If current patterns of allocating food,
productionwill have to increase by 609% to feed the
animal feed and fuel crops
world, It is hard to see how this
could be

erte three

done
without difficult trade-offs or extensive damage to the natural
land allocated to bio-energy production
(fucl
areaof Foodsecurity is still only available to a minority
security. to
crops) creates
environment. The growing
tension with the goal of food
in the world, while towards an
food markets. The challenge to
move
billions are
price swings in global even if there
were
Hshetin ulnerable large
inclusive,sustainable food
norestrictions.
system by the middle
perspective for
of the
food
century
and
is enormous,
agriculture that holds promise the for
fresh
OSD paradigmItoffers a particularly to the different elementsin the food system and
people. t looks any guiding
nature and energy tlows between them. Natural systems work in cycles, and Pretty (2008)
nrial and Jules
humans in agriculture ultimately has to fit in with natural cycles. adequate food, fibre,
for land-based activities that 'provide an
rOs Sustainable agriculture as the same
today's population without jeopardising the capacity to provide technologies and
\ast dea' dfuelsupply torgenerations. Therefore, sustainable agriculture centres on
ices to future
practisesthat

ency,ationalwhulox
10 sufcer . are accessible to and effective for
farmers in terms of food productivity,
have an adverse effect on the environment, a necessary ingredient for success, on.
nhe wod do not on the ecological condition of soil, water and so
positive side effects
167 mil kx , and/or lead to
for more
sections have more details on what this means. Now, all ideas and strategies
The next light of these key challenges:
aistainability in agriculture have to be seen in the
nSUstainak Population growth and urbanisation in DCs lifestyle changes
agricuta Growth of the urban middle class and subsequent
change
. Adaptation to the consequences of climate
implies
1Jginuhi For the food system, population growth
Let us examine these challenges in more detail. UN, almost three quarters of this growth is
nagitheculfuta
tue that more mouths need to be fed. According to the
10 million in size). More people will have to buy
expected to take place in DC megacities (over themselves. Cities will expand at the edges and
ulture. \ea their food for cash as opposed to growing itreducing the area under crops. Unfortunately,
al pollti
convert fertile land to urban uses, thus,
i) and brd
urbanisation is not just happening only because preferences have changed or because people
1S to cont are leaving rural regions despite their love for
are following lucrative urban job offers. Many cannot
70%-994
natural beauty and other qualities. They simply make a living there in the current social
nany pàca abundant, and life is hard for the
d gronth and economicconditions. Yet jobs in the megacities are not food supply is not
urban poor as well (see Chapter 10). We've already noticed that just more
enough to tackle the world's malnutrition.
 228 Introduction to Sustainable Development

Figure 11.1 Average Prices for Energy and Food (in constant year 2000 dollars)
Annual price indices (nominal dollars)
140.00

(2010=100)
indices
Price120.00
100.00

80.00

60.00

E40.00

20.00

0.00

Year
Energy -Food

Annual indices, real 2010 US dollars

200.00

180.00
(2010=100)
indices
Price
160.00

140.00

120.00

100.00

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00
1962| 1966|
19681970 97619781980| 19841986|
1988 1996|
1994 1998|
0.00
8
Year
Energy -Food
Source: World Bank Commodity Price Data
 Chapter 11: Sustainable Food and Agriculture 229

*urbanmiddle class is already translating into shifting patterns of consumption.

nthofhe wealthier. their meat consumption increased till an average of 74 kg
Europe grew capita meat consumption from 20kg in 1980 to S2 kg
ein instance, grew its per
hina. for cannot tell us what is (not so) helpful for public health andthe planet,
enumbers us that dramatic changes can happen over just a few decades.
bring home to
they
o change what is acceptable and expected. A luxury to one generation
they swiftly next and 'essential' to the one after. Is lifestyle only formed by what
'normal'to the impacts on the wider world also play a role? Astudy of the
and affordable, or do
ANSble
land
environmental Ichangesthat accompany this shift may reveal more about
social
nmic,
gAential hidden costs
of modern lifestyle changes. The next sections offer detail on this.
temperatures and changed rainfall patterns caused by climate change may reduce
ng
autural production by
as much as 29% each decade (IPCC). Some crops thrive under the
QONditions, while others are negatively affected. One variety of coffee, for example, grows
another. Coffee producers respond to longer periods of dry weather, the increased
etthan new pests and diseases by exchanging
information about new, sustainable
onrisk. and
the risk of crop failure has gone up, there is an added problem in the
Ates. Given that
RWTangeeof crop
species preferred by modern agriculture. If those species are hit by disease,
on food security may be severe. The best insurance against such risks is higher
ximpacts
miS diversity.

Box 11.1
The PALM Project
The GEF was created to fund environmental investment in DCs as a contribution to solving
global environmental problems, while also addressing underlying social and economic
isues. GEF'S strategies include protecting biodiversity, addressing land degradation, and
managing climate change (both reducing human impacts on the climate and adapting
helihoods to the changing climate). The Pamir Alai Land Management (PALM) Program
was initiated and sponsored by the GEF and the United Nations University (UNU) in Bonn.
Iran 165 village-level projects in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan from 2010 till 2012. Figure 11.2
gves an impression of the Pamir Alai landscape.
PALM projects were designed to improve livelihoods in target areas through more sus
tainable land use. They included restoration activities, small-scale protected areas and
ntroducing alternative income sources, such as poultry, beekeeping and new crop types.
Vilage communities received training in sustainable land management topics, such
ativation of fodder crops, fertilisation and irrigation techniques, and alternative energy
nologies. Training guidelines and materials were produced for each training topic.
eting and implementing the micro-projects involved the following steps:
rre-proposal training at various locations on how to prepare a proposal for the GEF
funds
Oposal development by organised groups of families, called jamaats
inon oy first local government and next the UNUselection committee which
Mcuded local policy-makers, national experts and international technical advisors
230 Introduction to Sustainable Development

Figure 111.2 Innovative Crops in the Pamir Alai

Source: [Link] (accessed on 30

November 2017)

Project implementation--the "jamaats received between USS 1,800 and USS8,300

from GEF and themselves contributed between US$2,300 and US$8,400
Additional trainings on selected topics by the PALM field office or other service
providers
The people in these remote mountain areas were grateful to receive training, advice and
financial assistance to improve their livelihoods, something they had not experienced for
a long time.' Learning to write grant proposals or business plans was a new activity for
them, and doing so in a competitive process was even more unusual. PALM raised aware
ness among the inhabitants of the Pamir Alai region about the importance of ecosystem
conservation and protection of natural resources in the course of conducting their life and
development activities.
The PALM evaluation asked villagers (both 'jamaat' members and non-participants)
questions about their welfare, their sources of income and the main economic problems.
High fuel prices, lack of stable work and lack of soft loans for business development ranked
high among reported problems. Asked who should be the main responsible for tackling
these problems, the vast majority of non-participants pointed to various levels of govern
ment, while few said that people themselves should take measures to overcome difficulties.
Among 'jamaat' members, the outcome was very different. Almost half of them place the
primary responsibility for solving issues on themselves, a third on the rural district head
and less than a fifth on the state. Over 80% of these respondents turned out to have at least
one source of income alongside farming or cattle breeding.

Impression from the Sociological Assessment Report, section 2 (p.12 of the English translation).
 Chapter 11: Sustainable Food and Agriculture 231

frames the issue of

Spthinking
solutions.
sustainability in agriculture in a way that helps identify lasting
It is a systems approach that takes into account the links between rural sub-systems
(agriculture, industry and services) as well as between rural and urban influences. It investigates
outcomes and trade-offs, both short- and long-term. It inquires if certain costs are born by
edproducers and consumers or by non-related communities and nature, near or far. In the
re dimension, it has particular attention to the division of costs and benefits between
different socialI groups. It asks if there are structural reasons why some 1groups(women, ethnic
aligious minorities) are consistently excluded. In the environmentaldimension, sustainability
Ooking seeks to keep ecological impacts within the boundaries that ecosystems can handle.
So it looks for possible hidden effects of a proposed solution in other places.
This section sets out the challenges to the global food system from the perspective of SD.
test, the historical section shows us how the trend to industrialise agriculture has led to a split
etween large-scale, high-input, productive farms on the one hand and smallholder farmers on
eother. The schools of thought section helps us see that there are deep-rooted and passionate
orldviews about the future of the food system. Finally, the transition section wraps up the
ohanter and draws some conclusions as to the state of change towards sustainability in global
food chains. We now turn to the major historical developments that have made our food system
what it is today.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Down the ages, human populations were small and the Earth seemed immense by comparison.
People felt deeply impressed by such forces of nature as the ocean waves, tornadoes and storms,
and volcanic activity. As technological capabilities increased, people ventured deeper and deeper
into »the wild' to explore, conquer and exploit. This attitude to nature is sometimes called the
frontier mentality. Settling people and exploiting resources were often seen as victories over the
forces of nature. Animals that were a threat to humans or their flocks and crops were driven to
extinction. Yet, it rarely occurred to people that their impacts might fundamentally change life
on Earth. However, during the twentieth century the number of people, their wealth, and their
impacts on the planet have risen exponentially. Chapters 1 and 2 provide more details in this
respect. The line between the wild and the cultured has shifted so far out that today human
impacts reach even the remotest wilderness. Invisible traces of chemicals and heavy metals,
spread by wind and water, have been found in animal tissue thousands of kilometres from
human populations. Tons of plastics are collecting like a big soup in the oceans as a testimony
to society's wastefulness.
Agriculture and animal rearing are the main economic activities in rural areas. The way they
are practised in a particular place depends largely on soil type and climate, as well as culture
and welfare of the population. The WCED (1987) distinguished the following three types:
Resource-poor agriculture
Industrial-type agriculture
Green Revolution agriculture

The oldest type of agriculture developed over thousands of years since people first organised the
process of farming. It is called resource-poor agriculture, because of its contrast with newer types.
Farm plots are generally small(under2hectares [ha) and produce for family survival (subsistence)
oniy, not for the market. Farmers often use traditional wild varieties of crops, while inputs and
232 Introduction to Sustainable Development

outputs are low. Today, it is practised by over two billion people in Africa and South Asia. Accordina
to Jennifer Elliot, subsistence farmers tendto be concentrated on the most fragile land, whichi tiv
at risk from flooding or erosion. For some, the soil barely produces enough food to survive and int
pay back debts. Such farmers may also be marginal in the political sense. They lack the information arnc
and skills to take part in political processes that affect their quality of life. nee

cy
Ye
Nu
Box 11.2
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture th

Slash-and-burn agriculture is the cycle of cutting down vegetation, drying and burning the WE
remaining foliage, and plantingfood crops, using the ashes as nutrients to the soil. The m

land yields crops for one or two seasons, and is then left alone to recover. This takes 5 years
for bamboo forest and 10 years for tree forest. This labour-intensive, low-input method is Th
practised by 200-500 million people in parts of Central Africa, South America, and South re
East Asia. Steep slopes and dense vegetation leave few other options to make a living. ex
T
Figure 11.3 Mizoram, Northeast India, Where Jhum Cultivation is Changing
Se

8
in

hi
i

Si

The i
chan
high
netw
with
and
the f
most
Rach
that
Source: Author
The
and
 Chapter 11: Sustainable Food and Agriculture 233

In the hills of Northeast India and adjacent lands, this phenomenon is called jhum cul
tivation. In fact, jhum is not just an approach to agriculture, it is a way of life that is woven
into the tribal cultures. For centuries, the system, controlled by village councils, was refined
and integrated with the rest of the economy and society. Many different crops for village
needs were grown on small plots and the surplus sold in nearby markets. As long as the
cycle was 10 years or more, the advantages of this system outweighed the disadvantages.
yet, cultivated and fallow soils are more exposed to wind and heavy tropical rains.
Nutrients are washed out and the soil erodes. The forest that grows back is not as biodiverse
as the forest that was cut and burnt. Last but not least, the wood burning releases GHGs
that add to the problem of climate change.
Now, during the twentieth century, this system has come under increasing pressures that
we have seen at work in other contexts. Population growth and migration, for instance,
means that there are more mouths to feed in a particular area. Also, the popularity of cash
crops, such as rubber or coffee, and mining activities have increased demand for land.
The total surface available for jhum is reduced, with shorter cycles up to 3 years as a
result. Since the land gets less time to recover, fertility in subsequent cycles drops. In
extreme situations, the land becomes desolate, while water resources run low and silted.
Thus, the combination of slash-and-burn agriculture and other social and economic pres
sures increasingly leads to deforestation, erosion and loss of biodiversity.
So should slash-and-burn agriculture be terminated? The answer is not as easy as it
seems. Efforts to abolish the system have made way to programmes to modify it. Eckman
and Ralte have compared a few areas in Mizoram in the 2010s with the same areas investi
gated by Singh in 1996. They found that fallow periods had gone back up to around 7years
in bamboo forest. Also, farmers had moved away from an entirely jhum-based production
system. They now maintain a larger garden close to home where they grow two or three
high-value crops for market, such as avocado, citrus, turmeric, squash and pineapple. Other
income-generating activities include poultry and vermin-culture compost production. This
combination of trees and crops, agro-forestry, is motivated by economic opportunities,
lower labour requirement and/or changing water regimes-not shortage of land or forest
resources. Agro-forestry is also partially or entirely replacing jhum in Nepal, Bhutan,
Sikkim, Nagaland, and other areas of the Eastern Himalayas.

Source: Eckman and Ralte (2016)

The invention of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in the mid-twentieth century dramatically
changed the face of agriculture in the ICs. Mechanisation, and a switch to high inputs to obtain
high output has led to an industrial-type agriculture. This system is supported by an extensive
network of research institutes, training and consulting services.
is
Large areas
promoted with
are plantedfertilisers,
chemical
or sown
with only one crop-monocultures. The crop's growth
and natural enemies are killed by pesticides. In the beginning, the pesticides were sprayed onto
the fields by machines or airplanes, until it was found that it was ineffective and harmful. The
most hazardous pesticides were banned or restricted in Western countries during the 1960s after
Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring, but some are still used in DCs. The multinational companies
that provide seeds, fertilisers and pesticides aggressively market their products all over the world.
The high input-high output business model has become an influential idea in global agriculture
and development circles. Some believe this is the hallmark of modernity and progress.
234
Introduction to Sustainable Development
s intellec
In the 1950s and the 1960s, development banks and international
industrial-typcagriculture as the main solution to expand food production organisations saw the dobalisat
in
institutes developed new high-yielding plant varieties. The amount of produce DCs. Research tservedt
per ha almost te
numb
tripled during this half century, which came to be called the Green Revolution. The new crops tor
a sfo
did require a lot of water, fertiliser and pesticides. So aid
programmes were set up to provide
grants or loans for building irrigation systems and distribution In rece
and pesticides. As a result, world fertiliser use climbed from 14
systems for chemical fertiliser gulation
million tons in 2000. The amount of irrigated land went up from 90million tons in 1950 to 134
million ha in 1950 to about
amersar

264 million ha in 2000. Since this type of agriculture needs nableds

to markets, it has taken off in parts of Asia and Latin America,technological inputs and proximity hatgloba
but not in
Agriculture's connection with science and technology has grown ever moreAfrica.
intimate over the
ManvDC
past half century. UNIDO describes the growth and 1970sand
concentration
in its 2006 study of Global Value Chains in the Agrifood of agro-chemical companies ountries
Sector
The search for hybrid crops in the 1960s and the 1970s first had (Humphrey and Memedovic 2006). ndnuts,
chemical and food companies
interested in seeds. The rise of biotechnology and genetic engineering ake adva
led agro-technology
companies to join the seed sector. Examples include DuPont, ICI, Elf-Aquitaine, gOWTn on
Rohm & Haas, and Unilever. These companies saw the potential of Monsanto, othisprc
combining changes
with changes in other agricultural inputs, notably herbicides and fertiliser. In the in seeds products
biotechnology companies such as Monsanto and Novartis combined their interests in 1990s, seeds In the
with agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals. They expanded on the
waves of increasing protection Supermar
emerging
inks in th
bererage
Box 11.3 narketin
The Problem of Pesticides cbserves t
und distr
Pesticides are chemicals that intend to protect crops from insects Consume
quality and yields. They are hazardous to many forms of life, not and pests that harm crop Concerne
supposed to kill. Particularly chlorinated compounds tend to persistjustin the ones they are this trend
and can spread over a large area. People may be exposed by the environment
inhaling or skin contact dur This ki
ing spraying, by eating contaminated food or by
Pure Earth (formerly the Blacksmith Institute) drinking contaminated water. The NGO gowing
wide are at risk. In estimates that 2.2 million people world material
tend to be absent oreconomically disadvantaged regions of the world, safety regulations
poorly enforced. This allows farm workers, significa
to store and use the
hazardous chemicals in unsafe ways. They unawarewish to
of the dangers, ootprint
protective masks, suits and gloves, and they do not always keep the
of children and animals.
save money on
pesticides out of reach eminRarerssiothn
Since 2004, the Stockholm Convention on
been working to phase out the production Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) has
and use of POPs, including chlorinated organic forSupers
prod
pesticides. DDT, Iindane, endosulfan and chlordane are so f they n
have banned their use and have classified them as highly disruptive that many countries
income countries, some forms of these may still be used. hazardous. Yet, in low and middle quarant
nd/or ec
built up in DCs since the 1960s have now become Also, large stocks of pesticides in produ
and public health and must be destroyed. The outdated. They pose a threat to animal
and in the formner Soviet Union.
largest stocks are in Africa, Latin America eConom?
This a
Source: PURE EARTH Blacksmith Institute
not witt
([Link]) aiter tou.
nd the
become
 Chapter 11: Sustainable Food and Agriculture 235

tiatellectual property rights to plant varieties and growing international trade-the age of
0alisation. Researcher Lang investigated the concentration in the agrochemical sector. He
rved that around 1990, the bulk of global sales was shared by 20 companies, but by 2002,
00mber was down to only seven. This levelof market concentration in such an essential
or asfood production is a source of concern to many citizens and development professionals.
in recent decades, agriculture has also become more connected to the processes and
mlations of the global trade system. Self-contained farms and regions still exist, but more
aners are now part of global production, processing and distribution systems. While this has
nabled some people to earn more income from production for distant markets, it also means
tbat global economic fluctuations have more direct impacts on local agricultural performance.
Many DCs were extremely dependent on export earnings from one or a few crops. During the
1070% and the 1980s, commodity markets were depressed and income was so low that several
ountries went into debt. The price decline was severe for coffee, cocoa, tea, cane sugar, spices
and nuts, and more moderate for fruit, vegetables, flowers and seafood. Some DCs managed to
akeadvantage of these trends by shifting production and trade. Horticultural crops can be
srown on asmall scale mixed with other plants or a fish pond. Production is labour-intensive,
othisprovides jobs often for family and neighbours. In growth markets, horticultural and fish
Droducts can be sold at relatively high prices and incomes per hectare.
In the last two decades, agricultural value chains have increasingly become global value clhains.
Supermarkets and other lead businesses, initially from ICs, have expanded their reach to major
emerging markets. Concentration in the 1990s and the 2000s led to changed relations between
linksinthe value chain. Large buyers are no longer just resellers of things supplied by food and
beverage industries. Supermarkets have intensely studied their customers and with the help of
marketing tools now decide which products they wish to sell to which customers. UNIDO
observes that supermarkets now play a role in product development, branding, supplier selection
and distribution. Their competitive advantage may come from the way they respond to
consumer trends and organise their supply chains. Note that consumers are increasingly
concerned about how their buying choices affect the world around them. We have also signalled
this trend in the chapter about private sector roles.
This kind of ethical buying is practiced by individuals and organisations. There is a large and
growing market in high-income countries for fair-trade products (guaranteed fair price for raw
material producers and farmers), and products whose production and distribution did not have
significant adverse environmental effects. For instance, when assessing the environmental
footprint (inmpacts) of vegetables or fruit from tropical countries, we should compare the
emissions of transporting the goods to the market with those of growing them in greenhouses
nearer the consumer market.
Supermarkets, then, are powerful drivers of quality standards, especially food safety standards
for products exported to developed country markets. Agricultural products are only accepted
if they meet requirements for minimum quantities, packaging. fast and reliable delivery, and
guarantees of product safety. Development organisations are riding this wave by facilitating
and/or connecting different stages of the value chain for luxury products, for instance stages
in producer countries with stages in consumer countries. Their objectives are to offer social and
economic growth opportunities to underprivileged regions in DCs.
This approach connecting DC farmers to global markets has had positive outcomes, but it is
not without problems. The Kenyan flower industry is the third source of export income (7%)
after tourism and tea, It earns US$141million a year, mainly from customers in Britain, Germany
and the Netherlands. Since the 1990s, the area around Lake Naivasha in Western Kenya has
become the prime flower-growing [Link] the lake also has internationalstatus as a Ramsar
236 Introduction to Sustainable Development

Convention protected site. Growing water pollution and adrop in the lake's water level led t
calls for an investigation into the causes. After all, the production of cut-tlowers involvee
significant use of water, chemical fertilisers and pesticides. it would obviously be unsustainahi
to wealthy
of overuse Kenyan
markets water supplies
far away. and causeInstitute
UNESCO-IHE chemical
forpollution for the short-lasting
Water Education pleastures
in Delft, Netherlande
studied the problem in 2010. Acomplicating factor was that the lake naturally fluctuates quite
afarms,
bit. Responsiblity for the drop in water levels was shared between the commercial horticutu
household water use in the towns and a geo-thermal power plant in the area. The report
said that water management in the lake region should be co-ordinated on the water basin sa
the whole area that drains into the lake. It recommended that allocation of water be based n
the productivity of that water in terms of generated market value. Cultivation in greenhouset
could be made more efficient by harvesting rainwater from its roofs, thereby
replacing irrigation
water. The use of lake water for water-intensive crops such as beans and low-value produce
(grass and animal feed) should be discouraged. In this way, production of export crops could
take place without endangering environmental conditions for local people and
wildlife. In the
meantime, the question of how to put this good advice into practice has not been answered
Higher water prices or emission charges seem unacceptable to growers, who are operating ina
very competitive global industry. The report's authors have hopes of a system
consumers and flower traders, where guarantees of minimal ecological standards involving
exchanged for a higher price. Moreover, there's quite another objection that flowers would
from
be
afar
are environmentally harmful because of high air transport
that the GHGs from air transport are still lower emissions. The Kenyans respond
than those from heating greenhouses in
consumer countries. Now, that shows the importance of perspective.
Unfortunately, some countries, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa, have missed opportunities
to become more self-sufficient in food or
earn enough on
out of poverty. The LDCs stand out as a world region that export crops to work themselves
scored low on several indicators of
development. Many actually increased their dependence on traditional
result of oversupply in world markets and a resulting dramatic price fall, export crops. As a
ended 40% lower, according to FAO. They have, in fact, their export earnings
products. become importers of agricultural
net
The environmental costs, until recently, went largely unnoticed by
agricultural development
policy-makers. Researchers have increasingly been describing and measuring
consequences on natural systems and the people who depend on them. Slowly, the effects and
changing and is leading people to question the conventional wisdom of the the mood is
The challenge of finding more sustainable high-input modl.
agro-ecosystems will be to eliminate negative
environmental impacts in exchange for a somewhat lower crop yield but not too much. Where
possible, nutrient losses should be reduced, for instance, by mnore
roots, sSo that less leakS away to the soil and water. precise application to crop

CURRENT STATE OF THE 0SSUE

Rather than providing a comprehensive vision of a
section on one issue that links the countryside to oursustainable rural region, we focus in thS
citiesfood security. This is an issue tha
is often unhelpfully reduced to food quantities and prices. SD
view that includes consumption patterns, production systems, thinking
markets,
takes a much broader
the social distribution of costs and benefits. ecological issues, aniu