8/23/2023

ELEC 312-Transformers
Transformers
Dr. Atif Iqbal, PROFESSOR
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Qatar University

Acknowledgement: some of the slides taken from the 1

lecture notes of Prof. Adel Gastli, Qatar University.
Content
Introduction

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Classification of Transformers

Working Principle of Transformers

ELEC 312-Transformers
Ideal and Real Transformers

Equivalent Circuit

Testing of transformers

Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

Auto-transformer
2
Three-phase Transformers
Transformers
• It is an electro-magnetic Device that converts voltage (and
current) level from one electrical circuit to another via magnetic

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coupling without changing the frequency.
• If voltage is increased (current decreases) at the output side it is
called Step-up transformer.

ELEC 312-Transformers
• If voltage is reduced (current increases) at the output side it is
called Step-down transformer.
• Swapping the primary and secondary windings will change a step-
down transformer to a step-up transformer and vice- versa.
• In a step-up transformer, the number of turns of the secondary
winding is higher than that of the primary winding.
• In a step-down transformer, the number of turns of the secondary
winding is lower than that of the primary winding. 3
• In its simplest form, a transformer has two windings that are
coupled through magnetic core.

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• Source is connected to one winding called-Primary winding
• Electrical Load is connected to other winding called-
Secondary winding

ELEC 312-Transformers
• Windings are wound on Ferromagnetic Core
• Insulation is also a part of transformer to insulate windings
and core.
• There is no electrical connection between the primary and
secondary windings (except in auto-transformers); the
connection is through a magnetic field.
• Since transformers have no mechanical part, their efficiency
is normally very high. 4
 ELEC 312-Fall 2023 @Prof. Atif
5

Iqbal
Transformer applications in
Power System

Iqbal
ELEC 312-Fall 2023 @Prof. Atif
6
 A Two-Winding Transformer

ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023

7
Transformers are used to change the voltage levels
at several points-See below figure

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ELEC 312-Transformers
Loads
Generation at 11 kV, 13 kV Transmission at 132, 220 Sub tTransmission at 66
Distribution at 11 kV -industrials at 33 and 11 KV
and 33 Kv and 400 Kv and 33 kV
Domestic at 440 V or 220V

8
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
9
 Core

ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023

10
Windings
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
11
 Conservator Tank
Bushing (Insulators and
wiring) Fins for cooling
Transformer
Housing

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ELEC 312-Transformers
12
Current Transformers (for
current measurement) Potential Transformers (for
voltage measurement)

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ELEC 312-Transformers
13
Current to be measured crosses through the hole and it
act as secondary of the transformer
Transformer Classifications

Based on Operation Step-Up

ELEC 312-Fall 2023 @Prof. Atif Iqbal

Step-Down

Unit Ratio
14
Transformer Classifications

Based on Number of
Single-Phase

Iqbal
ELEC 312-Fall 2023 @Prof. Atif
Phases

Three-phase

Multi-phase (>3)

15
Based on Construction
Core Type

Shell Type
Transformer Classifications

ELEC 312-Fall 2023 @Prof. Atif

16

Iqbal
Transformer Classifications

Single Winding
Based on Number of

Iqbal
ELEC 312-Fall 2023 @Prof. Atif
Two Winding
Windings

Three Winding

More than 3
Windings 17
Transformer Classifications

Based on Applications
Power Transformer

Iqbal
ELEC 312-Fall 2023 @Prof. Atif
Distribution Transformer

Isolation Transformer

Instrument Transformers
(Potential and Current)
18
• Power Transformer-Used at the power stations and grid
stations.

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• Distribution Transformer-Used at the streets to supply the
loads
• Isolation Transformer-Used to isolate high voltage and low

ELEC 312-Transformers
voltage circuit (unit ratio)
• Potential Transformer-Used to measure voltages
• Current Transformer-used to measure currents.

19
Isolation Transformer
• Safeguard sensitive electronics against damage by using
Isolation Transformers

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• Provide line isolation, noise filtering and surge suppression
for electronics in industrial, office and network
environments

ELEC 312-Transformers
20
Ideal Transformer
• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding
and an output winding.

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• Number of primary winding turns – N1
• Number of secondary winding turns – N2

ELEC 312-Transformers
• Voltage applied to the primary – v1 (t)
• Voltage at the secondary terminals– v2 (t)
• Current in the primary winding – i1 (t)
• Current in the secondary winding – i2 (t)
• Turn ratio - a

21
Working Principle of A Transformer
• When voltage is applied to the primary winding, it produces
flux in the core.

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• The flux flows through the core and links with the secondary
winding.
• The time varying flux induces emf in the primary and in the

ELEC 312-Transformers
secondary as well.
• The flux has two components, mutual flux and leakage flux.
• Leakage flux which passes through the winding but returns
through the air.
• The induced emf in the secondary will cause a current to
flow when a load is connected.
• The primary will carry excitation current and load
component of current. 22
Assumptions for Ideal
Transformers
• 1. The Winding resistances are negligible
• 2. No leakage flux

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• 3. No core losses
• 4. Permeability is infinite. Therefore the exciting current

ELEC 312-Transformers
required to establish flux in the core is negligible.

23
Voltage and Current relations
d
v1  e1  N1 (1)
dt
d

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v2  e2  N 2 (2)
dt

ELEC 312-Transformers
From equation (1) and (2)

v1 e1 N1
   a  turn ratio (3)
v2 e2 N 2
24
• Now consider a load on the secondary, current i2 will flow in
the secondary. Due to this current, secondary will provide an

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mmf N2i2.
• This will immediately make primary current to flow so that
counter mmf N1i1 is generated.

ELEC 312-Transformers
• The counter mmf will be in opposite direction as that of the
secondary mmf. This will cause net mmf to be zero.
• In an ideal transformer, no mmf is required to produce flux,
thus the following relations can be written
N1i1  N 2i2 (4)
i1 N 2 1 25
  (5)
i2 N1 a
• In order to balance the mmf, higher the current in the
secondary, higher current will be drawn from the source in

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the primary.
• One can write the following relation using equation (3) and
(5).

ELEC 312-Transformers
v1i1  v2i2 (6)
• Thus the instantaneous power input to the transformer is
equal to the instantaneous power output. This is valid
because an ideal transformer is lossless.

26
• In terms of RMS quantities the following relations can be
written:

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V1 I 2 N1
  a (7)
V2 I1 N 2

ELEC 312-Transformers
V1I1  V2 I 2 (8)

The turn ratio of the ideal transformer

affects the magnitudes of the voltages and
currents but not their angles
27
Power in an Ideal Transformer
• Real Power/Active Power:

Pin  V1I1 cos1 ; (Power intput at the primary side)

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Pout  V2 I 2 cos 2 ; (Power output to the load at the sec. side)

ELEC 312-Transformers
Since voltage and current angles are un-affected by an
ideal transformer, 1   2  
Pout  aI1  cos ;
V1
V1 a
Put V2  , and I 2  aI1 Pout  V1I1 cos   Pin
a
28
The output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input
power
Reactive Power intput at the primary side

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Qin  V1I1 sin 1 ;
Reactive Power output to the load at the sec. side

ELEC 312-Transformers
Qout  V2 I 2 sin  2 ;

Qin  V1I1 sin    V2 I 2 sin    Qout

29
Impedance Transformation

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ELEC 312-Transformers
V2
Z2 
I2
V1 aV2 2 V2 2
Z1   a  a Z2
I1 I 2 / a I2 30
• The primary side impedance is given as:
2 '
Z1  a Z 2  Z 2

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• An impedance Z2 connected in the secondary will appear as

ELEC 312-Transformers
an impedance Z2’ looking from the primary side.
• This is called secondary impedance referred to the primary
side.
• Impedance can be transferred from secondary to primary if
its value is multiplied by the square of the turn ratio.
• An impedance can be transferred to the secondary side in
the similar way:
' 1 31
Z1  Z1
2
a
Summary of Impedance Transformation

' 2
Secondary Impedance
Z2  a Z2

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referred to the Primary Side

ELEC 312-Transformers
Primary Impedance referred ' Z1
to the Secondary Side Z1 
2
a

32
Real/Practical Transformer
• A real transformer has winding resistances that
can be shown as a lumped parameter.

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• A real transformer has leakage flux, that leaks
and link to the same winding.

ELEC 312-Transformers
• The leakage flux path is mostly in air and
hence it varies linearly with current.
• The effects of leakage flux is accounted by an
inductance and hence called leakage
reactance on both primary and secondary
33
sides.
 Flux Linkages

ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023

34
 m

R1 I1 I2 R2

V1 l1 l2 V2

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N1 N2

ELEC 312-Transformers
N1: N2

R1 Xl1 Xl2 I2
I1 R2

V1 V2

Primary Magnetic Core Secondary 35

winding winding
 8/23/2023
X l 1  X 1  2 fL l 1 Leakage reactance of winding 1

ELEC 312-Transformers
X l 2  X 2  2 fL l 2 Leakage reactance of winding 2

• The core has finite permeability, a magnetizing current Im is

required to establish flux in the core.
• The effect can be modelled by a magnetizing inductance Lm.
Or magnetizing reactance Xm.
• The core loss is represented by a resistance Rc. 36
 R1 X1 X2 R2
I’2 N1: N2
I1
I1 Ic1 Im1 I2
V1 E1 E2 V2
Rc1 Xm1

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Ideal Transformer

ELEC 312-Transformers
Primary winding Magnetic Core Secondary winding

I1: Primary side Current

I2’: Load component of the Primary Current

I2: Secondary Current

37
Iϕ1: No-Load current
 R1 X1 I’2 N1: N2 X2 R2
I1
I1 Ic1 Im1 I2
V1 E1 E2 V2
Rc1 Xm1

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Ideal Transformer

V1  E1  I 1 R1  jX 1  E 2  V 2  I 2 ( R 2  jX 2 ) 
V E1 I 2
Since 1 

ELEC 312-Transformers
 a
V2 E2 I1
V1  E2 a  I1 R1  jX1 

V1  V 2  I 2 ( R 2  jX 2 ) a  I1 R1  jX 1  but I 2  I 2 a

 
V1  V 2 a  I 2 a 2 ( R 2  jX 2 )  I1 R1  jX 1  38
  
V1  V 2 a  I 2 a 2 ( R 2  jX 2 )  I1 R1  jX 1 

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R 2  R 2 a 2 and X 2  X 2 a 2
Considering:

ELEC 312-Transformers


V1  V 2  I 2 ( R 2  j X 2 )   I 1 R1  jX 1 
 


V1  I 1 R1  jX 1   I 2 ( R 2  j X 2 )  V 2 39
 
V1  I 1 R1  jX 1   I 2 ( R 2  j X 2 )  V 2

R1 X1 I’2 X’2 R’2 I2

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I1 I1 I’2
Ic1 Im1
V1 E1=E’2 V’2 V2
Rc1 Xm1

ELEC 312-Transformers
N1: N2

R1 X1 I’2 X’2 R’2

I1 E1  E2'  aE2
I1 Ic1 Im1 I’2 V2'  aV2
V1 E1=E’2 V’2 Z ’2 I 2'  I 2 / a
Rc1 Xm1
Load X 2'  a 2 X 2
R2'  a 2 R2
40

Exact Equivalent circuit referred to the primary side

Exact Equivalent circuits
E1  E  aE2
' E1'  E2  E1 / a
2

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V2'  aV2 V1'  V1 / a
I 2'  I 2 / a
X 2'  a 2 X 2 I1'  aI1

ELEC 312-Transformers
R2'  a 2 R2
X1'  X1 / a 2
R1'  R1 / a 2

Referred to Primary side

Referred to Secondary
41
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
• The applied voltage (V1 is approximately equal to E1) Shunt
branch is moved to the source side

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R1 R’2 X1 X’2

ELEC 312-Transformers
I1 I1 I’2
Ic1 Im1 Req1 Xeq1
V1 R Xm1 Zeq1
c1 V’2

42
The exciting current I1 is also very small compared to I1

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I1  5%  I1  it' s possible to remove the shunt branch.

ELEC 312-Transformers
I1 Req1 Xeq1 I’
2 I’1 Req2 Xeq2 I2

V1 Zeq1 V’2
V’1 Zeq2 V2

Referred to the Primary side 43

Referred to the Secondary Side
• Equivalent resistance and leakage reactance referred to the
primary side
V2  aV2
'

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𝑅 𝑅 𝑅′
I2
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋′
I 
'

ELEC 312-Transformers
2
a
• Equivalent resistance and leakage reactance referred to the
secondary side
Req1
Req 2  2  R2  R1'
a
X eq1
X eq 2  2  X 2  X 1'
a 44
V1
V1 
'
, I1'  I 2  aI1
a
Analysis of Transformer
Req X eq

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I 1  I '2 Z
V1 V2'

ELEC 312-Transformers
' ' '
V1  V2  I2 Req  j I2 X eq
45
Lagging power factor

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V1

ELEC 312-Transformers
I '2 Z eq
 I '2 X eq
 V 2' I '2 R eq

I '2

46
Leading power factor

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' ' '
V1  V2  I2 Req  j I2 X eq

ELEC 312-Transformers
V1
I '2 X eq
I '2
I '2 Z eq

 
I '2 R eq 47
V 2'
Unity power factor Phasor diagram

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ELEC 312-Transformers
48
Name Plate Rating
• Rated voltage: The device can continuously operate at the rated
voltage without being damaged due to insulation failure

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• Rated current: The device can continuously operate at the rated
current without being damaged due to thermal destruction

ELEC 312-Transformers
• The transformer is a step-down transformer
which has two windings one rated for 1100V
an the other one for 110V. Thus,
a = 1100/110 = 10 = turns ratio
100kVA • Each winding is designed for 100 kVA.
1100/110 Volts • The current rating for high-voltage winding is
100000/1100 = 90.9 A
• The current rating for lower-voltage winding
is 100000/110 = 909 A
49
 Testing of Transformers
Testing is done to determine the Transformer’s Equivelent Circuit parameters

No-Load or

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Open-Circuit Test

ELEC 312-Transformers
Short-Circuit Test
50
Testing of Transformers
• Open Circuit Test-To determine Shunt Branch
• Secondary is open circuited

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• Rated Voltage is applied to the Primary
• Voltage, Current and Power is recorded

ELEC 312-Transformers
• Short Circuit Test-To determine Series Branch
• Secondary is short circuited
• Reduced voltage is applied so that rated current flows
• Voltage, current and Power is recorded

51
Open Circuit test
• Since the transformer is operated under no load condition
the primary current is very small, the primary side voltage

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drop is neglected. The secondary is open and hence the
equivalent circuit is simply the shunt branch as shown
below;

ELEC 312-Transformers
I1
A W
I1
Ic1
~ V
Im1
V1 Rc1 Xm1

52
• To compute Rc1 and Xm1, admittance is computed as:

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1 1 1 1
Y1    j
Rc1 jX m1 Rc1 X m1

ELEC 312-Transformers
I oc
Y1   
Voc

cos  
Poc
Voc I oc
• The power angle is lagging (current lags behind voltage)
because the circuit is inductive.
• The real part inverse is resistance and imaginary part is 53
leakage reactance.
• Alternative method:

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Poc  I ocVoc cos( o )

ELEC 312-Transformers
Poc V1
cos(o )  Rc 
I ocVoc IC
I c  I oc cos(o ) V1
Xm 
I m  I oc sin(o ) Im

54
Short Circuit Test
• The applied voltage is low from the primary side. Hence the
excitation current is negligible. If shunt branch is neglected

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the overall equivalent circuit is simply a series branch as
shown;

ELEC 312-Transformers
A W Isc Req Xeq

~ V Zeq
Vsc

55
• The series branch parameters are computed as:

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ELEC 312-Transformers
56
• Alternative Method:

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Psc Psc
 2 cos( sc ) 

ELEC 312-Transformers
R eq
I sc I sc Vsc

V sc Vsc
Z eq  or Z sc 
I sc I sc

Req  Z sc cos( sc )
X eq  Z 2
eq R 2
eq
X eq  Z sc sin( sc )
57
Example 2.1: The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20ꞏkVA, 8000/240 V,
60-Hz transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit and the short-circuit
tests were performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following
data were taken:
__________________________________________

Prof. Adel Gastli

Open-circuit test Short-circuit test
(on primary) (on primary)
__________________________________________
VNL =8000 V Vsc= 489 V

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
INL= 0.214 A Isc = 2.5 A
PNL= 400 W Psc = 240 W
__________________________________________

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the

primary side, and sketch that circuit.

58
Solution 2.1: I1
I1
From No-Load Test Results Ic1 Im1
V1 Rc1 Xm1

Prof. Adel Gastli

PNL 400
cos( NL )    0.234 lagging
VNL I NL 8000 0.214
I c1  I NL cos NL   0.214 0.234  0.05A

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
sin( NL )  1  cos2  NL   0.972

I m1  I NL sin( NL )  0.214 0.972  0.208A

VNL 8000 VNL 8000
Rc1    160k X m1    38.5k 59
I c1 0.05 I m1 0.208
Solution 2.1:
From Short-Circuit Test Results

Psc
Isc Req Xeq R eq 
I sc2

Prof. Adel Gastli

V
Z eq  sc
Vsc Zeq I sc
X eq  Z eq2  R eq2

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
240 W 489 V
Req   38.4 Zeq   195.6 
2.5 A2
2.5 A

X eq  195.62  38.42  192 

60
 Solution 2.1:

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

Prof. Adel Gastli

Req  38.4 X eq  192  Rc1  160k X m1  38.5k

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
38.4 192

I1 I1 I’2
Ic1 Im1
V1 V’2
160k  38.5k

61
Voltage Regulation
• It is defined as the percentage change in the secondary terminal
voltage when full-load is thrown off at a specified power factor,

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keeping the primary voltage constant.

Vs,no load  Vs, full load

ELEC 312-Transformers
Regulation  *100%
Vs, full load

62
Voltage regulation is the ability of a system to provide
near constant voltage over a wide range of load
conditions.

Prof. Adel Gastli

Zeq
V1 V2 Load

| V | NL  | V | L
Voltage regulation 
Transformer

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
| V |L
Referred to
Primary
Locus of
| V2' | NL  | V2' | L
V1 Voltage regulation 
| V2' | L
V1 | V2' | NL | V1 |
I’2Zeq1 I’2Xeq1
2 V’2 | V1 |  | V2' |L
I’2Req1 Voltage regulation 
I’2 | V2' |L
63
 2 is the angle of the load impedance
 Voltage Regulation
| V1 |  | V2' |
Voltage regulation 
| V2' |
Referred to Primary

Prof. Adel Gastli

I1 Req1 Xeq1 I’
2

V1 V’2
V1  V2'  I 2' Z eq1
Zeq1

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
| V '1 |  | V2 |
Referred to Secondary Voltage regulation 
| V2 |

I’1 Req2 Xeq2 I2

'
V1  V2  I 2 Z eq 2
V’1 Zeq2 V2
V1 64
 V2  I 2 Z eq 2
a
Condition for Maximum Voltage
Regulation

Electric Machines Chapter2: Transformers

The locus of V1 is a circle of radius I2’Zeq1. The magnitude of V1 is maximum when
the phasor I2’Zeq1 is in phase with V2’.

Maximum Voltage regulation occurs when

the power factor angle of the load is 65
Negative sign is put to show same as the transformer equivalent
lagging nature impedance and the load power factor is
lagging
Transformer Efficiency
Pout
 x100%
Pin
Copper loss is given as:
Pout
 x100%
Pout  Ploss
V2 I 2 cos 

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
V2 I 2 cos   Pcore  Pcu
x100%
Pcu  I 22 Req 2  I12 Req1

Core loss is constant

ELEC 312-Transformers
irrespective of loading of Copper loss depends upon the
transformer load on the transformer

Then Output Power at any load factor of x become :

Let us define load factor, as x Pout  xV2 I 2 cos 
I2 Pout  x  Pfload
x and Copper loss at a load factor of x :
I 2, rated
Pcu   x 2 Pflcu

66
xV2 I 2 cos 
 x100%
xV2 I 2 cos   Pcore  x  Pflcu 2
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
• For constant terminal voltage V2 and load power factor, the
maximum efficiency occurs when;
d
0 Pcore  x 2 Pflcu
dI 2

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Pcore  I 22 Req 2 Pcore
x
Pcore  Pcu
Pflcu

ELEC 312-Transformers
• For constant values of the terminal voltage V2 and the load
current I2, the maximum efficiency occurs when;
d Maximum
0 100.0
d 2 efficiency occurs 98.0 PF = 1.0
when the load PF = 0.8
2  0
% Efficiency

96.0
power factor is PF = 0.6
Cos  2   1
94.0
unity and load
92.0
current is such I2 67
Resistive load 90.0
that copper loss I 2 ( rated )
equals core loss. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
68
 8/23/2023
ELEC 312-Transformers
I oc
Yoc     oc
Voc
100
cos oc  
Poc
  0.181818
Voc I oc 220 * 2.5
 oc  cos 1 0.181818  79.52
2.5 1 1 69
Yoc    79.52  j  0.002066  j 0.0111705
220 Rc1 X m1
Rc 2  484, X m 2  89.52
 I oc
Yoc     oc
Voc
100
cos oc  
Poc
  0.181818
Voc I oc 220 * 2.5

8/23/2023
 oc  cos 1 0.181818  79.52
2.5 1 1

ELEC 312-Transformers
Yoc    79.52  j  0.002066  j 0.0111705
220 Rc1 X m1
Rc1  484, X m1  89.52

70
 Vsc
Z sc   sc
I sc
215
cos sc  
Psc
  0.31502
Vsc I sc 150 * 4.55

8/23/2023
 oc  cos 1 0.31502   71.63
150

ELEC 312-Transformers
Z sc  71.63  Req 2  jX eq 2  10.4  j 31.3
4.55
Req 2  10.4, X eq1  31.3

71
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
72
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
73
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
74
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
75
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
76
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
77
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
78
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
79
 All-Day (or Energy) Efficiency
Distribution transformer
all-day efficiency

Prof. Adel Gastli

energy output over 24 hours
 AD 
energy input over 24 hours

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
energy output over 24 hours

energy output over 24 hours  losses over 24 hours

 Distribution transformer is designed for maximum efficiency

occurring at the average output power.

 Power transformer is designed for maximum efficiency occurring

80
during rated output power.
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
81
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
82
 Autotransformer
I1  1 
a FU  ( N1  N 2 ) I1  1   N1 I1 
 a  I1 1
  FU  FL  
I2 a
FL  N 2 ( I1  I 2 )  1 I 2  I1  
N

Prof. Adel Gastli

a 
V1 N1 b I2

V1 N1 Same as a two-winding
 a

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
N2 V2 Transformer
V2 N 2
I1 -I2
c

Advantages: Disadvantage:
• Lower leakage reactances • The direct electric connection
• Lower losses between the primary and
• Lower exciting current secondary sides.
• Increased kVA rating 83
• Variable voltage output
Disadvantages of Auto-
transformer
• The main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does not
have the primary to secondary winding isolation. Then an
autotransformer can not safely be used for stepping down higher

8/23/2023
voltages to much lower voltages suitable for smaller loads.
• If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited, load
current stops flowing through the primary winding stopping the

ELEC 312-Transformers
transformer action resulting in the full primary voltage being
applied to the secondary terminals.
• If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition, the
resulting primary current would be much larger than an equivalent
two wound transformer damaging the autotransformer.
• Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary and
secondary windings, earthing of the secondary winding
automatically Earth’s the primary as there is no isolation between
the two windings. Double wound transformers are sometimes 84
used to isolate equipment from earth.
 V1
I1

A2
E1
A1

N1
N2
B1

B2
E2
I2

V2

Electric Machines Chapter2: Prof. Adel Gastli

85

Transformers
Autotransformer
Voltage and current
Is

Prof. Adel Gastli

A1
N1
I load  I1  I 2 E1 I1

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
A2
Iload
V1 B1
V1  E1  E2 E2
N2
I2 V2

B2
86
Autotransformer
Power
Is
I1 I2
A1

Prof. Adel Gastli

N1
+ + E1 I1
E1 N1 N2 E2
A2 Iload
- -

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
V1 B1
N2
E2 I2 V2

S A  E1 I1  E2 I 2 B2

S B  V1 I s  V2 I load 87
 Power

Prof. Adel Gastli

S B  V1 I s  ( E1  E2 ) I1  E1 I1  E2 I1
S B  S A  E 2 I1

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
SB  S A
88
VARIAC: Variable Autotransformer
Z

Prof. Adel Gastli

N3
Is
Y

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
Sliding
I1 terminal
N1
Iload
V1

N2 I2 V2
89
VARIAC: Variable AutoTransformer

VARIAC: Output Voltage N3

Z
Is

Electric Machines Chapter2: Prof. Adel Gastli

N2 Y
At X Vload  Vs Sliding

N1  N 2 N1
I1 terminal

Iload

Transformers
V1 X

N1  N 2
At Y Vload  Vs  Vs N2 I2 V2

N1  N 2
N1  N 2  N 3
At Z Vload  Vs
N1  N 2
The VARIAC can adjust the load voltage from zero to 90
greater than the supply voltage.
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
91
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
92
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
93
• A 1-phase 10 KVA, 2400/240V, two-winding transformer is
to be used as an auto-transformer

8/23/2023
• (a) Show the connection that will result in Max. KVA rating
• (b) Determine the voltage ratings of the HV and LV sides

ELEC 312-Transformers
• (c) Determine the KVA rating of the auto-transformer.
Calculate for both HV and LV sides

94
Three-phase Transformer
Three single-phase Transformers can be connected to form a 3-phase

8/23/2023
ELEC 312-Transformers
95
Three-phase transformer
This is a single unit of a three-phase Transformer

8/23/2023
ELEC 312-Transformers
96
Types of Connection
• Star-Delta
• Delta-Star

8/23/2023
• Delta-Delta
• Star-Star

ELEC 312-Transformers
97
 Three-Phase Transformers
Y - 

Prof. Adel Gastli

a 3I
V
N1
V 3
V
N1:N2 N2 aI a 3

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
Y - 

Commonly used to step down a high

voltage to a lower voltage. The neutral
point on the high-voltage side can be 98
grounded, which is desirable in most
cases.
How to obtain voltage and
current in secondary
• Steps:
• 1. Given Primary side line voltage (V) and line current (I)

8/23/2023
• 2. Obtain the phase voltages and phase currents on Primary
side

ELEC 312-Transformers
• 3. Transform the phase quantities of Primary to the
secondary side using the relation:
• V1ph/V2ph = N1ph/N2ph = a
• 4. Obtain the line voltage and line currents of the secondary
side.

99
 aI
I  - Y 3

V N2 V
a 3V Commonly used to step up
N1
I a voltage.
3

Prof. Adel Gastli

Y - Y aI
I  - 
I

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
aI
V
V
N N
V 3a V
V 3 2
I aI V 1
a
N1 N2
3 3 a

One transformer can be removed for repair

Rarely used because of problems
and remaining two can continue to deliver
with the exciting current and
three-phase power at reduced rating 58%. 100
induced voltages.
This is known as open-delta or V
connection.
 Y/Y

VLP

V
VLS V / a
a

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Prof. Adel Gastli
101

Transformers
 VLP
Y/Δ


V
VLS V / 3a
 3a

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Prof. Adel Gastli
102

Transformers
 VLS
VLP
Δ/Y


V
3V / a

a
3

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Prof. Adel Gastli
103

Transformers
 VLP
Δ/ Δ


V
VLS V / a
a

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Prof. Adel Gastli
104

Transformers
 • Phase Shift
Y -  VAB leads Vab by 30o
A
a
Vc
VAN VAB  - Y VAB lags Vab by 30o

Prof. Adel Gastli

VCN VBN c Va=Vab
N
C Vb  -  No phase shift
B b

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
VAB
VAN Va Vab Y - Y No phase shift
30o
-VBN

VBN Vca Vbc

Vc Vb
VCN

105
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
106
 • Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit

 If the 3 transformers are The voltages and currents in one

practically identical. phase are the same as those in

Prof. Adel Gastli

 If the source and load are others phases, except that there is
balanced. a phase displacement of 120o.

A single-phase equivalent circuit

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
can be conveniently obtained if all Analysis of one phase is sufficient
sources, transformer windings, to determine the variables in the
and load impedances are two sides of the transformer.
considered to be Y-connected.

I1 Req1 Xeq1 I’
2

V1 Zeq1 V’2
107
 I
3aI
N1 ZL
V
aI N2 V / 3a  ZL
3
ZL
3 3

Prof. Adel Gastli

ZL

V 3aI ZL
V

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
3a V 3
3
V 3a
ZL ZL
3 3

I
3aI
V V V V/ 3
a'    3a
ZL
3 3a 3
V / 3a V / 3a
108
N1 : N 2 / 3 Turn ration of equivalent Y-Y transformer
 VL

VL 
ZL

3
IL

ILZL
3


VL
3

VL 
ZL
IL

3
3

ZL
ZL

3
ILZL

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Prof. Adel Gastli
Transformers
109
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
110
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
111
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
112
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
113
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
114
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
115
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
116
Example 2.8

A 3φ, 230 V, 27 kVA, 0:9 PF (lag) load is supplied by three 10 kVA, 1330=230
V, 60 Hz transformers connected in YΔ by means of a common 3φ feeder
whose impedance is 0:003 + j0:015 Ω per phase. The transformers are
supplied from a 3φ source through a 3φ feeder whose impedance is 0:8 + j5:0
Ω per phase. The equivalent impedance of one transformer referred to the low-
voltage side is 0:12 + j0:25 Ω. Determine the required supply voltage if the load

8/23/2023
voltage is 230 V.

ELEC 312-Transformers
117
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
118
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
119
• Open-Delta or V Connection
Pab  Vab I a cos(30   )
A
Ia Pbc  Vcb I c cos(30   )
a
If we let:
c
| Vab || Vbc | V (rated voltage)

Prof. Adel Gastli

C
Ib
n | I a || I c | I (rated current)
B b   0 for resitive load
Ic

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
Vab
VAB
Van
Pv  Pab  Pbc  2VI cos 30 o
Vcb Ia
30o
Ic 30
o
Total power without fault:
Vcn 
30o P  3VI
VBC Vca Vbc
Vbn
VCA Pv 2 cos 30o
  0.58
Ib P 3
120
Two identical 250 KVA, 230/460 V Transformers are connected in Open-
delta to supply a balanced 3-phase load at 460 V at a pf of 0.8 lagging.
Determine the following:
(a) The maximum secondary line current without overloading the
transformers
(b) The real power delivered by each transformer

8/23/2023
(c) The primary line currents
(d) If a similar transformer is now added to complete the delta circuit, find
the %age increase in real power that can supplied. Assume that the
load voltage and power factor remain unchanged at 460 V and 0.8 pf

ELEC 312-Transformers
lagging, respectively.

121
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
122
• Three-Phase Transformer on a Common Magnetic Core

a

c c

Prof. Adel Gastli

a a

c b
b  a  b  c  0 b

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Weighs less • Magnetic current imbalance
A B C • Cost less • If one phase is broken the
a b c • Requires less space whole transformer must be
removed

123
Magnetic paths of legs A and C are longer than that of B => magnetic current imbalance.
Harmonics in 3-phase Transformer
• The exciting current is non-sinusoidal and contains
harmonics because of non-linear B-H curve.
• Third harmonic is predominant, hence other harmonics
(such as 5th, 7th etc) are neglected.
• At rated voltage, 3rd harmonic in exciting current is 5 to 10%

ELEC 312-Transformers
of fundamental.

124
 Y-Delta connection

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
125
SW1-closed and SW2-open
• No current in secondary. In primary only exciting current
flows.
• The exciting current contain only 3rd harmonics (neglecting
higher harmonics).

ELEC 312-Transformers
126
127

ELEC 312-Transformers
• Fundamental currents in the windings are phase shifted by
120 degrees whereas 3rd harmonics currents are all in
phase.
• The neutral line current carries only the 3rd harmonic
• Because the exciting current is non-sinusoidal, the flux in

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
the core and hence induced voltages in the windings will be
sinusoidal.
• The secondary is open, the voltage across the secondary is
induced emf.

128
 ELEC 312-Transformers
129
SW1-Open and SW2-Open
• In this case, the 3rd harmonic current cannot flow in the
primary windings. Therefore the primary current is
sinusoidal.
• Since current is sinusoidal, the flux and voltage will be non-
sinusoidal.

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
130
 Electric Machines Chapter2:
Transformers
• Although the phase voltage has 3rd harmonic, the line-to-line
voltage do not.
• The open-delta voltage of the secondary is;

131
• Hence it is seen that the delta winding now contains 3rd

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
harmonic.

132
SW1-Open and SW2-Closed
• If SW2 is closed, the 3rd harmonic voltage will cause 3rd
harmonic current to flow in the delta winding.
• This will provide the missing 3rd harmonic component of the
primary exciting current and consequently the flux and
induced will be essentially sinusoidal.

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
133
Y-Y with tertiary Winding
• For high voltages on both sides, it may be desirable to
connect both primary and secondary windings in Star.
• In this case 3rd harmonic current cannot flow either in
primary or in secondary.
• A Third set of winding called tertiary winding connected in

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
delta is normally fitted on the core so that the required 3rd
harmonic component of exciting current can be supplied.
• The tertiary winding can also supply an auxiliary load.

134
 Electric Machines Chapter2:
Transformers
135
 Electric Machines Chapter2:
Transformers
136
Per-Unit System
• Computation using the actual values of parameters may be
time-consuming.
• However, if the quantities are expressed in a per-unit (pu)

Prof. Adel Gastli

system, computations are much simplified.
• The pu quantity is define as:

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
Actual Quatity
Quatity in pu 
Base Value of Quantity
137
Per-Unit System
• The advantages of using the per-unit
system:

Prof. Adel Gastli

• The parameters fall in a narrow
numerical range; this simplifies
computations and makes it possible to

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
check the correctness of the computed
values.
• It makes it unnecessary to refer
quantities on the high or low side of
transformers.
138
Per-Unit System (cont.)
• To establish a per-unit system it is necessary to
select power and voltage base values as follows:
• Pbase = Sbase= rated volt amper (VA) ,

Prof. Adel Gastli

• Vbase= rated voltage (V).
• Then base current and base impedance

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
can be calculated as follows:
S basse Z eq 1
I base  Z eq 1, pu 
Vbase Z base 1
2
Vbase Vbase Z eq 2
Z base   Z eq 2, pu  139
I base Sbase Z base 2
Per-Unit System (cont.)
Z eq 2 ( Z eq 1 a 2 ) Z eq 1
Z eq 2 , pu     Z eq 1, pu

Prof. Adel Gastli

2
Z base 2 ( Z base 1 a ) Z base 1

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
The per-unit impedance is the same
referred to either side of the transformer

140
Per-Unit System (cont.)
• Full Load Copper Losses
P
The full load copper losses is : cuFL  I 2
1FL Req1

Prof. Adel Gastli

I 12FL Req1 I 12FL Req1
In per unit value ( PcuFL ) pu  
Pbase Vbase I base

Electric Machines Chapter2:

Transformers
since I1FL = Ibase , therefore
2
I base Req1 I base Req1 Req1 Req1
( PcuFL ) pu      ( Req1 ) PU
Vbase I base Vbase Vbase Z base
I base
Hence the transformer resistance in per unit form also
141
represents the full load copper losses in per unit form.
Per-Unit System for 3 phase transformer
S base
S1 ,base 
3

Prof. Adel Gastli

S1 ,base S base
I ,base  I ,base 
V ,base 3V ,base

Transformers
Electric Machines Chapter2:
S base
I L ,base 
3VL ,base


V ,base 2
3V ,base 
2
Z base Z base 
S1 ,base S base 142
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
143
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
144
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
145
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
146
 ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023
147
 The END---

ELEC 312-Transformers 8/23/2023

148