Gen Chemistry II (CHEM 102)

Dr. Rabeay Hassan

Nano-building, room F008

ryounes@[Link]

rabeayy@[Link]

2022

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Chapter 21
Nuclear Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Outline

In this chapter we will look at two types of nuclear reactions.

 Radioactive decay is the process in which a nucleus

spontaneously disintegrates, giving off radiation.

 Nuclear bombardment reactions are those in which a nucleus is

bombarded, or struck, by another nucleus or by a nuclear particle.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Outline

The Nature of Nuclear Reactions

Natural Radioactivity

Nuclear Transmutation
There are approximately 270
stable isotopes and 50 naturally
Nuclear Stability
occurring radioisotopes
(radioactive isotopes).
Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fusion

© 2015 Pearson Education

What happens to the mass number and the atomic number of an element when it
undergoes beta decay?
A) Neither the mass number nor the atomic number change.
B) The mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2.
C)
X The mass number does not change and the atomic number increases by 1.

D) The mass number does not change and the atomic number decreases by 2.
E) The mass number increases by 2 and the atomic number increases by 1.

Which one of the following processes results in an increase in the atomic

number?
A) gamma emission
B) positron emission
C)
X beta emission

D) alpha emission
E) corrosion

Of the following processes, which one changes the atomic number?

A) alpha emission
B) beta emission
C) electron capture
D) positron emission
X
E) All of these processes change the atomic numbers.
© 2015 Pearson Education
 The Nucleus

•the nucleus is composed of the two nucleons, protons and

neutrons.
•The number of protons is the atomic number.
•The number of protons and neutrons together is the mass
number.

Any reaction that affects the nucleus of an atom is called a

nuclear reaction.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 The Nucleus
•nucleons – particles found in the
nucleus of an atom
–protons
–neutrons
•atomic number (Z) – number of
protons in the nucleus
•mass number (A) – sum of the number
of protons and neutrons

isotopes – atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass

numbers In other words, the same number of protons, different #
of neutrons

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Phosphorescence vs. Radioactivity
• Phosphorescent substances will • Radioactive substances can emit
only emit energy after exposure to energy without prior exposure to
an energy source. This involves an energy source. This involves a
only a change in electrons. change in the nucleus!

A spontaneous emission of radiation by an unstable

nucleus is called radioactivity.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Patterns of Nuclear Stability
Predicting the mode of decay

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Instability
 Definition. Nuclear stability means that the nucleus of an element is stable
and thus it does not decay spontaneously emitting any kind of radioactivity.
 As the nucleus gets larger, the repulsive forces increase and more neutrons
are needed to stabilize the nucleus.
 After atomic number 83, the repulsive force is so great that there are no
more stable nuclei.
 For smaller nuclei (Z  20), stable nuclei have a neutron-to-proton ratio
close to 1:1.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Stability
Neutron–Proton Ratios
•Nuclear Stability is a concept that helps to identify the stability of
an isotope. The two main factors that determine nuclear stability are
the neutron/proton ratio and the total number of nucleons in the
nucleus.

•Any atom with more than one proton (anything but H) will have
repulsions between the protons in the nucleus.

•Strong nuclear force helps keep the nucleus together.

•Neutrons play a key role stabilizing the nucleus, so the ratio of
neutrons to protons is an important factor.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Belt of stability
Neutron–Proton Ratios

belt of stability

There are no stable nuclei with an atomic number greater than 83. Nuclei with
such large atomic numbers tend to decay by alpha emission.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Unstable Nuclei
Nuclei above this belt
have too many neutrons, so
they tend to decay by
emitting beta particles.

Nuclei below the belt have

too many protons, so they
tend to become more stable
by positron emission or
electron capture.
Nuclei with an atomic
number greater than 83
tend to decay by alpha
emission.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Predicting Decay
 Alpha decay predominates in isotopes with Z > 83. For isotopes with Z <
83, decay will occur if it is outside the belt of stability.
 Isotopes that are neutron-rich will undergo beta decay.
 Isotopes that are neutron-poor will decay by electron capture or positron
decay.
 Lighter isotopes (Z < 50) are more likely to decay by positron emission.
 Heavier elements are more likely to decay by electron capture.

 Even numbers of nucleons provide the most stable nuclei, this indicates
that nucleons are most stable when paired, like electrons.

© 2015 Pearson Education

magic numbers Stable Nuclei

•Magic numbers of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, or 82 protons or 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126
neutrons result in more stable nuclides.
•Nuclei with an even number of protons and neutrons tend to be more stable than
those with odd numbers.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radioactive Decay
Alpha (α) decay is the emission of an α particles from the nucleus. For example,
polonium-210 undergoes α decay:

Po 210⟶ He4+ Pb206

84 2 82

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Isotopes
 Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers are known as isotopes.
 Not all atoms of the same element have the same mass, due to
different numbers of neutrons in those atoms.
 There are, for example, three naturally occurring isotopes of
uranium:
 Uranium-234
 Uranium-235
 Uranium-238

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education
 Radioactive Decay
In the large atoms, there are too many protons in the nucleus which
causes excessive repulsion .These nuclei are not stable….Radioactive
Decay is the emitting of radiation by radioisotopes.

• There are 5 different kinds of radiation:

 alpha () Decay
 beta () Decay
 gamma () emission
 positron emission
 electron capture

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radiation Emitted by a Radionuclide

1 1
Proton 1H or 1p

1
Neutron 0n

1 
0 0
Electron or 1 e

1
0 0
Positron or 1e

0
0
Gamma photon

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Kinds of Radioactivity

The three main decays are Alpha, Beta and

Gamma
© 2015 Pearson Education
Alpha particles may be completely stopped by a sheet of paper, beta particles by
aluminum shielding. Gamma rays, however, can only be reduced by much more
substantial
© 2015 Pearsonobstacles,
Education such as a very thick piece of lead.
 Radiation Emitted by a Radionuclide

positron emission

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Writing Nuclear Equations
A nuclear equation is a symbolic representation of a nuclear
reaction using nuclide symbols.

A positron is a particle of matter with the same mass as an electron but an

opposite charge. It is a form of antimatter because, when a positron encounters
an electron, the two completely annihilate to yield energy.
© 2015 Pearson Education
 Balancing Nuclear Equations
1. Conserve mass number (A).
The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal the
sum of protons plus neutrons in the reactants.
235 1n 138 96 1n
92 U + 0 55 Cs + 37 Rb + 2 0

235 + 1 = 138 + 96 + 2x1

2. Conserve atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge.
The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the sum of
nuclear charges in the reactants.
235 138 96
92 U + 10n 55 Cs + 37 Rb + 2 10n
92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Types of Radioactive
Decay

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Separation of the radiation from a radioactive
material.

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Alpha Decay 4
He
2
• Alpha particles (α-particle) consist of helium nuclei, 2 protons & 2 neutrons.
• They are considered “large” particles in comparison to other forms of radiation.
• These particles collide often, do not pass through many substances & can be
blocked by thin material.
• Whenever a radioisotope decays, or loses, 2 protons & 2 neutrons it is
called alpha decay.

238 234 4
U 
92 90 Th + He 2
Note how the equation balances: Thorium
atomic number: 92 = 90 + 2
mass number: 238 = 234 + 4
alpha decay or alpha emission

© 2015 Pearson Education

 0
β
0
Beta Decay –1 or –1 e
Beta decay is the loss of a β-particle (a high-speed electron emitted by the
nucleus):

131 131 0
53 I 
54 Xe + –1 e
beta emission
239
93 Np  239
94 Pu  0
1 e
• The emitted electron comes from the conversion of a neutron into a proton
& an electron.

• Since only 1 electron is emitted, the mass number will stay the same but the
atomic number will increase by one. This is called Nuclear transmutation.

The speed of the beta particle is sufficiently high that it does not
© 2015 Pearson Educationend up in an orbital of the decaying atom.
 
0
Gamma Emission 0

The gamma ray is a photon of high energy, short wavelength

electromagnetic nuclear radiation that is not made up matter at all... it is pure
energy. Gamma emission is the loss of a γ-ray, which is high-energy radiation
that almost always accompanies the loss of a nuclear particle:

*
Technetium

It consists of high-energy photons (that is, electromagnetic radiation

of very short wavelength). It changes neither the atomic number
nor the mass number of a nucleus

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 0
Positron Emission 1e
Some nuclei decay by emitting a positron, a particle that has the same mass
as, but an opposite charge to, that of an electron:

11 11 0
6C 
5 B + 1e
Balancing: atomic number: 6 = 5 + 1
mass number: 11 = 11 + 0

The positron or anti-electron is the anti-particle or the anti-matter

counterpart of the electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1 e, a spin
Nuclear
of 1/2, and has the same mass as an electron. Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Electron Capture (e-Capture)
An electron from the surrounding electron cloud is absorbed into the nucleus
during electron capture.
When a nucleus grabs an inner orbital e- transforming a proton to a neutron

81 0 81
37 Rb + e –1

36 Kr
Balancing: atomic number: 37 + (–1) = 36
mass number: 81 + 0 = 81

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 78
33 As  X 
A
Z
0
1 

S reactant mass numbers = S product mass numbers

78  A  0
78  A
S reactant atomic numbers = S product atomic numbers
33  Z  (1)
34  Z
78
Therefore, X is Se or 34 Se
Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

Radioactive Decay Series
nuclear disintegration series

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Decay series for uranium-238

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radioactive Decay Series
Radioactive Series: a series of elements that
are formed by disintegration of a long-lived
parent (as actinium, thorium, or uranium)
through the successive loss of alpha or beta
particles sometimes by alternative routes and
that are all radioactive except the end
products which are stable isotopes of lead or
bismuth — compare neptunium

•Large radioactive nuclei cannot stabilize by

undergoing only one nuclear transformation.
•They undergo a series of decays until they
form a stable nuclide (often a nuclide of
lead).

Nuclear
Chemistry
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2015 Pearson Education
 Nuclear Transmutations

Artificial Nuclear Transmutations

In 1919 by Ernest Rutherford

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Artificial Nuclear Transmutations
 Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one chemical element or an isotope
into another chemical element. Nuclear transmutation differs from radioactive
decay in that transmutation is brought about by the collision of two particles
(Particle accelerators made it possible ).
 Nuclear transformation – change of one element to another
 Bombard elements with particles (reverse of decay…)

Notation of the nuclear transmutations

106
46 Pd( , p)109
47 Ag

Bombarding particle Emitted particle

106
46 Pd  42 He 109
47 Ag  1
1p Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Transmutations

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Writing Nuclear Equations for Nuclear
Transmutations
Nuclear equations that represent nuclear transmutations
are written two ways:
1)

2)

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

Particle accelerators (“atom smashers”)
Nuclear transmutations can be induced by accelerating a particle to collide it
with the nuclide using Particle accelerators (“atom smashers”).
A particle accelerator uses electric and magnetic fields to increase the kinetic
energy of charged species so that a reaction will occur.

a cyclotron particle accelerator

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Particle accelerators (“atom smashers”)
Particle accelerators (“atom smashers”) are enormous, having circular
tracks with radii that are miles long.

Atom smashers, or particle accelerators, collide particles with atoms or other

Nuclear
subatomic particles at close to light speed, creating new particles and radiation
Chemistry
that tell scientists about the building blocks of matter.
© 2015 Pearson Education
 Transuranium Elements
The transuranium elements (transuranic elements) are the chemical elements with
atomic numbers greater than 92 (the atomic number of uranium). All of these
elements are The Transuranium elements can be artificially generated, they are
unstable and converted radioactively into other elements.

neptunium, Np Elements in the periodic

table with atomic
numbers above 92
plutonium, Pu
None occur in nature and
all are radioactive
Curium-242 Synthesized in nuclear
reactors and nuclear
accelerators

Nuclear
synthesized element 112, copernicium, Cn Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Artificial Nuclear Transmutations
•Reactions Involving Neutrons
Most synthetic isotopes used in medicine are prepared by bombarding neutrons
at a particle, which won’t repel the neutral particle.
•Transuranium elements:
Elements immediately after uranium were discovered by bombarding isotopes
with neutrons.
Larger elements (atomic number higher than 110) were made by colliding large
atoms with nuclei of light elements with high energy.

Cobalt therapy
Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

Rates of Radioactive Decay

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

Rates of Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is a first-
order process.

rate = k[A]

Nt
ln = −kt
N0
0.693
k = t1/2

•t is the time interval of decay,

• k is the decay constant, N0 is the initial
number of nuclei (at time zero), and Nt is the
Nuclear
1
0 n  147 N  146 C  11H number remaining after the time [Link]

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Half-Life, t1/2
• The half-life of such a process is
0.693
k = t1/2

• Half-life is the time required for half of a radionuclide sample to decay.

the amount of a
radioactive substance
decreases by 50% for
every half-life that
passes.

t1/2 is unaffected by external conditions such as temperature,

Nuclear
Chemistry
pressure, or state of chemical combination.
© 2015 Pearson Education
 Radiometric Dating
The method of dating objects based on their isotopes and isotope
abundances is called radiometric dating.

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Carbon-14 Dating
1
0 n  147 N  C  11H
14
6

β-particle

Radiocarbon as biogeochemical tracer

Nuclear
Applying first-order kinetics and half-life information, we can date objects
Chemistry
using a “nuclear clock.”
© 2015 Pearson Education
 Radiocarbon or Carbon-14 Dating
Radiometric dating or radioactive dating is a technique used to date materials
such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively
incorporated when they were formed.
•One out of every million carbon atoms is carbon-14, a radioactive isotope. Since
all living things contain carbon, the amount of C-14 remains relatively stable over a
lifetime. After death, no more carbon is taken in, so the amount of C-14 gradually
decreases as the C-14 decays.
•The half-life of carbon is relatively short, 5,730 years.

The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a dead animal or plant is related to the

time since death occurred.

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Calculating the Age of a Mineral
A rock contains 0.257 mg of lead-206 for every milligram of uranium-238. The
half-life for the decay of uranium-238 to lead-206 is 4.5 × 109 yr. How old is
the rock?

0.693
k = t1/2

•we first need to calculate how much initial uranium-

238 there was for every 1 mg that remains today.
Nt
ln N0 = −kt

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Calculations Involving Radioactive Decay
If we start with 1.000 g of strontium-90, 0.953 g will remain after 2.00 yr. (a)
What is the half-life of strontium-90? (b) How much strontium-90 will remain
after 5.00 yr?

Nt
ln N0 = −kt

0.693
k = t1/2

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

A piece of linen cloth found at an ancient burial site is found to have a 14C
activity of 4.8 disintegrations per minute. Determine the age of the cloth.
Assume that the carbon-14 activity of an equal mass of living flax (the plant
from which linen is made) is 14.8 disintegrations per minute. The half-life of
carbon-14 is 5715 years.

0.693
5715 years  k  1.2110 yr 4 -1
k

Nt
ln   kt
14
C activity in artifact
ln 14   kt
N0 C acitivity in living flax

4.8 d ps
ln   1.12  10  4 yr 1 t t  1.0  10 4 yr
14.8 dps Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

Detection of Radioactivity

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Instruments for detecting and measuring
radiation
Basic Concepts of Measurement
Emitted particle can cause ionization of surroundings

Geiger counter
Phosphors (scintillation counters)
Film badges
Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Geiger Counter
A Geiger counter measures the amount of activity present in a radioactive sample.
Radioactivity enters a window and creates ions in a gas (Ar gas); the ions result in an
electric current that is measured and recorded by the instrument.

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Scintillation counter
•A scintillator is a substance which emits light (phosphor) when struck by an
ionizing particle.
•Some substances absorb radioactivity and emit light. They are called phosphors.
•An instrument commonly used to measure the amount of light emitted by a
phosphor is a scintillation counter. It converts the light to an electronic response for
measurement.

Nuclear
[Link] Chemistry
scintillation-counter
© 2015 Pearson Education
 Film Badges Dosimeter
 Radioactivity was first discovered by Henri Becquerel because it
fogged up a photographic plate.
 Film has been used to detect radioactivity since more exposure to
radioactivity means darker spots on the developed film.
 Film badges are used by people who work with radioactivity to
measure their own exposure over time.

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Measuring Radioactivity: Units
• Activity is the rate at which a sample decays.
• The units used to measure activity are as follows:
 SI Unit: Becquerel (Bq) is defined as one nuclear disintegration per second.
 Curie (Ci): 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second, which is the rate of decay of
1 g of radium.

Absorbed does of radiation

Rad ( radiation absorbed dose)
RBE (relative biological effectiveness)
Rem (roentgen equivalent man) ….old unit

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radiation Dose
• Two units are commonly used to measure exposure to radiation:
 Gray (Gy): absorption of 1 J of energy per kg of tissue
 Rad (for radiation absorbed dose): absorption of 0.01 J of energy
per kg of tissue (100 rad = 1 Gy)
• Not all forms of radiation harm tissue equally. A relative biological
effectiveness (RBE) is used to show how much biological effect
there is.
• The effective dose is called the rem (SI unit Sievert; 1 Sv = 100
rem)
• # of rem = (# of rad) (RBE)

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radiotracers

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radiotracers
•Radiotracers are radioisotopes used to study a chemical reaction.
•A radioactive element (tracer) can be followed through a reaction to determine its
path and better understand the mechanism of a chemical reaction.

Example
Photosynthetic pathway using oxygen-18 and 14-carbon

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

Medical Application of Radiotracers
–Use of Isotopes as tracers for diagnosis
•Sodium-24 – blood flow
•Iodine-131 –thyroid conditions
•Iodine -123 – brain imaging
•Iron-59 is used as a radiotracer to study blood

normal Alzheimer victim

Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) Nuclear

Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)
•A compound labeled with a positron
emitter is injected into a patient.
•Blood flow, oxygen and glucose
metabolism, and other biological
functions can be studied.
•Labeled glucose is used to study the
brain, as seen in the figure to
the right.

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Energy Changes in Nuclear
Reactions

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

Nuclear Binding Energy is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its
component, protons and neutrons, represents the conversion of mass to energy that
occurs during an exothermic nuclear reaction.
Mass defect is the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the
masses of its protons, neutrons (Nucleons).

According to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relationship

(E = mc2, where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the velocity of
light), the energy released is
E  (m)c 2

Where does this energy come from?

E  energy of products - energy of reactants

m  mass of products - mass of reactants

E  nuclear binding energy Nuclear

Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 nuclear binding energy
nuclear binding energy per nucleon 
number of nucleons

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

The mass change for the decay of 1 mol of uranium-238 is 0.0046 g. The
change in energy, E, is then

E = (m)c2 This energy would provide

E = (4.6  106 kg)(3.00  108 m/s)2 the average annual
household electricity for
E = 4.1  1011 J about 10,000 homes

Calculate a) the nuclear binding energy in kilojoules/mol and b) the nuclear

binding energy in joules per nucleon of 208 83 Bi . The exact atomic
mass of bismuth is 208.9804.

mass n  1.008665 1
0
mass 11H  1.007825Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

a) Nuclear binding energy

p=83 83  1.007825  83.649475 amu

n=125
125  1.008665  126.083125 amu
209.732600 amu

m  208.9804 amu - 209.732600 amu

m   0.7522 amu
 1.00 kg 
m   0.7522 amu   
 6.022  10 amu 
26

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 27
m  1.249110 kg
E   1.2491  10   27

kg 3.00  10 m/s
8

2

10
E   1.12  10 kg m / s2 2

E   1.12  1010 J

 
E   1.12  1010 J 6.022  1023 /mol 
E   6.74  10 J/mol 13

E   6.74  1013 kJ/mol

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 E  - 6.74  1013 kJ/mol

Nuclear binding energy  6.74  10 kJ/mol 13

b) Nuclear binding energy per nucleon

nuclear binding energy

nuclear binding energy per nucleon 
number of nucleons

1.12  10 10 J
E   5.38  10 13 J/nucleon
208 nucleons
Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Fission

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Power

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Fission
Heavy nuclei gain stability and give off energy when they split into two smaller
nuclei (This is fission).

Lighter nuclei emit great amounts of energy by being combined in fusion.

Nuclear
U-235 can split after bombardment with a neutron. Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Fission
•Commercial nuclear power plants use fission.
•Heavy nuclei can split in many ways. The equations below show two ways U-235
can split after bombardment with a neutron.

Nuclear Chain Reaction

A neutron strikes an atom of
U-235. It absorbs the neutron
and becomes an unstable atom
of U-236. It then undergoes
fission. Notice that more
neutrons are released in the
reaction. These neutrons can
strike other U-235 atoms to
initiate their fission.
•Applications of nuclear
fission
–Atomic bomb Nuclear
–Generation of electricity Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

A chain of Nuclear Fission reaction
•nuclear chain reaction, which is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission
reactions.
•critical mass, the minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a
self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 A chain of Nuclear Fission reaction

• The minimum mass that must be present for a chain reaction to be sustained is
called the critical mass. If more than critical mass is present (supercritical
mass), an explosion will occur. Weapons were created by causing smaller
amounts to be forced together to create this mass.

The first atomic bomb used in warfare, the bomb, code-named “Little Boy,”
Nuclear
that was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945. Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Fusion
•When small atoms are combined, much energy is released.
•If it were possible to easily produce energy by this method, it would be a
preferred source of energy.
•However, extremely high temperatures and pressures are needed to
cause nuclei to fuse.
•This was achieved using an atomic bomb to initiate fusion in a hydrogen
bomb. Obviously, this is not an acceptable approach to producing energy.

Hydrogen Isotopes 1H, 2H, and 3H

Two atoms, deuterium and tritium, fuse

together, forming a helium nucleus,Nuclear
a
Chemistry
neutron and lots of energy
© 2015 Pearson Education
 Fission Nuclear Reactors
•The reactor core consists of fuel rods,
control rods, moderators, and coolant.
•The control rods block the paths of some
neutrons, keeping the system from
reaching a dangerous supercritical mass.

control rods are made with neutron-absorbing

material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core
to control the rate of reaction

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear power plant
In nuclear reactors, the heat generated by the reaction is used to produce steam that
turns a turbine connected to a generator. Otherwise, the plant is basically the same as
any power plant.

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Fusion
•Nuclear fusion - the combining of small nuclei into larger one
•Solar fusion
a fusion reaction is also called
a hydrogen bomb.

•The proton-proton chain reaction. Thermonuclear reactions –

take place at very high temperatures

Technical difficulty
Magnetic confinement
High-power lasers

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radiation in the Environment
and Living Systems

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Nuclear Waste
• Reactors must be stopped periodically to
replace or reprocess the nuclear fuel.
• They are stored in pools at the reactor
site.
• The original intent was that this waste
would then be transported to
reprocessing or storage sites.
•Political opposition to storage site location
and safety challenges for reprocessing have Ionizing radiation
led this to be a major social problem.

Very reactive (.OH) radicals, which result in much Nuclear

cell
damage.
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Damage to Cells
• The damage to cells depends on the type of
radioactivity, the length of exposure, and
whether the source is inside or outside the
body.
• Outside the body, gamma rays are most
dangerous.
• Inside the body, alpha radiation can cause
most harm.

Leukemia, which is characterized by

excessive growth of white blood cells, is
probably the major type of radiation-
caused cancer.
Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 Radon gas
• Radon-222 is a decay product of uranium-238, which is found in rock formations
and soil.
• Most of the decay products of uranium remain in the soil, but radon is a gas.
• When breathed in, it can
cause much harm, since
it produces alpha particles,
which have a high RBE (relative biological effectiveness)
• It is estimated to contribute to 10% of all
lung cancer deaths in the United States.

Being exposed to radon for a long period of time can lead to lung cancer.
Radon gas in the air breaks down into tiny radioactive elements (radon
progeny) that can lodge in the lining of the lungs, where they can give off
radiation. This radiation can damage lung cells and eventually lead toNuclear
lung
cancer. Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education

 The End of chapter 21

Nuclear
Chemistry

© 2015 Pearson Education