Aristotle: Citizenship

and the Rule of Law

BLOCK IV

MACHIAVELLI

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BLOCK –III BLOCK IV INTRODUCTION
ARISTOTLE
Ever since the writing of Niccolo Machiavelli emerged in 15th century, they have
guided inspired, outrages and perplexed intellectuals and politicians around the
world. He is regarded first modern political philosopher as he separated ethics
and morality from politics and he also made a distinction between state and
religion. In Greek political tradition, ethics was the basis of politics but
Machiavelli gave more importance to power to preserve the state. For him, state
was above morality. Machiavelli argued that a stable political authority and order
are needed to ensure moral regeneration and social cohesion. It was for this
reason that he stressed the need for a unified polity. Unlike St. Thomas Aquinas
who believed that man needs the guidance of divine law, Machiavelli not only
separated religion from politics but he made it subservient to politics. Power
politics was central to his analysis and thus, Machiavelli's philosophy advocated
case for a great power. Elements of modern day nationalism based on glory,
power and greatness can be seen in his works. Machiavelli is also associated with
the Realist school in international relations as he brought the importance of
power to the fore and highlighted the shortcomings of idealist policies. There was
a big impact of the Renaissance in Machiavelli’s works as Renaissance was about
the emergence of the new human, an ambitious restless individual, motivated by
his self-interest, seeking glory and fame. Laski even said that the whole of
Renaissance was in Machiavelli. Since he gave less importance to morality,
Machiavelli’s name has since become synonymous with words like cunning,
duplicity, treachery, and ruthlessness. However, a comprehensive view of
Machiavelli comes up after reading all his important works. Based on his reading
of Machiavelli’s Discourses, Montesquieu regarded him as a lover of liberty and
even a pioneer in political sociology. Rousseau, who was a disciple of
Montesquieu, regarded Machiavelli as a Republican and also described him as a
good citizen and an honourable man.

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 Machiavelli: Politics
UNIT 7 MACHIAVALLI: POLITICS AND and Morality

MORALITY⁎
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction: Life and Times of Machiavelli
7.1.1 The Renaissance and Machiavelli
7.1.2 The Life of Machiavelli
7.1.3 His Times
7.2 Machiavelli’s Attitude Towards Politics and Morality
7.2.1 Machiavelli’s Conception of Human Nature
7.2.2 Power and Politics
7.2.3 Religion as a Political Tool
7.2.4 Double Standards of Morality: Public and Private
7.3 Let Us Sum Up
7.4 References
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 OBJECTIVES
Niccolò Machiavelli, a child of Renaissance, not only dared to question the
prevailing moral assumptions of his own times but also posed challenges to
utopian tradition of political philosophy. Machiavelli is remembered for making
the first move for the scientific study of politics and also pointed to separate
religion from politics. But he is often misunderstood because of his advice to The
Prince where he justified the use of deception, force and violence to achieve the
desired political ends. Hence, the colloquial terms like Old Nick or Machiavellian
are ascribed to him. Such terms are byword for cunningness and duplicity and
often used for a person whose character appears to be dubious and shrewd
enough to manipulate any given situation to his/her own advantage. Interestingly,
even after 500 years of his death, whenever there is any discussion about
leadership or issues of political power, his name is often invoked in praise for his
political realism and pragmatism.

⁎
Rohit Sharma, Assistant Professor, PG Department of Political Science, Arya College,
Ludhiana

95
 This unit will familiarize you with the 15th -16th century’s influential as well as
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI controversial philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli and his theory of politics and
morality. After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the time and context that shaped Niccolò Machiavelli’s
political philosophy
 Analyze - why Niccolò Machiavelli was concerned about separation of
morality and politics

7.1 INTRODUCTION- LIFE AND TIMES OF

MACHIAVELLI
7.1.1 The Renaissance and Machiavelli
As it says that a text without a context is a structure without a base; for that
reason Machiavelli can be better understood in the context of renaissance only. In
the wake of 14th century, Italy experienced greater changes in its social, cultural,
economic and political milieu. It was the time when the spirit of renaissance
impelled men to re-examine things from new ideas based on scientific reasoning
rather than of scholastic dogmas. Such changes not only laid the strong
foundation of intellectual and spiritual churning of ideas in Italy but also
gradually spread to the rest of Europe by the late fifteen century that liberated the
human spirit from the shackles of old beliefs and value system of life. Thus, it
can be seen as a departure from medieval Christian values that gave importance
to asceticism, humility and worthlessness of men on earth. Therefore, the concept
of eternity or next world, which was main guiding factor for humans in
medievalist’s era started fading away. This epoch of Italian renaissance
concentrated on this world only and liberated men from dogmas of medieval
times and ushered the new consciousness of life, idea of individual liberty and
sanguinity based on raison d’état. Further, the discoveries of new lands, printing
press, gun powder etc. stimulated the imagination of men and their old beliefs
were totally shaken up.
The renaissance made an attempt to defend the individual’s love for liberty by
reinstating pre-Christian approach that was based on the nature and humanism. It
was a clear indicator that the people were now no longer going to keep their faith
in medieval Christian values of renunciation and self-denial; rather they gave
importance to one’s own glory, happiness, fame and the spirit of individualism. It
also rejected the ecclesiastical supremacy of the priest and laid stress on the
intellectual emancipation of human spirit.
Machiavelli was always seen as the child of renaissance. His native city of
Florence was the axis of Italian renaissance and that immensely shaped his
intellectual and political ideas. Perhaps, it was only Machiavelli who could grasp
the dynamics of modern secular state and the new human that no longer tolerated
the suppression of one’s individuality, emotions and natural faculties. This may
be the reason that Machiavelli’s primary concerns of security and unity of State
96
and liberty and republicanism clearly reflected in his major treaties- The Prince Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
and Discourses respectively.
On the whole, the renaissance was non-Salvationist; where the authority of God
was replaced by the authority of science and human rationale. More importantly,
it also signified the emergence of modern state based on the ideas of secularism
and nationalism. In its secular notion it signified the separation between religion
and politics, and the independence of the State from the control of the Church.
This marked the beginning of a new era in human history.

7.1.2 The Life of Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli was a nobleman by birth and a republican by his conviction.
He was born on 03 May 1469, in the Italian province of Tuscany, in the city of
Florence. Unlike many prominent figures of Italian Renaissance, there is not
much information available about the early life of Machiavelli. His father
Bernado was a lawyer and had ties to the city’s famed humanist circles. From an
early age, he studied Latin and humanistic studies of Cicero, that focused on
different moral situations of life like subordination of individual interest for the
common good with advice on how to follow an upright path to attain glory.
The year of 1498 to 1512 sketches an accurate picture of Machiavelli’s life. After
completing his education at the University of Florence, he entered public life
when he joined the frontline diplomatic service. Later on, he was elected second
chancellor of the Republic of Florence and engaged in a flurry of diplomatic,
military and administrative activities on behalf of Florence. For his diplomatic
assignments he travelled to France, Siena the Papal Court, the German emperor,
and to Cesare Borgia. It was Borgia that Machiavelli admired for his ruthless and
daring leadership. Machiavelli also served as advisor to Piero Soderini,
gonafaloniere after the Medici’s were driven out of power. Thus, he got an ample
opportunity to examine and experience the working of real politic.
In 1512 Machiavelli’s political career came to an end when Medici led a coup
d’état in the Republic of Florence. Machiavelli was dismissed from his position
and was ordered to be imprisoned and tortured on suspicion of conspiracy. Later
he was granted amnesty and as a token of gratitude he dedicated The Prince to
Lorenzo II de’ Medici. He lived there until his death on 22 June, 1527. The
works that Machiavelli penned made him immortal. Among his major works, the
most popular are- The Prince (1513), The Discourses (1516), The Art of War
(1521), History of Florence (1525) and a play Mandragola that explored the
relationship between ends and means, and ideas of immorality.

7.1.3 His Times

The Italian peninsula was divided into five states; the kingdom of Naples, the territory of the
Roman Catholic Church, the Duchy of Milan, and the republics of Venice and Florence. The
constant social conflicts and struggle between these city-states made Italy weak. The
Florence, Machiavelli’s homeland was prey to internal and external threats.
Internally, the Medici regime was powerful, corrupt and repressive. They also 97
used the political power to fulfil their personal motives only. Externally, the city-
 state of Florence was intruded by regional contenders such as Siena and Pisa and
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI also by the French and the Spanish neighbours.
During the times of Machiavelli, a monarchic reaction had also set in, which destroyed
almost all aristocratic regimes in Europe. During this time the expression of nationalism was
dominant in political organizations. Therefore, Great States of Europe had started establishing
and organizing strong monarchies on their territories. For instance, Henry VII in England,
Louis IX, Charles VIII and Louis XII in France and Ferdinand in Spain had completely
destroyed the political power of the feudal assemblies in their respective territories and
established strong monarchies. At the same time, when every State of Europe was heading
towards expansion and consolidation, Italy did not make any progress because of endemic
hostility in Peninsula. Perhaps, this was the reason that Machiavelli’s ideals revolved around
the unification of Italy.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. How time and context influenced Machiavelli’s thinking and philosophy?
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7.2 MACHIAVELLI’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS

POLITICS AND MORALITY
As a great patriot Machiavelli had keen desire to see stability, peace and
prosperity in his homeland. To find its solution he turned to history as he had his
strong conviction that contemporary reality can be better understood with the
help of history. His approach to history was realistic and believed that history
tends to repeat itself. He stated that through ages the passions and desires of men
always remain the same and he tends to repeat the same conduct and is also likely
to find the same solutions with the help of same means.
Since, Machiavelli had strong desire to secure the unification of peninsula; he
read the history of ancient Rome in order to draw the causal inferences of the rise
of Rome’s imperial power and its downfall. He read the works of the Roman
historian Titus Livy and got convinced that Florence can attain the same glory by
emulating the example of Rome. From his study of past, he also inferred that the
governance is an art and has nothing to do with the morals. He held the view that the
98
purpose of politics is to preserve and increase political power of State. For that reason, he was
always interested in the policies through which the problems of statecraft can be solved and Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
subsequently can increase their power. That’s the reason Machiavelli is considered the first
exponent of power politics. Machiavelli’s this attitude was influenced by his conception of
human nature.

7.2.1 Machiavelli’s Conception of Human Nature

The State cannot be imagined without men. So it is imperative to look at the relationship
between politics and human nature. Contrary to Aristotle and other thinkers of medieval
period, who presumed human nature as innately social, Machiavelli had taken a very
pessimistic idea of human nature. He alleged that human nature, throughout the ages, did not
change significantly and what men have done, they are on equal provocation liable to do
again. Men are generally unreasonable and their actions are guided by their emotions. They
have no general inclination towards morality and constantly in gesture to satisfy their desires.
At one place he says that men are prey to endless desires and one such desire is the love for
private property. He further stated that men would readily forgive the one who murdered his
father but not the abduction of his patrimony.
Machiavelli illustration of human nature was of a political animal whose inherent desire was
always to control and establish his supremacy over others. However, Machiavelli assigned
this trait to the Prince only and advised him to trust upon his own instincts and judgment
rather than his counsellors. Machiavelli’s conception about men had inevitably, highlighted
his theory of state, the ends of the State and his views regarding the methods of achieving
those ends. It also leads to divorce between morality and politics.

7.2.2 Power and Politics

Since the renaissance drove out the remnants of medievalism from Italy and awakened the
men, his emotions and his faculties which had remained dormant for long. The scientific
outlook and discoveries gave birth to the spirit of individualism which was totally in
opposition with the medieval concept of universalism in Church and State. It
signifies that new ideal of life now stands with the individual success where
success demanded self-assertion, ruthlessness and disregard of conventional
morality. It needed power which became the new deity. Power was seen as an
end in itself.
The earlier political thinkers never made an attempt to keep politics out of morals
and religion as Machiavelli did. Unlike, Aristotle, who might have regarded
politics and morality as constituting one whole science, where state power was
seen as a means to higher end conceived in moral terms. Machiavelli did not
uphold ethical purpose of the state rather he believed that the power of State is an
end in itself. Consequently, he confined his attention to the means best suited to
the acquisition, retention and expansion of power.
The political thought from Plato to Aristotle down to the close of the Middle
Ages believed that the use of political power was only rightful if it was exercised
by a sovereign whose character was virtuous. In a sense, it was assumed that
rulers can earn respect and the right to be obeyed if they showed themselves
virtuous and morally upright. In short, it was believed to follow standards of 99
 ethical goodness with that rulers can establish and maintain their power and
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI authority.
In his best-known treatise- The Prince, Machiavelli condemned moralistic
perspective of authority. For that reason, he emancipated politics from religion
and morality. Machiavelli did not hold the view that if there is any moral base to
adjudicate the difference between legitimate or illegitimate use of power. To a
certain extent, authority and power are correlated. It means if a person has power,
he also has the right to exercise the same. In a sense, integrity of a person does
not ensure power and the good person has no more authority by virtue of being
good. Thus, in direct opposition to a moralistic theory of politics, Machiavelli
says that the only real concern of the political ruler is the acquisition and
maintenance of power. In other words, Machiavelli opined that the only end
which man can legitimately put before him is the pursuit of his well being in this
life. This well-being needs not to be confined to the material realm; besides
health, security of life and property, it includes non-material values of life like
greatness, power and fame. But he definitely rejects the cultivation of virtues like
humility, lowliness and contempt for worldly goods on which Christianity laid
great stress, as the end of life.
In The Prince and The Discourses, he discussed the employment of all sorts of
violence, and brutality. At one place, for example, he says that while it is most
praiseworthy for a prince to be good, nevertheless one who wishes to maintain
his authority must be ready to put aside his morality as the circumstances. In
other sense, for the sake of maintaining political power, deceit and hypocrisy are
indispensable. There is no harm if The Prince showed up all his sincerity,
uprightness, and humanity but regardless to these virtues; he must also have
trained and disciplined his mind to act otherwise when State is in danger. But in
spite of this bitter and critical stance towards religion, he regarded religious
sentiments as a very important instrument for the success of State policy.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Write down Machiavelli’s views regarding human nature.
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2. How did Machiavelli look at the concept of politics?
100 …………………………………………………………………………...……
 …………………………………………………………………………...…… Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
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7.2.3 Religion as a Political Tool
Machiavelli was more attracted by the propagandist utility than by the doctrinal
virtues of religion. According to him, Religion can be used to serve the political
ends of the State. For instance, through religious canons of good and bad; reward
and punishment can determine proper human behaviour and conduct. In turn, it
can make people to abide by the civil laws. Once people will start following
rules, the State will become stable, strong and prosperous like ancient Rome. In
ancient Rome, religious sanctions always kept the Romans in check. A fear of
hell, evil and God kept them loyal for their State. Therefore, Machiavelli
accepted the public efficacy of the religion and also looked upon religion only as
a useful weapon in the hands of a statesman to be skillfully used in furtherance of
the ends of the State, to maintain law and order as well. Therefore, he also
advised the Prince to put in possible efforts to promote religious belief, even
though he himself may be atheist or had little faith in religion because the decline
of reverence for religion would surely bring in disaster. He meant that a wise
ruler can cash on religious sentiments and even can achieve the things which may
have been impossible, otherwise.
In other sense, for Machiavelli religion had no intrinsic or objective value; it was
just a mechanism which can be employed by the ruler to influence people to
pursue their desired ends. Machiavelli considered the religion and morality as
subordinate to the State, it is neither above nor besides it. The following reasons
may sum up why Machiavelli placed the State above religion and morality:
i) He held that State is the highest form of human organization and the most
necessary of all institutions for the protection and promotion of human
welfare. Thus, it cannot be placed at par with the private citizens and
governed by the same canons of morality by which their affairs are
regulated. It stands on a wholly different footing and must therefore be
judged by a different standard altogether. It may be a crime to kill a
fellow being but it’s justified for the State to kill someone if public safety
is endangered. Therefore, State is neither moral nor amoral entity. In a
sense it is not like an individual entity, hence, individual morals are also
not applicable to it.
ii) He was convinced with the fact that it may be out of the question to
control the inherently egoistic and aggressive tendencies of men. To keep
that under check, the State might have to imply the religious sentiments
only. Machiavelli was convinced that, man being what he is, the State
would never succeed if it were to rely on moral means only. He,
therefore, propounded the doctrine that where the safety of the country is 101
 at stake, there must be no consideration of what is just or unjust, right or
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI wrong, glorious or shameful. Every means is justified if it is calculated to
lead to the desired end which is the security and safety of the State.
iii) Machiavelli could recommend the adoption of immoral means by the
State without any qualms of conscience because in his judgment the State
was neither moral nor immoral it could be called neuter gender.
Thus, religion and morality are social forces, working within the State, not over
it. That's why in the realm of statecraft the only criterion of determining whether
a given policy is sound or unsound is its probable effect on the peace and security
of the State.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. List the reasons why Machiavelli placed the State above morality?
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2. Why Machiavelli attaches only an instrumental value to religion?
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7.2.4 Double Standards of Morality: Public and Private

The aphorism like might is right, necessity knew no law and the end justifies the
means- had been the nucleus of Machiavelli’s idea of morality. Since, in the
realm of statecraft the safety and security of State justifies everything. Therefore,
he proposed two different strands of morality- one for the ruler and another for
the citizens. He argued that State actions cannot be judged by only individual
morals. For an individual telling a lie might be immoral but it may not be
necessary for a ruler. He may have to sometimes tell a lie in the interest of the
state because the state is a non-ethical entity.

102
Machiavelli’s firsthand experience of his diplomatic assignments made him clear Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
with the understanding that ends can always justify the means. Therefore, he
contended that rulers need not to adhere with the notion of conventional morality.
A ruler must be judged on the basis that how successfully he ensures the well
being of its citizens, expand its territory and defend the national interest of the
State. Sometimes, for the survival and the safety of State, ruler may have to rely
upon immoral ways as well. He further stated that it may be an obligation for an
individual to exhibit his/her impeccable moral standards like trust, loyalty, purity
and simplicity that family or religious teachings nurtured. On the other hand, a
statesman can be always flexible as far as the conduct of state affairs was
concerned. In other words, in times of peace and stability, the ruler may exhibit
his high morals like humane compassion, love, faith etc. But can assert his power
to handle chaos and lawlessness by the use of force. In short, in politics,
depending upon time and circumstances, fair could be foul or foul could be fair.
Therefore, ruler must train himself to represent the judicious combination of the
lion and the fox.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Differentiate between Private and Public Morality.
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7.3 LET US SUM UP

To put in a nut shell, the radical changes that were taking shape during the
renaissance around the institutions and ideas about the system of governance are
clearly reflected in the major works of Machiavelli. He was the one who was
undoubtedly aware of the moral and political corruption of his times. He had the
nostalgia for a harmonious and peaceful social life like that of ancient Rome.
Prior to Machiavelli, political power was only considered to attain certain higher
ends like justice, law, good life and freedom, etc. He rejected all these ethical,
religious, and cultural ends of the State. He measured political power as an end
in itself and confined his enquiries to the means that suited to acquire, to retain
and to expand power. He separated the notion of power from that of morality,
and religion. He made a sharp distinction between politics and religious
principles and treated religion as a means to achieve State ends. By shaking the
103
 foundation of politics based on moral values, Machiavelli set the tone for one of the main
BLOCK –IV
MACHIVELLI themes of contemporary times that accepted both secularization and amoralization of politics.
The tendency of political thought of Machiavelli was to make men more
consistent and scientific in their political cunningness. Therefore, he made a
systematic attempt to dissociate politics from all standards of conduct, save
success in the establishment and extension of governmental power. The very
intention of his remarks on morality was to clear the path for the more general
acceptance of the kind of Statecraft that he had to teach. For this he is so much
abused for his sympathy with evil. It is by this that he is best known in the world.
In the words of Chester C. Maxey “He is perhaps the most universally reprobated figure in
the history of political literature; the man whose Precepts are universally disavowed in
principle, but regularly followed in practice”.

7.4 REFERENCES
Bevir, Mark. (Ed.) (2010). Encyclopaedia of Political Theory [Link]:
Sage Publications,Inc.
Bhandari, D.R. (1975). History of European Political Philosophy. Bangalore:
Bangalore Printing & Publishing Co., Ltd.
Jha, Shefali. (2018). Western Political Thought: From the Ancient Greeks to
Modern Times. Noida: Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd.
McClelland, J.S. (2005). A History of Western Political Thought. London:
Routledge.
Morrow, John. (2005). History of Western Political Thought: A Thematic
Introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mukherjee, Subrata and S. Ramaswamy. (2007). A History of Political Thought:
Plato to Marx. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Ltd.
Singh, Sukhbir. (1994). History of Political Thought, Vol. I. Meerut: Rastogi and
Company.
Skinner, Quentin. (2000). Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Suda, J.P. (1970). A History of Political Thought: From Machiavelli to Burke,
[Link]. Meerut: Jai Prakash Nath & Co.
Heywood, Andrew. (2013). Political Theory: An Introduction. Palgrave
Macmillan: New York.
Nederman, Cary. (2019). Niccolò Machiavelli. Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. URL: [Link]

7.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
104
1. Your answer should highlight following points
  Influence of Renaissance Movement Machiavelli: Politics
and Morality
 The political context of Itlay

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Individuals are wicked, selfish and egoistic
 Human beings are basically ambitious, aggressive and acquisitive
 Fear and love dictates human actions
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Machiavelli’s thought is based on the concept that power is an end in
itself
 State is a non-ethical entity
 Real concern of the political ruler is the acquisition and maintenance
of power

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 State is the highest form of social organization
 Every means is justified if it is calculated to lead to the desired end-
the security and safety of the State
 State was neither moral nor immoral it could be called neuter gender

2. Your answer should highlight following points

 Religion as a useful weapon in the hands of a statesman
 Church only a department of the State and but not above or beside it

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 It may be an obligation for an individual to exhibit his/her impeccable
moral standards, Contrary, a statesman can be always flexible as far as
the conduct of state affairs was concerned

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BLOCK –IV
MACHIAVELLI
UNIT 8 MACHIAVELLI: REPUBLICANISM
(PRESENTATION THEMES: MORALITY AND
STATECRAFT, VIRTU)⁎
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Genesis of Republican City-States of Italy
8.3 Civic Virtu and Liberty
8.3.1 Liberty
8.4 Threats to Liberty and Republic
8.4.1 Corruption
8.4.2 Mixed Constitution
8.4.3 Role of Law and Law Giver
8.4.4 Violence
8.5 Let Us Sum Up
8.6 References
8.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.0 OBJECTIVES
Human history confirms that the environment in which an individual lives surely
makes a lasting impact on one’s personality and the thought processes either
consciously or unconsciously. In this sense, Machiavelli who is known as the
child of his times grew up in the era of turmoil’s and troubles. He witnessed the
degradation of the order of things in his native city of Florence in Italy. Even the
political context of his times was complex and depressing. It forced him to
analyze the cause and effects of events happening around and to envisage
inevitable issues and to invent effective mechanisms to heal the wounds of his
homeland. He also noticed the decline of morality and argued that politics in Italy
had withered away from Christian ethics and had set its base on selfish seizure of
political power. On the basis of prevalent condition of his times, passionately
Niccolò Machiavelli penned a number of important works among them without
any doubt The Prince is still widely read. It was The Prince that earned him ill
reputation where he defended the despotic rule and suggested the ruler to be

⁎
Rohit Sharma, Assistant Professor, PG Department of Political Science, Arya College,
Ludhiana

106
immoral and further advised him to even rely upon the ill means to seize the Machiavelli:
Republicanism
power without any reservation in mind. But in another important writing,
Discourses on the Ten Books of Titus Livy, he emerged as an exponent of
republicanism and argued that only republican form of government can bring
fame and stability in political order in the city states of Italy. In short, to bring
back the glory and unification of Italy were the only objective of his life.
This unit will familiarize you with the sixteenth century’s influential as well as
controversial philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli’s theory of republicanism. After
going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the theory of republicanism as presented in Discourses
 Understand the role of civic virtu in Republic
 Importance of liberty in Republic
 Ideals to Secure liberty and Republic

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Machiavelli grew up in social, religious and political vacuum and witnessed
violence and prevalent social conflicts in the city state of Florence. He was keen
to uncover the underlying causes for this and came up with the phenomenon of
‘real politik’. In Prince, after analyzing the reasons for the rise as well as fall of
states and the factors responsible for political success, Machiavelli advised the
prince to be an enlightened despot of immoral kind. He suggested the ways to
Prince to seize and keep power. He taught the Prince that in order to succeed; he
must adopt the virtues of being clever, thrifty, cultured, forceful, decisive and
ruthless in politics. It shows he was convinced with this fact that power and
politics were the main props for the preservation of state. Thus, Machiavelli’s
pragmatism and political realism allowed him to justify the ends.
The political ideas of Machiavelli were mainly shaped by his own experience as a
secretary of Ten, or “Ten of War” in the Frontline republic. Moreover, his
diplomatic assignments provided him the opportunities to meet the prominent
statesmen of his times and their style to run the government. For instance, his
visit to the court of Louis XII of France helped Machiavelli to closely observe the
inner working of French government, which later became a reference for his
model to secure polity with the institutions and organization of a republic. Apart
from this, he had firm faith in the lessons of history that it offered time to time.
He had the conviction that history always taught and if one does not pay any
attention to its lessons that may lead to the depths of despair. He himself drew on
the classics to take hold of the contemporary realties and future. He particularly
adulated the glory of Roman Republic. He read the works of Roman historian
named Titus Livy’s history of the Roman Republic as a reference point and was
convinced to emulate in Italy.
Machiavelli had nostalgia for the glorious past of the Romans because they had a
republican form of government under which they had achieved greatness and
power. None of its rulers had inherited the throne. Further, he was impressed 107
with their passion for liberty, devotion and patriotism and argued that all these
 virtu are very important for a state and could be possible only in republican form
BLOCK –IV
MACHIAVELLI of government. While expressing his republican sentiments, he further argued
that under republican government power can also be easily shared among the
nobles and the people. After going through the Discourses, one may find that
Machiavelli was as an ardent lover of individual liberty and unabashed lover of
all political virtues that can bring in glory to the state. Furthermore, like Roman
army and his contemporary French army, he advocated for national armies where
training was compulsory for all able-bodied men between seventeen and forty. In
Prince also he laid the emphasis on the maintenance of a strong national army. In
Discourses again he put stress on the significance of formation of army of
citizens and considered it crucial for the success and glory of republic.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Why Roman history was important for Machiavelli?
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8.2 THE GENESIS OF REPUBLICAN CITY-STATES

OF ITALY
The political idea of republic was germinated in late Medieval Europe that can be
traced back to the ancient Roman Republic. The word republic which stems from
Latin, res publica, stands for public or common affairs and advocates certain
institutional arrangements and moral precepts. Here, the moral concern of
republicanism is understood with the concept of civic virtu that understood to
cultivate or include respect for republic’s law and spirit of patriotism to deter any
military invasion or tyranny and check on moral corruption in the republic. Let’s
now look at the history of republicanism in Italian city-states.
Despite of being axis of renaissance, center of vibrant culture and creativity, Italy
was not unified and remained a prey to the imperial quest of neighboring states of
the French, German, and Spanish. The game of power politics had become
complex in Italy. Most of the Italian states were ruled by either an oligarchy or
self-styled tyrants, claiming absolute power for themselves. The soldiers had no
national sentiments to maintain their high sense of integrity. They always try to
minimize their professional risks. The Italy was divided into five states. The
108 historians are unanimous on the issue that Italy was wallowing in the hopeless
constitutional conditions, but it was still the torch bearer of Renaissance. Though Machiavelli:
Republicanism
it was the center of Papacy, but it never lost its secular character. The original
centers of renaissance were the Italian city-states. These city-states represented
the islands of individual republicanism in the vast sea of European monarchies.
With decline of Papacy and its powers, the Italian City States got the confidence
for self-affirmation. It short, Italy was a society of intellectually brilliant people,
artistically mature, freedom lovers, well prepared to counter the world with their
calm, having national and empirical outlook. Unfortunately it became prey to the
worst political corruption and moral degradation. They talked about statecraft but
not of statesmanship.
The political churning in whole of Europe brought a number of powerful city-
states in peninsula and they defined their own notion of freedom and defied the
rule of a few selected notables and preferred rule by the people of the city. As
stated earlier, a few city-states in Italy already had their own distinct system of
republican governance. In these city-states, power was vested with podestas and
they remain in office for not more than a year and run their administration by
means of a series of executive councils. Later on, the podesta was replaced by an
authoritarian board of executives called signori. This transition influenced all the
city-states of Italy including Machiavelli’s homeland i.e. Florence. The Florence
relatively had slow degradation of republican institutions. The signori were more
powerful in comparison to podesta, but there was provision of proper check on
the use of their authority. With the coming of the rule of Medici family in 1434-
1494, the checks were taken out and led to the eventual downfall of the republic.
With the famous law of December 1494, the republic was reinstated along with
the set up of Consiglio Grande (Great Council). The Great Council not only
allowed the participation of its citizens in public affairs but also gave them the
right to be elected in the several administrative boards. Under the leadership of a
Dominican monk Girolamo Maria Francios Matteo Savonarola an effective
republic was established in Florence (1498-1512). That was overthrown when
Medici family, under the protection of Spanish arms returned in 1513. In the
backdrop of Medici’s rule in Florence, Machiavelli wrote Discorsi sopra la
prima deca di Tito Livio (the Discourses on Livy) where he strongly advocated
the republic form of government.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Write a short note on republicanism in city states of Italy.
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BLOCK –IV
MACHIAVELLI …………………………………………………………………………...……

8.3 CIVIC VIRTU AND LIBERTY

Generally, the notion of virtu was found in Greek philosophy and Christianity
that associated it with the virtues of piety and clemency. However, Machiavelli
entirely altered the classical meaning of the term but retained its classical link
between public good and private interests. His conception of civic virtue marked
an important stage in the development of modern political thought and practice
for it symbolized an end to the old alliance between statecraft and soul-craft.
In general virtu is regarded as moral integrity or some kind of excellence
expected of men i.e. of martial quality to risk life to preserve the republic. On the
other hand Roman virtu was all about love for one’s own country and devotion to
duty were placed above all the self or an individual’s pleasures in order to do
what was best for the public at large. It served as an exemplar of civic virtu.
Machiavelli also developed an idea of political morality which was different from
the classical notion of virtu. For instance, for Machiavelli, virtue was very much
masculine quality. Even Machiavelli, not only admired the qualities like vitality,
courage and self-assertiveness but also of cruelty and cunningness as they too can
be handy or helpful to preserve the republic. Therefore, in Prince, he argued that
by depending upon the classical virtues, the ruler would not be able to retain his
power for long. But in Discourses he showed his regard to a civic view of
Christianity that he associated with the glories of the Roman Republic.
Further, after going through Roman history, Machiavelli drew his conclusions
that, in social order there exists two classes: the grandi (elites) and the popolari
(the people). He further probed into the underlying reasons behind these social
dissensions. He identified that these classes were guided by different sort of
interests and drives. For instance the elites always had the quest to govern over
others; contrary people prefer to live quietly. In other sense, in realm of politics
the elites were ambitious and the people were conservative and these two groups
cannot be reconciled, only under the right institutional set up they can learn to
coexist.
In the History of Florence, he also analyzed and attributed to the endemic social
conflict and violence in the city state of Florence. Machiavelli accepted that
conflict as permanent and universal phenomena. He concluded that there is a
natural class war between the people and the ruling nobility as the two main
causes of social disturbances. The internal cause of instability in state due to the
hatred that the poor harboured towards the rich and where rich sought to
dominate the poor. This endemic conflict can be managed with the provision of
equal participation in governance. Therefore, the stability of the state chiefly
depends upon the satisfaction of the dominant interests of these classes. This may
110 be the reason for the establishment of civic republicanism, the poor become
aware to protect themselves from despotic government or ruler and acted Machiavelli:
Republicanism
decisively to secure a better life. That was possible only with the overthrow of
the nobility or sharing of power.

8.3.1 Liberty
In the opening passage of the Discourses, Machiavelli described the growth of
freedom in ancient Rome and argued that those who had displayed prudence in
constituting a republic had looked upon the safeguarding of liberty as one of the
most essential things for which they had to provide.
In three books on Discourses, Machiavelli presented his themes of liberty. The
first book discussed about the how the Romans overthrew the rule of kings and
achieved their greatness through republican liberty. The second book illustrated
about the expansion of military power of Rome and to provide required liberty to
its people. The third book talked about the efforts of Romans for the continuation
of liberty.
Machiavelli drew a distinction between free and unfree states. According to him
states should govern themselves according to their own will. Machiavelli opined
that freedom produced not only powerful states but also strong individuals,
whose strength was not in dominating or influencing others but in the
independence of spirit, in their ability to think and decide for themselves. In other
sense, for Machiavelli, equated liberty with self-governance and independence,
where citizens exercise their political rights and also actively take part to protect
the internal and external integrity of the republic.
He believed that when people will have no fear of any type of arbitrariness of the
ruler, in that case they would contribute for the glory of their city through their
talents. In a sense, according to Machiavelli when a state is sovereign, free from
any external forces then people also feel powerful and strengthen. They cultivate
the affection for liberty as they know they will not be deprived of their patrimony
and their family and children will live in free air. Therefore, for Machiavelli, only
a republic can guarantee and preserve the liberty of people. But this could be
possible only if the citizens will exhibit the civic virtu. In other words,
Machiavelli upheld that virtu required to putting aside personal whims to
safeguard the life and liberty of state. Lets take Machiavelli’s account on the
defense of the city-state and emphasis on the army of citizens. Machiavelli’s this
conception was based on his observation of the politics of his times, particularly
the Italian politics and argued that a well- trained army of citizens is
indispensible in a republic for its maintenance. He strongly condemned the
mercenary army and wanted to substitute it with that of civic militia and the
citizens should never shirk of their duty to save the life and liberty of the state. In
short, by giving edge to public good over the private gains made citizens patriotic
and they in turn become the building block of a stable republic.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 111

 Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
BLOCK –IV
MACHIAVELLI ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Illustrate the reasons why Machiavelli gave importance to civic virtu and
liberty?
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8.4 THREATS TO LIBERTY AND REPUBLICANISM

8.4.1 Corruption
Machiavelli was the first to study the role of corruption in political life. He
upheld that lack of martial virtue led to the decline of civic virtues and thus
Italian society becomes a prey to the moral degradation and political corruption.
On the whole a republic can survive only if individuals possess the civic virtues.
Machiavelli observed a nexus between luxurious habits and moral decline most
significant threat to the liberty of the republic. He was further convinced that
when citizens give up their personal interest then republic can be kept free from
politics. The Prince also may need to enact laws to inculcate civic virtues among
the citizens over their self-interests. Thus, when citizens become aware about the
legal consequences of their actions then law and order can easily be maintained
in state. For Machiavelli, therefore, a mixed constitution can ensure that political
power is exercised for the good of the republic. It is essential for the republic to
be preserved from corruption. For this reason, Machiavelli, proposed a legal
mechanism to execute laws efficiently and guaranteed legal equality to eliminate
arbitrariness.

8.4.2 Mixed Constitution

Machiavelli did not differentiate between the different types of governments,
rather he accepted the Aristotle’s classification of the governments –monarchy,
aristocracy and democracy along with their perverted forms tyranny, oligarchy
and democracy. He concluded that in the beginning they provided the stable
government but in the absence of mechanism of check and balance they got
degenerated. Therefore, he identified the solution in the mixed form of
government. He asserted that in mixed type of government, arbitrary power can
be checked through the institutions of representation.
For the maintenance of internal and external liberty of state, he emphasized on
the republic government. He also talked about the extension of political power to
112 the citizens so that they can wisely exercise their political rights. These
conditions could be fulfilled within the framework of mixed government. For
him, Roman republic exhibited an excellent example of a mixed form of Machiavelli:
Republicanism
government where consuls represented the picture of monarchical principle, the
senate of the aristocratic, and the comitia and tribunes of democratic ideals. As a
result, factionalism was prevented with the promotion of common good and
preservation of liberty of people. All these are crucial for the stability of the
republic state.

8.4.3 Role of Law and Law Giver

Machiavelli had conviction that liberty can be only possible within the
framework of laws. Law can protect individuals from corrupt ruler and also can
liberate the individuals from becoming the victim of their natural self-destructive
tendency, namely the pursuit of self-interest. He believed that ruler can infuse the
civic virtue with the help of religion as well as good laws.
Machiavelli attached significant importance to the role of lawgiver. The primary
task of a legislator was to enact laws that would guarantee and safeguard liberty.
Rome could achieve greatness because of its continued efforts at introducing new
institutions that made liberty possible. Therefore, Machiavelli assigned an
important position to law-giver and law in his scheme of things. Force, fraud and
fear are no solid foundations for the society and the state and their use by ruler
needs to be reinforced by some force which has a greater appeal to man and
which is law. Law is indispensable for the society and the state. It moulds the
national character of the people. It inculcates moral and civic virtues in
individuals. These virtues are good for all states but are indispensable for
republics. In view of the selfish nature of man, law is the most effective means of
holding the society and the state together because it compels the egoistic
individual to honour his moral obligations. For this reason a wise law-giver is of
supreme importance. He is the architect not only of the state but of society as
well, with all its moral, religious and economic institutions.

8.4.4 Violence
Machiavelli advised the use of violence only for raison d’état of the state i.e. a
republic can be used for its expansion and conquests. But he also perceived
violence as a shock therapy which can cure corruption and rejuvenate civic virtu.
Here once again he upheld that rule of law can maintain peace and stability by
regulating the behavior of the citizens. In turn there would be fewer chances to
apply the force to regulate human behavior. As he had the belief that the
republican form of government, where people’s participation represented a form
of a social power, can reduce the use of violence in a society, if dealt in a proper
manner. He very rightly asserted that only weak regime may need to use violence
and cruelty to bring order of things in state. It’s always better to control the use of
violence and try to minimize the human cost through consensus.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
113
 ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
BLOCK –IV
MACHIAVELLI the unit.
1. Write down the ideals to secure republic as Machiavelli perceived.
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8.5 LET US SUM UP

The critics have unfortunately laid more stress on the prince where as
Machiavelli can best be understood in the ‘Discourses’. The Prince was written
for a particular object whereas in Discourses one can find him in republican
colors. He clearly says that the government is more stable when it is shared by
many. He prefers elections to heredity. He supports general freedom for
proposing the measures of public good. He permits the liberty of discussions so
that pros and cons of each problem may be heard for implementing any
particular measure. He says that the people must be independent and strong so
that they may acquire warlike qualities. Machiavelli only wanted to revive the
public spirit among the citizens, who put aside their petty interests and assist the
ruler to secure the state from the barbarians. He had only dream to see his native
land in prosperity.

8.6 REFERENCES
Bevir, Mark. (Ed.) (2010). Encyclopedia of Political Theory [Link]:
Sage Publications, Inc.
Bhandari, D.R. (1975). History of European Political Philosophy. Bangalore:
Bangalore Printing & Publishing Co., Ltd.
Nelson, Eric. (2006). Nationalism and Multiculturalism in John S. Dryzek,
Bonnie Honig & Anne Phillips (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Jha, Shefali. (2018). Western Political Thought: From the Ancient Greeks to
Modern Times. Noida: Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd.
McClelland, J.S. (2005). A History of Western Political Thought. London:
Routledge.
Morrow, John. (2005). History of Western Political Thought: A Thematic
Introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mukherjee, Subrata and S. Ramaswamy. (2011). A History of Political Thought:
114 Plato to Marx. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Ltd.
Sethi, Yoginder and M.L. Dhawan. (1959). Readings in Political Thought. Delhi: Machiavelli:
Republicanism
Atma Ram and Sons.
Singh, Sukhbir. (1994). History of Political Thought, Vol. I. Meerut: Rastogi and
Company.
Skinner, Quentin. (2000). Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Suda, J.P. (1970). A History of Political Thought: From Machiavelli to Burke,
[Link]. Meerut: Jai Prakash Nath & Co.
Heywood, Andrew. (2013). Political Theory: An Introduction. Palgrave
Macmillan: New York.
Nederman, Cary. (2019). Niccolò Machiavelli. Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. URL: [Link]

8.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 In General, importance of history for Machiavelli
 Republican government in Rome
 Romans passion for liberty
 Their devotion and patriotism for Rome

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 The idea of republic was germinated in late Medieval Europe
 During political churning a number of powerful city-states defined
their own notion of freedom and defied the rule of a few selected
notables and preferred rule by the people of the city.
 Slow degradation of republican institutions.
 Rule of Medici family in 1434-1494

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Civic virtue in ruler i.e. of warlike qualities to defend the state
 Civic virtue in people infuses patriotic values and public spiritedness
that is necessary for the preservation of the state and individual
liberty.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points 115
  Corruption
BLOCK –IV
MACHIAVELLI  Mixed Constitution
 Role of Law and Lawgiver
 Violence

116