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Power System II
Spring 2022/2023
Symmetrical Fault
Prof. Sharifi

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Policy and Contents

• Course Policy
2
• Textbook: Power System Analysis and Design by Glover and Sharma, 7th edition, 2012
• References: Elements of Power System by William D. Stephenson
• Contact Details: prsys2@[Link]
• Cell Phone: Office Hour : by appointment

Course Contents 1- SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

2- SYMMETRICAL COMPONENENTS
4- TEANSIENT STABILITY

3- UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
5- POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
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Major Faults in Recent

3 Date Location Affected people

July 2012 India blackout 620 million

JAN 2001 India blackout 230 million
NOV 2014 Bangladesh blackout 150 million
2015 Pakistan blackout 140 million
2005 Java–Bali blackout 100 million
1999 Southern Brazil blackout 97 million
2009 Brazil and Paraguay blackout 87 million
2015 Turkey blackout 70 million
2003 Northeast USA- Canada blackout 55 million
2003 Italy blackout 55 million
1978 Thailand Nationwide blackout of 40 million
1965 Northeast USA- Canada blackout 30 million
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What is Outage
4
Outage by Definition
• The outage must not be planned by the service provider.
• The outage must affect at least 1,000 people and last at least one hour.
• There must be at least 1,000,000 person-hours of disruption.
• Sigma and Power Quality
• 3 Sigma means no electricity for 7 hours each month
• 6 Sigma means no electricity for 1 hour each 34 years

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Causes of Electrical Faults

5 1. Weather Conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt deposition on
overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on transmission lines, etc. These
environmental conditions interrupt the power supply and also damage electrical installations.
2. Equipment Failures: Various electrical equipment like generators, motors, transformers,
reactors, switching devices, etc causes short circuit faults due to malfunctioning, ageing,
insulation failure of cables and winding. These failures result in high current to f low through the
devices or equipment which further damages it.
3. Human Errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as selecting improper
rating of equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or electrical conducting parts after servicing or
maintenance, switching the circuit while it is under servicing, etc.
4. Smoke of Fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the overhead lines results
in spark between the lines or between conductors to insulator. This flashover causes insulators to
lose their insulting capacity due to high voltages.

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Effects of electrical faults

6 [Link] current flow: When fault occurs it creates a very low impedance path for the
current flow. This results in a very high current being drawn from the supply, causing
tripping of relays, damaging insulation and components of the equipment.
[Link] to operating personnel: Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to individuals.
Severity of the shock depends on the current and voltage at fault location and even
may lead to death.
[Link] of equipment: Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the components
being burnt completely which leads to improper working of equipment or device.
Sometimes heavy fire causes complete burnout of the equipment.
[Link] interconnected active circuits: Faults not only affect the location at which
they occur but also disturbs the active interconnected circuits to the faulted line.
[Link] fires: Short circuit causes flashovers and sparks due to the ionization of air
between two conducting paths which further leads to fire as we often observe in
news such as building and shopping complex fires.

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Fault limiting devices

7 [Link]: It is the primary protecting device. It is a thin wire enclosed in a
casing or glass which connects two metal parts. This wire melts when
excessive current flows in circuit. Type of fuse depends on the voltage
at which it is to operate. Manual replacement of wire is necessary once
it blowout.
[Link] devices
[Link] breaker: It makes the circuit at normal as well as breaks at abnormal
conditions. It causes automatic tripping of the circuit when fault occurs. It can be
electromechanical circuit breaker like vacuum / oil circuit breakers etc, or
ultrafast electronic circuit breaker .
[Link]: It is condition based operating switch. It consists of magnetic coil and
normally open and closed contacts. Fault occurrence raises the current which
energizes relay coil, resulting in the contacts to operate so the circuit is
interrupted from flowing of current. Protective relays are of different types like
impedance relays, mho relays, etc.
[Link] power protection devices: These include lighting arrestors and
grounding devices to protect the system against lighting and surge voltages.
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Transmission Fault Analysis

8 • The cause of electric power system faults is insulation
breakdown/compromise. This breakdown can be due to a variety of
different factors:
• Lightning ionizing air,
• Wires blowing together in the wind,
• Animals or plants coming in contact with the wires,
• Salt spray or pollution on insulators.

Transmission Fault Types

• There are two main types of faults:
• symmetric faults: system remains balanced; these faults are relatively rare, but are the easiest to analyze so
we’ll consider them first.
• unsymmetrical faults: the system is no longer balanced; very common, but more difficult to analyze
(considered in EE 368L).
• The most common type of fault on a three-phase system by far is the :
• single line-to-ground (SLG),
• line-to-line faults (LL),
• double line to-ground (DLG) faults, and
• balanced three-phase faults. MSS-1402

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Lightning Strike Event Sequence

9
[Link] hits line, setting up an ionized path to ground
• 30 million lightning strikes per year in US!
• a single typical stroke might have 25,000 amps, with a rise time of
10 µs, dissipated in 200 µs.
• multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the lightning to
appear to flicker, with the total event lasting up to a second.
[Link] path is maintained by ionized air after lightning
stroke energy has dissipated, resulting in high fault currents
(often > 25,000 amps!)

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Lightning Strike Sequence, (cont’d)

10
[Link] one to two cycles (16 ms) relays at both ends of
line detect high currents, signaling circuit breakers to
open the line:
• nearby locations see decreased voltages
[Link] breakers open to de-energize line in an additional
one to two cycles:
• breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is no small
feat!
• with line removed voltages usually return to near normal.
[Link] breakers may reclose after several seconds, trying
to restore faulted line to service.
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Fault Analysis
11
•Fault currents cause equipment damage due
to both thermal and mechanical processes.
•Goal of fault analysis is to determine the
magnitudes of the currents present during
the fault:
need to determine the maximum current to
ensure devices can survive the fault,
need to determine the maximum current the
circuit breakers (CBs) need to interrupt to
correctly size the CBs.
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Types of Fault
12
• Definition: LLL(1-2%)
Electrical fault Symmetrical
Faults (5%)
is the deviation LLLG(2-3%)
of voltages and
Types of Faults

Short Circuit
currents from Fault SLG (70-80%)
nominal values
Unsymmetrical
or states Faults (95%)
LL (15-20%)
• Fault Current vs
One-Phase Open LLG (5-10%)
Short Circuit
current Open Circuit
2-Phae Open
Fault

3-phae Open

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Fault Statistics
13

Transmission • Transmission Lines

• Busbars
85%
12%
Systems • Generators/Transformers 3%

• SLG 80%
Transmission • Lint-to-Line 5%

Lines •
•
LLG
3-phase
10%
5%

• Hydro turbine 6.2

Fault per 100 •
•
Hydro Generators
Transformers
14.6
2-3
units/year • Breakers 1
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• CT & VT 0.2

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SYMMETRICAL
FAULTS
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RL Circuit Analysis
15 To understand fault analysis, we need to review the behavior of an RL circuit.
When the switch is closed at t=0 the current will have two components:
1) a steady-state value ;
2) a transient value.
𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 = 2𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼
𝑑𝑡
2𝑉
𝑖 𝑡 =𝑖 𝑡 +𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝜃 𝑒 ⁄ 𝐴 (𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑍
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − 𝜃 𝐴 (𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
⁄
𝑖 𝑡 =− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝜃 𝑒 𝐴 𝑑𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓 − 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅 𝑅 𝜔𝐿 𝑋
𝑍= 𝑅 +𝑋 ; 𝑋 = 𝜔𝐿; T= = ; 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑔 = 𝑡𝑔
𝐿 𝑋⁄2𝜋𝑓 𝑅 𝑅

0 𝛼=𝜃
𝐼 = 𝐴 𝐼 =
𝛼 = 𝜃 ± 90°
Our interest is in maximum fault current; therefore
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𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 2𝐼 𝑒 ⁄ =𝐼 1 + 2𝑒 ⁄ 𝐴; 𝐼 𝑡 =𝐼 1 + 2𝑒 ⁄ ⁄ 𝑝𝑢

16 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
𝐼 𝜏 =𝐼 1 + 2𝑒 =𝐾 𝜏 ; 𝐾 𝜏 1 + 2𝑒

3𝐼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = 0
𝐼 =
𝐼 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝜏 = ∞

Example7.1: A bolted short circuit occurs in the R-L circuit with V=20 kV, X=8 Ohms, and R=0.8 Ohms, and
with maximum dc offset. The circuit breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception. Determine (a) rms ac fault
current, (b) the rms “momentary” current at τ = 0.5 cu=cycle, which passes through the breaker before it
opens, and (c) the rms asymmetrical fault current that the breaker interrupts.

20 × 10
𝑎. 𝐼 = = 2.488 𝑘𝐴
8 + 0.8

𝑏. 𝑋⁄𝑅 = 8⁄0.8 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 = 0.5 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒; 𝐼 =𝐼 1 + 2𝑒 . ⁄ = 2.488 1.438 = 3.576 𝑘𝐴

c. 𝑋⁄𝑅 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 = 3 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒; 𝐼 3 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2.488 1 + 2𝑒 ⁄ = 2.544 𝐾𝐴 MSS-1402

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𝟑 − ∅ SHORT CIRCUIT—UNLOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

17 The ac fault current in a synchronous machine can be modeled by the series R–L
circuit of Figure 7.1 if a time-varying inductance L(t) reactance X(t)=L(t) is
employed. In standard machine theory texts , the following reactance are defined:

𝑋 =armature winding reactance

𝑋 = 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑋 = 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑋 = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

1 1
𝑋" = 𝑋 + 𝑋 =𝑋 + 𝑋 =𝑋 +𝑋
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
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3 − ∅ SHORT CIRCUIT—UNLOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

18

𝐼 =𝐼 0 = sub-transient Fault Current

𝐸
𝐼 = transient FaultCurrent
𝑋
𝐼 ∞ = =I steady state Fault current
When 𝑇 > 𝑡 > 𝑇

The ac fault current in one phase of an unloaded

synchronous machine during a 3 − ∅ short circuit (the
dc offset current is removed)
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EX. 7.2 3 − ∅ short-circuit currents, unloaded synchronous generator

A 500-MVA 20-kV, 60-Hz synchronous generator with reactances 𝑋 = 0.15𝑝𝑢. 𝑋 = 0.24 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑋 = 1.1 𝑝𝑢 and time constants 𝑇 =
19
0.035, 𝑇 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑇 = 0.2 𝑠 is connected to a circuit breaker. The generator is operating at 5% above rated voltage and at no-load when a bolted
three-phase short circuit occurs on the load side of the breaker. The breaker interrupts the fault 3 cycles after fault inception. Determine (a) the
subtransient fault current in per-unit and kA rms; (b) maximum dc offset as a function of time; and (c) rms asymmetrical fault current, which the
breaker interrupts, assuming maximum dc offset.

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Power System Three-Phase Short Circuits

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• Assume following assumptions:
1)TF are represented by their leakage reactances. Winding resistances, shunt
admittances, and Delta–Y phase shifts are neglected.
2)TL are represented by their equivalent series reactances. Series resistances
and shunt admittances are neglected.
3)Synchronous machines are represented by constant-voltage sources
behind subtransient reactances. Armature resistance, saliency, and
saturation are neglected.
4)All nonrotating impedance loads are neglected.
5)Induction motors are either neglected (especially for small motors rated
less than 50 hp (40 kW)) or represented in the same manner as
synchronous machines.

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Apply Supper Position to Calculate 3-phase Fault

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Example: Three-phase short-circuit currents, power system

22 The given synchronous generator is operating at rated MVA, 0.95 p.f. lagging and
at 5% above rated voltage when a bolted 3-phase short circuit occurs at bus 1.
Calculate the per-unit values of (a) subtransient fault current; (b) subtransient
generator and motor currents, neglecting pre-fault current; and (c) subtransient
generator and motor currents including pre-fault current.
Solution: Using 100 MVA and 13.5 kV as base quantities at Generator, we have

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BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

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EX. 7.4 Using Zbus to compute 3 − ∅ short- circuit currents in a power system
Faults at bus 1 and 2 in given Figure are of interest. The pre-fault voltage is 1.05 per unit and
24 pre-fault load current is neglected. (a) Determine the 2X2 positive-sequence bus impedance
matrix. (b) For a bolted three-phase short circuit at bus 1, use Zbus to calculate the subtransient
fault current and the contribution to the fault current from the transmission line. (c) Repeat part
(b) for a bolted three-phase short circuit at bus 2.

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CIRCUIT BREAKER AND FUSE SELECTION

26
• Now a day computer program are utilized in power system design to select,
set, and coordinate protective equipment such as circuit breakers, fuses,
relays, and instrument transformers.
• Protection Devices:
• Fuses
• Circuit Breakers (CB)
• Switches
• Relays
• Instrument transformers (CT and PT)

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FUSES
27 • A fuse is the simplest and least expensive circuit protection device available. A fuse
is a metallic component which is placed within an electrical circuit to monitor the
current that passes through the circuit. A shorted circuit in an electrical system can
cause excessive current to flow through some of the components. These
components heat up and eventually burn up, perhaps destroying the whole
electrical system. Fortunately, having an inexpensive built-in protection device,
such as a fuse, to quickly sense the short circuit condition and immediately shut
the electrical circuit will prevent equipment damage.
• Fast Acting Fuses (in about one second)
• Slow Blow Fuses (upto 30 seconds)

Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switch capable of interrupting  Low Voltage CB (<1500 V)
fault currents and of reclosing.
Types of Circuit Breakers Depending on the mediums:
 Thermal Circuit Breakers : THERMAL Circuit
Breakers work on the principle of temperature rise in the  air,
activators sensing element.  oil,
 Magnetic Circuit Breakers  SF6 gas, or
Circuit Breaker also can classified according to the operating  vacuum
voltage
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 Power Circuit Breakers (>1500 V)

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Important Ratings of CB
28 1)Voltage ratings
• Rated maximum voltage: Designates the maximum rms line-to-line operating voltage. The breaker should be used in systems
with an operating voltage less than or equal to this rating.
• Rated low frequency withstand voltage: The maximum 60-Hz rms line to-line voltage that the circuit breaker can withstand
without insulation damage.
• Rated impulse withstand voltage: The maximum crest voltage of a voltage pulse with standard rise and delay times that the
breaker insulation can withstand.
• Rated voltage range factor K: The range of voltage for which the symmetrical interrupting capability times the operating
voltage is constant.

2) Current ratings
 Rated continuous current: The maximum 60-Hz rms current that the breaker can carry continuously while it is in the closed position
without overheating.
 Rated short-circuit current: The maximum rms symmetrical current that the breaker can safely interrupt at rated maximum voltage.
 Rated momentary current: The maximum rms asymmetrical current that the breaker can withstand while in the closed position
without damage. Rated momentary current for standard breakers is 1.6 times the symmetrical interrupting capability.
 Rated interrupting time: The time in cycles on a 60-Hz basis from the instant the trip coil is energized to the instant the fault current is
cleared.
 Rated interrupting MVA: For a three-phase circuit breaker, this is 3 times the rated maximum voltage in kV times the rated short-
circuit current in kA. It is more common to work with current and voltage ratings than with MVA rating. MSS-1402

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Table 7.10: Preferred ratings for outdoor circuit breakers (symmetrical current basis of rating) [10]
(Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis, ANSI
C37.010 (New York: American National Standards Institute, 1972).>1972 IEEE)
29

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EXAMPLE 7.7 Circuit breaker selection

30 The calculated symmetrical fault current is 17 kA at a three-phase bus where the operating voltage
is 64 kV. The X/R ratio at the bus is unknown. Select a circuit breaker from Table 7.10 for this bus.
SOLUTION: The 69-kV-class breaker has a symmetrical interrupting capability 𝐼 𝑉 ⁄𝑉 =
19 72.5/64 = 21.5 𝑘𝐴 at the operating voltage 𝑉 = 64 𝐾𝑉. The calculated symmetrical fault
current, 17 kA, is less than 80% of this capability (less than 0.80x21.5=17.2 KA), which is a
requirement when X/R is unknown. Therefore, we select the 69-kV-class breaker from Table 7.10.

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