Chapter Two: Development of Computers

Chapter Two
Development of Computers
2.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson you will be in a position to:

 define a computer
 identify characteristics of computer
 know the origin and evolution of computer
 identify capability of computer in terms of speed and accuracy
 distinguish computer from human beings and calculator
 identify the role of computer
 appreciate the evolution of computer through five generations

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Let us begin with the word ‘compute’. It means ‘to calculate’. We all are familiar with
calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for calculations. Simpler
calculations take less time. But complex calculations take much longer time. Another
factor is accuracy in calculations. So man explored with the idea to develop a machine
which can perform this type of arithmetic calculation faster and with full accuracy. This
gave birth to a device or machine called ‘computer’.

The computer we see today is quite different from the one made in the beginning. The
number of applications of a computer has increased, the speed and accuracy of
calculation has increased. You must appreciate the impact of computers in our day to
day life. Reservation of tickets in Air Lines and Railways from home, payment of
telephone and electricity bills, deposits and withdrawals of money from banks, business
data processing, medical diagnosis, weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas
where computer has become extremely useful.

However, there is one limitation of the computer. Human beings do calculations on

their own. But computer is a dumb machine and it has to be given proper instructions to
carry out its calculation. This is why we should know how a computer works.

2.3 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

Computer is an electronic device. As mentioned in the introduction it can do arithmetic

calculations faster. But as you will see later it does much more than that. It can be
compared to a magic box, which serves different purpose to different people. For a
common man computer is simply a calculator, which works automatic and quite fast.
For a person who knows much about it, computer is a machine capable of solving

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 Chapter Two: Development of Computers

problems and manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the data by doing some
mathematical and logical operations and gives us the desired output.

Therefore, we may define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be
anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex,
weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments,
etc., of a country. Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can i) accept
data ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the stored data as and
when required and v) print the result in desired format. You will know more about these
functions as you go through the later lessons.

Fig. 2.1 below depicts a personal computer.

Fig.2.1: Personal Computer

2.4 HISTORY OF COMPUTER

History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers.
This process of counting of large numbers generated various systems of numeration like
Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of
numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of
numeration has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern decimal system of
numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Later you will know how the computer solves all
calculations based on decimal system. But you will be surprised to know that the
computer does not understand the decimal system and uses binary system of numeration
for processing.

We will briefly discuss some of the path-breaking inventions in the field of computing
devices.

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2.4.1 Calculating Machines

It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large
numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian
and Chinese people.

The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal

positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. A modern form of ABACUS is given
in Fig. 2.2. It has a number of horizontal bars each having ten beads. Horizontal bars
represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.

Fig.2.2: Abacus Computer

2.4.2 Napier’s bones

English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of
multiplication in 1617 A D. The device was known as Napier’s bones.

2.4.3 Slide Rule

English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could
perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely
used in Europe in 16th century.

2.4.4 Pascal's Adding and Subtractory Machine

You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at the age of
19 that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

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 Chapter Two: Development of Computers

2.4.5 Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine

The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a
mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.

2.4.6 Babbage’s Difference Engine and Analytical Engine

It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical
machine to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. This
machine could automatically compute and print results (mathematical tables) without
human intervention. It was accurate to five significant digits. Later he developed a
general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. This machine could have
memory unit, arithmetic unit and punched card for input. Unfortunately it was not
functional. Charles Babbage is called the father of computer.

2.4.7 Mechanical and Electrical Calculator

In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all
sorts of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the
rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called
the electrical calculator.

2.4.8 Modern Electronic Calculator

The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite
bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators
became too small.

The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations
and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some
calculators have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.

Fig. 2.3: Vacuum tube, transistor, IC

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2.5 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Based on the application of computers for various purpose computers can be classified
into three types:

1. Analog Computers
Computers that use analog signals for calculating and transmitting data are called
analog computers. It can be defined as “A device that operates on data in the form of
continuously varying physical quantities.” The values of the analog signals are
continuously changing with states in between high and low. Analog data is calculated
using the concept of “measuring values” like magnitude in terms of voltage, length,
current, etc. The analog data is transmitted in a continuous form that closely
reassembles the information it represents. Electrical signals on a telephone line are
nothing but analog data representing the original voice.
e.g. Slide Rule, Thermometer, Hydrodynamics

2. Digital Computers
The computers that use digital signals to calculate and transmit data are called digital
computers. The word digital is derived from the word “digit”. The word digit simply
means numeral. The digital signal has only two states in which it can be represented.
They are ON and OFF or HIGH and LOW or 1 and 0. Digital data is calculated using
the concept of “counting values”. The result obtained from the digital computer is more
accurate when compared to the analog computers. These computers manipulate digital
data and perform arithmetic and logical operations on these data. To facilitate the
performance of digital computers intermediate languages such as BASIC, COBOL,
FORTRAN, PASCAL, C, C++, JAVA, etc. have been developed.

3. Hybrid Computers
Computer systems that use both analog and digital mechanisms are called hybrid
computers. Desirable features of analog and digital computers are combined to develop
a hybrid computer. In hospitals, the intensive care unit, an analog device measures a
patient’s heart function, temperature and other vital signs, these measurements are then
converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component that monitors the patient’s
vital signs and signals to a nurse’s station.

2.6 COMPUTER GENERATIONS

The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we
see today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during
the last fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can
be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each phase is
distinguished from others on the basis of the type of switching circuits used.

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2.6.1 First Generation Computers

First generation computers used Thermion valves (vacuum tubes). These computers
were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult since they use low level
languages (machine languages and assembly languages). They used punched card as a
major secondary storage media. The memory access time of these computers was in
milliseconds. Some of the computers of this generation were:

ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of

Pennsylvania, USA by John Eckert and John Mauchy. It was named Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 30 50 feet long,
weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors
and required 150,000 watts of electricity. Today any computer is many times as
powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.

EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was
developed in 1950. The concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was
introduced here. This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid
access to both data and instructions. The other advantage of storing instruction was that
computer could do logical decision internally.

Limitations of First Generation Computer

Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.

 The operating speed was quite slow.

 Power consumption was very high.

 It required large space for installation.

 The programming capability was quite low.

 The tubes produced a lot of heat and so they require ventilation

 They were unreliable because when the vacuum tubes get hot they would
corrupt.

2.6.2 Second Generation Computers

Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first
generation computer. Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher
operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was
also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.

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It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU),
memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The
dominant memory media was magnetic tape. The operating system used was batch
operating system. The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were
developed during this period. Second generation computers were faster than the first
generation computers (the memory access time was in micro seconds). Some of the
computers of the Second Generation were

1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and
mostly used for scientific purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.

2.6.3 Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used Integrated Circuits
(ICs). These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors,
registers and capacitors built on a single chip (thin slice of silicon). The dominant
storage media was magnetic disc. The operating system of these generation computers
is interactive operating system. The memory access time was in nanoseconds. So it is
quite obvious that the size of the computer got further reduced. Some of the computers
developed during this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750.
Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code) was developed during this period.

Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing
speed is very high.

2.6.4 Fourth Generation Computers

The present day computers are the fourth generation computers that started around
1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place
computer’s central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called
microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.

Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be
placed on a table.

2.6.5 Fifth Generation Computer

The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth Generation computers. The speed is
extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel
processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the
computer to take its own decision. It is still in a developmental stage.

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2.7 TYPES OF COMPUTERS SYSTEMS (based on capacity and size of

microprocessor)

Now let us discuss the varieties of computers that we see today. Although they belong
to the fifth generation they can be divided into different categories depending upon the
size, efficiency, memory and number of users. Broadly they can be divided into the
following four categories.

1. Microcomputer: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in

terms of speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first
microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common
application of personal computers (PC) is in this category. The PC supports a
number of input and output devices. An improvement of 8-bit chip is 16-bit and
32-bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT.
2. Mini Computer: This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It
possesses large storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini
computer is used in multi-user system in which various users can work at the
same time. This type of computer is generally used for processing large volume
of data in an organization. They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks
(LAN).
3. Mainframes: These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors.
They operate at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can
handle the work load of many users. They are generally used in centralized
databases. They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks
(WAN). Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.
4. Supercomputer: They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have
high processing speed compared to other computers. They have also
multiprocessing technique. One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is
by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly
being used for whether forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft
design and other areas of science and technology. Examples of supercomputers
are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from India.

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2.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Let us identify the major characteristics of computer. These can be discussed under the
headings of speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and memory.

1. Speed

Computers can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take
hours to complete if we make use of computers.

Computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10 -6 part of a
second) or nano-second (10-9 part of a second).

2. Storage

The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. It is
also possible to store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be
kept outside a given computer and can be carried to other computers.

3. Accuracy

Suppose some one calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing. Such
result is useless. There is another aspect. Suppose you want to divide 15 by 7. You may
work out up to 2 decimal places and say the dividend is 2.14. I may calculate up to 4
decimal places and say that the result is 2.1428. Some one else may go up to 9 decimal
places and say the result is 2.142857143. Hence, in addition to speed, the computer
should have accuracy or correctness in computing.

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of
computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.

4. Automatic

Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it continues without the need for human
intervention until completion. But don’t be confused that human intervention is
unavoidable (for example it is human that starts a computer).

5. Versatility

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It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory
management or to prepare electric bills.

6. Diligence

A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability
it overpowers human being in routine type of work. Moreover, computer does not go on
sick leave, nor annual leave, not maternity leave, nor strike, nor require old age pension.
As long as there is no failure of power and no defect in the machine itself, it will never
be unoperational.

7. Can’t Think

Even if it is artificially intelligent, it does nothing more than it is programmed to do nor

does it know whether it could do. It does not create a brand new idea.

8. No Feeling

It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not
get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

9. Power of Remembering

Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information
can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends
entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or
retrieve these data.

10. No IQ

Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to
decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own
decision as you can.

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