1.

Types of civil engineering materials Portions of ingredients

• Metals • Volumetric composition of concrete
• Cement & Concrete –Cement or binder 6 – 16 %
• Polymer • Timber – Water 12 – 20 %
• Asphalt • Glass – Fine aggregates 20 – 30 %
• Soil & Stone • Masonry – Coarse aggregates 40 – 55 %
– Air content 1 – 8 %
2. Primary performance criteria • Optional components
• Strength – Measure of resistance of material to failure – Admixture
• Deformation – Deflections due to loads, temperature, moisture – Supplementary
• Density – Measure of unit weight of materials cementitious materials:
• Durability – Length of time for which it is required to satisfy design • Silica fume • Fly ash • Slag • Pozzolans
purpose – Fibers:
• Sustainability – Environmental aspect • Steel • Polypropylene • Glass • Carbon • Nylon • Natural

3. Secondary performance criteria Typical Properties of Structural Concrete

• Thermal properties – heat transmittance,heat absorption • Compressive strength 35 MPa
Acoustic properties – sound transmittance; sound reflection • Flexural strength 6 MPa
Optical properties – for glass and other light-transmitting materials • Tensile strength 3 MPa
Electrical properties – electrical conductivity /resistance /insulation Modulus of elasticity 28 GPa
• Surface properties – colour, texture Poisson’s ratio 0.18
Tensile strain at failure 0.001
Concrete Coefficient of thermal expansion 10 x 10-6/oC
1. Introduction 2. Cement & Hydration 3. Aggregates 4. Admixture Ultimate shrinkage strain 0.05-0.1%
5. Fresh Concrete 6. Mix Design 7. Curing Density:
8. Properties of hardened concrete Normal weight 2300 kg/m3
9. Testing on Hardened Concrete Lightweight 1800 kg/m3

Introduction Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete

as A Construction Material
Applications Advantage Disadvantage
residential and commercial buildings, bridges, flyovers, culverts, Ability to be cast Low tensile strength
dams, tunnels. Roads, runways, foundations, piles, sewers, offshore Economical Low ductility (toughness)
platforms, nuclear power station, radiation shield, fire and corrosion Durable Volume instability
protection of steel structures Fire & water resistant Low strength-to-weight ratio
Energy efficient
Concrete as A Construction Material On-site fabrication
• Ease of production from local materials & experience (cost benefit) Aesthetic properties
• Mouldability to achieve any shape and size
• A durable material in principle Cement and hydration
• Excellent material for fire resistance
• Requires less energy to produce than other construction materials Nature of concrete
• Aesthetic possibilities through the use of color, texture, and shape • Concrete - composite material
• A material with tailorable properties - Aggregates (fine & coarse) of
different sizes and shapes are
Several Construction Materials randomly dispersed in cement
Material Energy Requirement (GJ/m3): paste (cement + water)
Aluminium 360, Steel 300, Glass 50, Concrete 3.4 • Aggregate: discrete phase
• Cement paste: continuous phase
What is Concrete? • Aggregate-cement paste interfacial bond
• Artificial stone produced from sand and stone together with
cement paste (cement + water) Roles of Cement Paste / Binder
• Cement paste fills the space between stone and sand particles • Coats the aggregate particles
• Concretus (a Latin word) • Fills the spaces between aggregate particles
– Compact – Condensed – To grow together • Binds the aggregate particles
• Provides strength & stiffness to concrete
Requirements on water for cement paste (BS EN 1008) • Responsible for time-dependent deformation
• Drinking water: Suitable for concrete. Does not need to be tested (shrinkage & creep)
• Water recovered from processes in the concrete industry (wash
water): Generally suitable for concrete but the requirements in the Cement (BS EN 197-1:2000)
standard must be met) • Cement is a hydraulic binder, a finely ground inorganic material
• Ground water, natural surface water and industrial process water: which, when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and
May be suitable for concrete but must be tested hardens by means of hydration reactions and processes and which,
• Sea water or brackish water: May be used for non-reinforced after hardening, retains its strength and stability even under water
concrete but is not suitable for reinforced or pre-stressed concrete
• • Waste - water: Not suitable for concrete Raw Materials of Portland Cement
• Clay, Shale – silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3)
Ingredients of Modern Concrete • Limestone, Chalk – calcium CaCO3 à CaO (lime) + CO2
• Binder materials: Portland cements (various types), • Iron Ore – Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) • Gypsum – Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O)
• Aggregates: Fine aggregates < 5mm, Coarse aggregates > 5mm
• Water • Admixtures • Fiber Manufacture of Portland Cement
• Collect the raw materials etc limestone, clay, shale
• Grind the raw material into a very fine powder.
• Mix them in predetermined proportions.
• Burn them in a large rotary kiln at a temperature of about 1400ºC
when the material sinters and partially fuses into clinker
• The clinker is cooled and grind to a fine powder, with some
gypsum added, and resulting product is the commercial Portland
cement.
Major Chemical Compounds of Ordinary Portland Cement Water Is Added to Cement
Major compounds • Dissolution of cement grains
– Tri-calcium silicate [C3S] • Growing ionic concentration in “water” (now a solution)
3CaO.SiO2 • Formation of compounds in solution
– Di-calcium silicate [C2S] • After reaching a saturation concentration, compounds precipitate
2CaO . SiO2 out as solids (“hydration products”)
– Tri-calcium aluminate [C3A] • In later stages, products form on or very near the surface of the
2CaO . Al2O3 anhydrous cement
– Tetra-calcium alumino-ferrite [C4AF]
4CaO Al2O3 . Fe2O3 Hydration of A Cement Grain With Time

Composition limits of Portland Cement

Hydration of Calcium Silicates (75% of Cement)

• 2C3S + 11H → C3S2H8 + 3CH Δ H = 500 J/g

Properties of Major Compounds • 2C2S + 9H → C3S2H8 (C-S-H) + CH Δ H = 250 J/g
• C3S: Tricalcium silicate
– Hardens quickly; heat evolved (500 J/g) – C3S hydration is more rapid and evolving more heat
– Early age strength; Light colour – C3S is responsible for the setting of cement (or concrete) and
• C2S: Dicalcium silicate contributes to early age strength (2-3 hrs to 14 days)
– Hardens slowly; Less heat evolved (250 J/g) – C3S produces more CH (source for sulfate attack, a durability
– Later age strength; Light colour concern)
• C3A: Tricalcium aluminate – C2S hydration occurs more slowly and contributes to later age
– Reacts quickly; heat evolved (850 J/g) strength after ~7-14 days
– Very early setting and strength gain; Poor resistance to sulphate;
Light colour Hydration of Tricalcium Aluminate
• C4AF: Tetracalcium aluminoferrite • Pure C3A hydrates rapidly and produce flash set
– Reacts quickly; heat evolved (400 J/g) – C3A + 6H → 3C3AH6
– Little strength; Dark colour • In the presence of gypsum, C3A hydration is controlled and flash
setting is avoided
Physical Properties of Portland Cement – C3A + 3CSH2 + 26H → C6AS3H32 ΔH = 850 J/g
• Specific gravity Gcement = 3.15 (gypsum) Calcium sulfoaluminate (Ettringite)
– Measured for cement particles without air voids • Additional C3A is a source for sulfate attack
– Bulk unit weight (weight required to fill a container) is highly • The aluminates hydrates faster than silicates with increased heat
variable. of Hydration
– Cement should not be measured by volume
• Particle shape: Angular Heat of Hydration of Cement
• Particle Sizes: 0.1 to 90 𝝁m • The hydration reaction of Portland cement are all exothermic.
• Quantity of heat evolved depends on
Fineness of Cement – Chemical composition
• Smaller cement particles have more surface area to react with – Temperature
water – Age of cement
– Fineness controls the rate of hydration (heat & strength gain) – Fineness of cement
– Too fine is more expensive and can be harmful

Hydration of Cement
• Reaction between cement particles and water
– Change in matter
• Cement hydration products formed
• Decrease in porosity
– Change in energy level
• Heat is generated; Temperature rise
– Rate of reaction
• Composition and Fineness of cement
• Increased with the increase in temperature
• Decreased with the increase in time
• Decreased with the decrease in moisture content
Microstructure of Hydration Products Initial Porosity of Cement Paste

C-S-H Calcium hydroxide Etttringite

Characteristics of Hydration Products

Abram’s Law on W/C Ratio and

Concrete Compressive Strength
• Abram’s law
𝝈=𝑨
Structure of Cement Paste 𝑩𝒘/𝒄
Where 𝝈 is the strength of
concrete, A and B are constants,
w/c is the water-cement ratio,
(0.3 to 1.2)

Degree of Hydration (Maturity)

• Fraction of cement hydrated, 𝜶,
ranging from 0 to 1

Voids in Hardened Cement Paste

• Entrapped air ( > 1 mm)
– Large pockets caused by handling
– Decrease strength and increase permeability
• Entrained air (10 μ m – 1 mm)
– Microscopic bubbles caused by admixtures
– No effect on permeability; improved durability
• Capillary voids (10 nm to 10 μ m)
– Extra water beyond hydration needs causes capillary voids
– Reduces strength/stiffness and increases permeability
– Depends on initial porosity (w/c ratio) and degree of hydration
• Gel pores (0.5 – 10 nm): Interlayer hydration space
– Space between C-S-H gel atomic layers
– Gel porosity = 26% (independent of w/c ratio and age)

Compressive Strength as A Function of

Capillary Porosity as A Function of Maturity
Capillary Porosity

Water to Cement Ratio

• The most important property of hydrating cement
• Extra water beyond hydration needs causes capillary voids
– Increases porosity and permeability Capillary Porosity as A Function of W/C
– Decreases strength Ratio and Maturity
– Decreases durability
• Water to cement (W/C) ratio is expended to water to cementitious
material (W/CM) ratio or water to binder (W/B) ratio when
supplementary
cementitious materials are used as the binder system
 Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM)
• Inorganic material
• Particle size similar or smaller than that of cement
• Used as either partial cement replacement (or addition)
– Property modification of concrete
– Reduce energy cost and economic benefit
– Environmental benefit
• Added separately as concrete ingredient
• Incorporated in cement (Blended cement)
• Common SCM
– Fly ash
– Silica fume
– Ground granulated blast-furnace slag

• Reduce overall heat of hydration & thermal cracking

• Reduce porosity & permeability of concrete
• Increase ultimate strength of concrete
• Improve durability of concrete
Setting of Portland Cement • Improve workability (consistency and cohesiveness)
• Setting: stiffening of the cement paste from a fluid to a rigid stage • Is more economic and sustainable
– Initial set (2 to 4 hrs): paste is beginning to stiffen considerably
and can no longer be molded. Handling, placing, & consolidating Fly Ash
must be completed before initial set. • By-product of coal combustion in power stations
– Final set (5 to 8 hrs): paste has hardened to the point at which it • Most commonly used SCM in civil engineering structures
can sustain some load. Finishing between initial and final. Curing • Particle size is similar to cement
after final set. • Two types of fly ash (ASTM C 618)
– Class C fly ash: pozzolanic and cementitious
– Class F fly ash: pozzolanic

Silica Fume
• By-product from in the manufacture of silicon metal and alloys
• Super Pozzolan
– High fineness (particle size is 1/100 of cement)
– High silica content (>95%)
• Challenge on handling
– Wet: slurry in water
– Dry: densified & undensified form
– Challenge on dispersion

Compressive Strength of Cement Pozzolanic Reaction

• ASTM C109 • Portland cement
– Average of three 50 mm mortar cubes – C3S + H à C-S-H +CH
– Proportional to compressive strength of cylinders • Pozzolanic reaction
– Compressive strength of concrete cannot be accurately predicted – CH + pozzolan (S) + H à C-S-H
from • Addition of pozzolan has similar effect to raising C2S content of
cement strength cement (i.e. lower heat evolution and lower early strength)
• Slow reaction requires prolonged moist curing; otherwise pozzolan
Standard Portland Cement Types act mainly as a filler
(ASTM C 150)
• I Normal Blast-furnace Slag
• II Moderate Sulfate Resistance/Heat of Hydration • Residues from metallurgical processes, i.e. the blast
– Lower C3A content furnace production of iron from ore (rich in lime,
• III High Early Strength silica, and alumina)
– Finer; greater surface area • Slag must be rapidly cooled (quenched) to form a
– Becoming cheaper & more common hydraulically active calcium aluminosilicate glass
– We can strip forms earlier and speed up production • The smaller granules (< 4 mm) are ground for use as
• IV Low Heat of Hydration a mineral admixture, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)
– Lower C3S and C3A content • The larger pellets, which are porous and partially
– For large, massive pours to control heat of hydration crystalline, can be used as a lightweight aggregate
• V High Sulfate Resistance
– Lower C3A content Slag Hydration
• Slag reacts slowly with water due to the presence of impervious
Typical Chemical Composition and Properties of coatings of amorphous silica and alumina that form around slag
Portland Cements, ASTM Types I to V particles early in the hydration process.
• Slag needs to be activated by alkaline compounds.
• Slags are most commonly activated by Portland cement, where
Ca(OH)2 formed during hydration is the principal activator. Only 10-
20% of cement is needed for activation
• The rate of hydration of activated slag is slow, similar to that of
C2S, as is the heat of hydration

Interfacial Transition Zone

• A thin zone surrounding aggregate particles in which structure of
cement paste is different from that of bulk paste farther away from
the physical interface, in terms of density, morphology, and
composition.
• Due to inability of cement particles to pack efficiently around
aggregates (wall effect). This raises the local w/c ratio, which can be
further increased by localized bleeding
 Particle Shapes Characterization
Aggregates • Angularity number
– Voids ratio – 33
Roles of Aggregates in Concrete – Higher the number, more angular the aggregate
• Economical filler – The range for practical aggregate is between 0 (rounded) and 11
– 60 - 80 % by volume (angular)
• Responsible for ductility • Particle is flaky if its smallest dimension (thickness) is less than
– Aggregate-cement paste cracking 60% of the “middle” dimension
• Provides dimensional stability • Particle is elongated if its largest dimension (length) is more than
– Aggregate - rigid and strong 1.8 times of the “middle” dimension
– Cement past -relatively soft; shrinking, swell and creep
Aggregate Shape on Concrete Fresh Properties
Classification of Aggregate: Size • Higher surface to volume ratio
• Coarse aggregate – More cement paste required for coating aggregate surfaces
– River gravel; basalt, granite, Limestone, blast-furance slag – Less cement paste for lubrication and reduced workability of
• Fine aggregate concrete
– River sand, quarry sand, Dune sand, pit sand • Irregular particles
– Greater aggregate particles interaction
Aggregate Sizes – Reduced workability of concrete
• Coarse aggregate material retained on a sieve with 4.75 mm • Concrete is more workable with gravel aggregate compared to
openings that with crushed aggregate, for a given mix proportion.
• Fine aggregate material passing a sieve with 4.75 mm openings
• Maximum aggregate size Aggregate Strength
– the largest sieve size that allows all the aggregates to pass • Concrete strength is dominated by the weakest component either
• Nominal maximum aggregate size the paste, aggregate, or interface
– the first sieve to retain some aggregate, generally less than 10% – Aggregate strength is of less importance for normal concrete.
– Aggregate strength is important in high-strength concrete and in
Classification of Aggregate: Source the surface course on heavily travelled pavements
• Natural • Difficult and rare to test the strength of aggregate particles.
– Natural sand & gravel pits, river rock • Rather, tests on the parent rock (drilled cylinder, 1.5-2.5” in dia.) or
– Quarries (crushed) a bulk aggregate sample as an indirect estimation of strength
– Geological classification • Typical compressive strength of 35 – 350 MPa
• Igneous: Basalt; Granite
• Sedimentary: Limestone; Sandstone Absorption
• Metamorphic: Marble; Quartzite

Classification of Aggregate: Source

• Manufactured & recycled materials:
– Pulverized concrete & asphalt
– Steel mill slag
– Steel slugs
– Expanded shale
– Styrofoam

Aggregate Properties
• Aggregates’ properties are used to determine if aggregate is
suitable for a particular application and are needed for concrete
mix design (Typical source properties needed for PCC mix design) • Absorption is the moisture content when the aggregates are in the
– Shape and texture SSD condition Free moisture is the moisture content in excess of
– Soundness and durability the SSD condition.
– Hardness and abrasion resistance • Percent free moisture = M – A
– Absorption
– Specific gravity Specific Gravity
– Strength • Knowing density of aggregate is required in concrete mix design
– Gradation to establish weight- volume relationships
– Cleanness and deleterious materials • Density is expressed as specific gravity
• Specific gravity (SG) is a dimensionless ratio relating density of
Sampling Aggregates aggregate to that of water
• Random and representative of entire stockpile
– Sample from entire width of conveyor belts at several locations 𝑺𝑮 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅/𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
– Sample from top, middle, and bottom of stockpile at several
locations around stockpile diameter Effects of Voids in Aggregates
– Use larger sample for testing larger max. size •permeable pores – nearer to surface
• Sample splitting or quartering •impermeable pores – sealed off hole deep in aggregate
– To reduce sample size from large stockpile to small 1-5 kg sample Permeable pores in aggregates create multiple definitions of
specific gravity
Particle Shapes of Aggregates – Apparent, ASG
• Rounded: river gravel – Bulk-dry, BSGOD
– Better packing, lowest voids ratio 33% – Bulk-saturated surface dry, BSGSSD
– Less interlocking between particles
• Angular: crushed rock
– Loose packing, higher voids ratio
– Interlocking between particles is good
• Flaky: small thickness (flat)
• Elongated: length considerable
• Flaky & elongated: thin & long
– Bad for concrete durability because of easy breakage and
difficulty compacting
– Should be restricted to 10-15% in concrete design
 Sieve Analysis for Gradation
• Gradation: Particle size distribution of aggregate
• Sieve Analysis: Process of dividing aggregate into fractions of
same particle size in order to determine gradation of aggregate
– Standard coarse sieves: 37.5mm; 19mm; 9.5mm; 4.75mm
– Standard fine sieves: 4.75mm; 2.36mm; 1.18mm; 0.60mm;
0.30mm; 0.15mm
• Grading Curve: Usually described by the cumulative percentage of
aggregates that either pass through or retained by a specific sieve
size

Sieve Analysis for Fine Aggregate Sample & Fineness Modulus

Fineness Modulus
• A measure of gradation fineness
• FM = Σ (Cumulative % retained on standard sieves up to 0.15 mm)
/100
• FM cannot be representative of a distribution, i.e. two different
grading curves can have same FMs
• Higher FM, coarser aggregate
• Lower FM is not economical

Schematic Representations of Different Agg. Gradation

BSGSSD for Concrete Mix Design

• BSGSSD is used as the reference state for mix design purpose
– Water in permeable pores of aggregate does not participate in
cement hydration
– Effective volume that SSD aggregate occupies in concrete include
permeable pores
– If non-SSD aggregates are used in producing concrete based on
BSGSSD concrete mix design, the resulting water-to-cement ratio is
different than the intended design
– If non-SSD aggregates are expected to be used, corrections
should be taken into account [Refer to chapter on mix design]

Gradation
• Gradation is an important attribute to produce economical
concrete
– Max. density (i.e. min. voids) Types of Gradation
– Min. cement content • Continuous (Well graded, dense)
• Void content of aggregate: • Has a good mix of all particle sizes which means the aggregates
– Partial size distribution use most of the volume and less cement is needed
– Maximum aggregate size • One-size gradation (Uniform)
• All same size = nearly vertical curve
• Gap-graded
• Missing some sizes = nearly horizontal section of curve
• Open-Graded
• Missing small aggregates which fill in holes between larger ones
• Lower part of curve is skewed toward large sizes

Admixture

Definition of Admixtures
• A material other than water, aggregate, cement and reinforcing
fibers that is used in concrete as an ingredient and added to the
batch immediately before or during mixing.
• Why they are used?
– To modify properties of fresh & hardened concrete
– To ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting,
placing and curing.
– To overcome certain unexpected emergencies during concrete
operations
Admixtures Fresh Concrete
• Classification
– Chemical admixtures Workability of Concrete
– Mineral admixtures • Effort required to manipulate a concrete mixture with a minimum
• Admixtures exclude essential concrete ingredients segregation.
• They should be used cautiously and for good reason • Two Main Components of Workability
– Consistency describes the ease of flow.
Chemical Admixtures for Concrete • ACI. The relative mobility or ability of freshly mixed concrete or
• Commonly used to improve properties of fresh and hardened mortar to flow
concrete – Cohesiveness or stability describes the tendency to bleed or
• Materials that are added in small amounts to the concrete segregate.
(usually no larger than 5% by weight of cement) and dissolved in
mixing water Factors Affecting Workability
• Water content
• Types of admixtures • Aggregate type and grading
– Air-entraining admixtures (ASTM C 260) • Aggregate/cement ratio
– Water-reducing admixtures (ASTM C 494 and 1017) • Presence of admixtures
• Water reducers • Fineness of cement
• Superplasticizers • Time
– Set-controlling admixtures (ASTM C 494) • Temperature
• Accelerators
• Retarders Effect of Water Content on Slump:
– Miscellaneous admixtures

Air-entraining Admixtures Effect of Aggregate Shape on

• These admixtures produce tiny, dispersed air bubbles (0.05 to Slump
1.25mm) into the concrete • Roundness and smoothness
– Water expands 9% as it freezes causing internal stress that of aggregates increases slump
cracks the hardened cement paste and greatly reduces durability
– Air entrainer provides space for the water to go as it expands
• Recommended for all concrete exposed to freezing Effect of Agg. Size on Slump
• Improve workability, resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, de-icing • Slump decreases as specific
chemicals, sulfates, & alkalis-silica reaction surface are of aggregate
• Decreases strength (1% air causes 5% loss in strength) but can be increases (smaller size), since
compensated with lower w/c ratio this requires a greater
proportion of water to wet
Mechanism of Air Entraining aggregate particles, thus
• Air-entraining admixtures are surface-active agents which acts at leaving a smaller amount of
the air-water interface, causing water to foam during mixing, similar water for lubrication.
to detergents
• The fine foam remains stable until it is “locked” into the cement Effect of Agg. to Cement Raito
paste during hardening on Workability
• Different from entrapped air which is harmful larger bubbles • For a constant w/c ratio, an
– Frost resistance improves with decreasing void size increase in the agg./c ratio will decrease the workability
– Small voids reduce strength less than large ones • Higher Vebe time (V-B) corresponds to lower workability

Water Reducers (Normal and Mid-Range) Effect of Admixtures on Workability

• These admixtures lower the water required (8-12% reduction) to • The principal admixtures affecting improvement in workability of
attain a given slump concrete are water-reducing and air- entraining agents as well as
• Use to fly ash.
– Improve workability at same w/c ratio • The extent of increase in workability is dependent on the type
– Increase strength at same workability and amount of admixture used and the general characteristics of
– Reduce cost at same w/c ratio and workability the fresh concrete
Flow of cement paste (w/c = 0.25)
Accelerators
• These admixtures accelerate the setting, hardening or the Effect of Temperature on Workability
development of early strength of concrete • On a hot day, the water content would have to be increased for a
• Used to constant early workability to be maintained
– Reduce the amount of time before finishing operations begin
– Reduce curing time Effect of Time on Workability
– Increase rate of strength gain (Slump Loss)
• Applications
– Urgent repair work Cohesion and Segregation
– Early formwork removal (productivity) • Concrete with good workability
– Cold-weather concreting ought to be cohesive, should not
• Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is most common segregate
• Segregation can be defined as
Retarders separation of constituents of a
• These admixtures delay or retard initial set heterogeneous mixture so that
– Slowing down the early hydration reaction their distribution is no longer uniform.
– Usually doesn't reduce final set time much • Tendency for Sand-cement mortar to separate from coarse
– May reduce early strength Aggregate, Cement paste to separate from fine aggregate
• Applications
– Hot weather concreting: the normal setting time is shortened by Bleeding (Water Gain)
higher temperature • A special form of segregation in which some of the water in mix
– Unusual placement tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete
– Long haul distance • Create a porous and weak layer of non-durable concrete and
– Special finishes (e.g., exposed aggregate) zones of poor bond between cement paste and large aggregate
• Sugar is a cheap retarder particles or reinforcement
• Cause by Mix Design
– Lack of fines (300 mm and below) Proportioning of Concrete Mixes (Mix Design)
– High free water content • Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable
– Water reducing admixture overdose ingredients of concrete and determining their relative quantities
• Control of bleeding with the purpose of producing and economical concrete which
– Increasing cement fineness or using SCM (i.e. pozzolans) has certain minimum properties, notably workability, strength,
– Increasing hydration rate (C3A) and durability
– Reducing free water content • Remains largely an empirical procedure
• Most design procedures are based on achieving a specified
Workability Tests compressive strength at some given workability and age; it is
• Slump test assumed that if this is done, other properties will also be
• Compacting factor test satisfactory
• Vebe test
British Method of Mix Design
Slump Test (ASTM C 143) • Step 1: Determining W/C ratio based on strength requirement
• The slump test is a measure of the behaviour of a compacted • Step 2: Determining water content based on workability
inverted cone of concrete under the action of gravity. requirement
• It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete. • Step 3: Determining cement content based on W/C ratio in step 1
• Step 4: Determining total aggregate content based on water
Slump Test: Apparatus and Procedure content in step 2
• Use inverted cone • Step 5: Determining proportion of find and coarse aggregates
• Fill it up with three layers of equal volume
• Rod each layer 25 times Distribution of Strength
• Scrape off surface
• Cone lift away vertically
• Slump measurement:
• Downward movement of
the concrete

Types of Slump:

Compacting Factor Test

Principle
• The compacting factor test measures the degree of compaction
resulting from
the application of a standard amount of work, i.e. constant potential
energy to kinetic energy

Apparatus and Procedure Probability Factor as a Function of Defective Level

• Upper hopper is filled with concrete
• Bottom door of upper hopper is then
released and concrete falls into lower
hopper
• Bottom door of lower hopper is released
and concrete falls into cylinder
• Excess concrete is cut and net weight of
concrete in known volume of cylinder is
determined
• The density of concrete in cylinder is now
calculated, and this density divided by
density of fully compacted concrete is
defined as Compacting Factor

Vebe Test (ASTM C 1170): Principle

• The Vebe test measures the
remolding ability of concrete under
vibration
• It is assumed energy required for
compaction is a measure of workability,
expressed in Vebe seconds, i.e. time
required for remolding to be complete Minimum Standard Deviation

Apparatus and Procedure

• A slump cone is placed and filled in
the center of the cylinder
• After removing the slump cone, a
glass plate is set atop the fresh
concrete
• Time for the concrete to remold is
Recorded

Comparison of Workability Tests

• Slump test is suitable for concrete of
medium to high workability
• Compacting factor test is more sensitive and accurate than
slump test, especially for concrete mixes of medium to low
workability
• Vebe test is a good laboratory test, particularly for concrete
of very low workability
Approx. Compressive Strength of Concrete Mix (W/C = 0.5) • Methods
– Ponding: smaller jobs flat-work (floors and pavement) and
laboratory
– Spraying or fogging expensive and a lot of water
– Wet coverings: burlap, cotton, rugs, etc.

Sealed Curing
• Sealed curing: prevent moisture loss only.
– Impervious paper or plastic sheets.
– Membrane forming compounds.
– Leave forms in place

Heat Curing
• Insulate
• Steam
– Good for early strength gain and in freezing weather.
• Heating coils, electrically heated forms or pads
– Usually in precast plants only

Concrete Strength: Maturity Concept

• Samples of a concrete mixture of the same maturity will have
similar strength, regardless of the combination of time and
Adjustment of Mixing Water
temperature yielding the maturity.
• The batch quantities determined in the mix design are based on
• Usage of maturity concept:
saturated surface dry (SSD) aggregates.
– Accelerated curing of concrete
• Very often, aggregates are in other conditions, adjustment of
– Predict long-term strength from short-terms strengths
actual weights of aggregates and water have to be made.
– Predict in-situ strength of concrete based on maturity values

Factors Affecting Strength Maturity of

Concrete
• Maturity = f (age, curing temperature) 𝑴 =S 𝑻 x Δ𝒕
– T: temperature above the datum (-10℃ )
– Water cured concrete at a constant curing temperature of 30 ℃
for 7 days
– Maturity at 7 days = (30 + 10) x 7 = 280 ℃ -Days
Curing

Curing Concrete Effect of Maturity on

• Curing is any procedure that maintains proper moisture and Compressive Strength
temperature to ensure continuous hydration
– Increased maturity
– Reduced capillary porosity
– Increased strength
• Hydration stops when humidity drops to below 80% and resumes
when curing is resumed

Degree of Hydration
and Capillary
Porosity as a
Function of Curing
Time

Method Selection
• Consideration
– Availability of curing materials
Compressive strength of – Size and shape of structure
PCC at different – Production facilities (in-place or precast)
ages and curing levels – Economics
• Curing – immediately after final set to avoid surface damage
• Curing period
– Min. 7 days
– 70% of fck (3 days for high early strength)
– Other job requirements

Properties of Hardened Concrete

Hardened Concrete Properties

• Strengths
Curing Approaches – Compressive/ tensile/ flexural/ shear/ impact/ fatigue strengths
• Deformations
• Water curing: maintaining presence of water in the – Moisture induced (shrinkage and swelling)
concrete – Load induced (elastic and creep)
• Sealed curing: seal the surface so mix water can’t – Temperature induced (expansion and contraction)
escape • Durability – physical and chemical
• Heat & additional moisture
Maintaining Presence of Water
• Must water periodically
• Also provides cooling
Strength of Concrete
• In concrete, strength is related to the stress required to cause Factors Affecting Strength – Air Entrainment
fracture and is synonymous with the degree of failure at which • Air entraining agents improve the workability and
the applied stress reaches its maximum value cohesiveness of fresh concrete and tend to reduce
• In concrete design and quality control, strength is the property bleeding and segregation.
generally specified. This is because, compared to most other • However, entrained air results in some reduction in
properties, testing of strength is relatively easy. concrete strength.
• Furthermore, many properties of concrete are directly related to
strength and can be deduced from the strength data 1 % Air Voids Reduces the Strength by 5 .5%

Stress-Strain Relation of Normal Concrete

in Compression

Factors Affecting Strength – Agg. Type

• The bond between aggregate and mortar is an important
Stress-Strain Relations for Cement Paste,
factor determining concrete strength.
Aggregate, and Concrete Interface Transition Zone (ITZ) in • Bond strength is affected by the shape of the aggregate,
Concrete
its surface texture and cleanliness.
ITZ - The Weakest Link of the
• A smooth rounded aggregate will result in a weaker
Chain
bond between the aggregate and mortar than an angular
• ITZ, generally the weakest link
or irregular aggregate or an aggregate with a rough
of the chain, is considered the
surface texture.
strength-limiting phase in
concrete
Factors Affecting Strength – Chemical
• The structure of the ITZ,
Admixtures
especially the volume of voids
• Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of hydration thereby
and microcracks present, have a
providing an increased early strength
great influence on the stiffness
• Retarding admixtures decrease the early strength of concrete due
or the elastic modulus of
to the delay in setting time
concrete • Water reducing admixtures do not have any significant effect on
• The existence of the ITZ is the primary reason that concrete is
the hydration of the cement. Therefore, when these admixtures are
more permeable than the corresponding paste
used to improve workability no significant change in strength
should be expected.
Behavior of Concrete in Compression
Factors Affecting Strength – Mineral
admixtures
• Silica fume is generally used to increase strength
• Fly ash and blast furnace slag may reduce the initial strength
gain while they may increase the long-term strength

Factors Affecting Strength – Curing

• Curing conditions
– Time (longer time, more strength)
– Humidity (higher hum, higher strength)
– Temperature (higher temp increases strength more rapidly)
• Testing parameters
– Specimen parameters (specimen height to diameter ratio)
Higher height/Dia ratio, lower relative strength
– Loading conditions (higher loading rate, higher and faster stress
Factors Affecting Compressive Strength
strain curve)
• Characteristics and proportions of materials
– Water to cement ratio
Deformation of Concrete
– Air entrainment
• Besides strength, deformation is another important concrete
– Cement type
property and is of vital interest in structural design
– Aggregate
– Mixing water • Types of deformation in concrete
– Load induced: elasticity and creep
– Admixtures
– Moisture induced: shrinkage and swelling
– Temperature induced: expansion and contraction
Factors Affecting Strength – W/C Ratio
Elasticity • The
definition of pure
elasticity is that
strains appear and
disappear
immediately on
application and
removal of stress
Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity Factors Affecting Shrinkage and Creep
• Modulus increases with • Shrinkage/Creep increases with
– Increasing age – Increasing aggregate volume fraction Increasing aggregate
– Decreasing water to cement ratio modulus of elasticity of aggregate
– Increasing concrete strength – Increasing water-to-cement ratio
– Increasing aggregate modulus – Decreasing relative humidity

Shrinkage and Creep Testing on Hardened Concrete

• These two time-dependent deformations are caused by the same Need for “Standard” Tests
internal process, which involves movement of water • Why testing hardened concrete properties?
• Shrinkage: the driving force for water movement is – To provide information on quality of concrete
environmental conditions causing diffusion of water outward • Variables affects testing results
(i.e., water is being lost) – Specimen geometry, specimen preparation, moisture content,
• Creep: the driving force is stress, which causes water to move temperature, loading rate, and type of testing machine and loading
from one location to the other within the concrete (i.e., no water fixture
is being lost) – Different test procedures yield different results
• “Standard” test methods are proposed to minimize confusion that
Shrinkage would result if everyone were to use different test procedures.
• Volume changes accompany loss of moisture (by evaporation or
by hydration) from either fresh or hardened concrete Test on: Compressive Strength
• The term ‘drying shrinkage’ refers to hardened concrete while
‘plastic shrinkage’ is used for fresh concrete Effect of Height to Diameter Ratio on Cylinder Strength

• Plastic shrinkage Test on Tensile Strength

– Loss of water from fresh concrete (early volume change) while it is • Tensile strength is about 10% of compressive strength
still in a plastic state (8 hrs) • Direct tensile tests suffer from a number of difficulties related to
– If not prevented, can cause cracking – Holding the specimen properly in the testing machine without
– Most common situation is surface cracking due to evaporation of introducing stress concentration
water from the surface (pavement) – The application of uniaxial tensile load which is free from
– Lost of water exceeds the water by bleeding eccentricity to the specimen
• Drying shrinkage • Indirect methods
– It takes place after the concrete has set and hardened – Flexural tensile test
– It takes place in the first few months – Splitting tensile test
– The cause is the withdrawal of water from concrete stored in
unsaturated air Flexural Tensile Test
– A part of this shrinkage is recovered on immersion of concrete in • Standard test specimens
water, i.e. reversible shrinkage – 150 x 150 x 750 mm
– There is also irreversible shrinkage – 100 x 100 x 500 mm
• Manner of loading
Moisture Movement in Concrete – Third point loading
– Central point loading
• Loading rate
– 0.02 to 0.10 MPa/s
• Flexural strength or modulus of rupture (MOR) is calculated

Calculation of Flexural Strength

• R=PL / bd2
– P: max. total load
– L: Span length
– b: specimen width
– d: specimen depth
• Equation holds only
if the beam breaks
between the two
Creep interior loading
• Creep is defined as the increase of strain in concrete with time points
under sustained stress
• If a loaded specimen is viewed as being subjected to a constant
strain, the creep decreases the stress progressively with time. This
is called relaxation Splitting Tensile Test
• All the factors which influence shrinkage influence creep also in • Standard test specimens
similar way – Cylinder
– Cube
– Prism
• Loading rate – 0.02 to 0.04 MPa/s

Calculation of Splitting Tensile Strength

Effects of Creep
• It affects strain, deflection and stress distribution in
reinforced concrete structures
• For example: Creep of concrete increases the
deflection of reinforced concrete beams and, in some
cases, may be a critical consideration in design
Non-Destructive Tests (NDT)
• NDT is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and
industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or
system without causing damage.
• Advantages
– Speed & Cost
– Lack of damage
– Immediate availability of results
• Applications
– New structures – QC Influence of Pore Structure on
– Existing structures – assessment of structural integrity or Concrete Transport Properties
adequacy • Transport properties are dependent on
– Capillary porosity
Common NDT Techniques – Pore size
• Ultrasonic pulse velocity test – Continuity of pore system
• Rebound hammer/hardness test – Tortuosity
• Windsor probe penetration resistance test • Transport properties vs W/C ratio
• Pull-out test • Transport properties vs age
• Core test
Effect of Porosity
• NDTs do not measure concrete strength; they
provide an estimate of the concrete strength through
correlation with some other property
• Fundamental shortcoming of all NDTs in which the
property of concrete being measured is affected by
various factors in a manner different from the
influence of those factors on the strength of concrete

Durability

Durability of Concrete
• Concrete should be capable of withstanding the
conditions for which it has been designed throughout
the life of a structure.
• Lack of durability can be caused by external agents
arising from the environment or by internal agents Effect of Pore Size
within the concrete.
• Causes can be categorized as physical, mechanical,
and chemical

Durability of Concrete
• Physical causes
– The action of frost,
– Thermal movement
• Mechanical causes
– Impact; Abrasion; Erosion; Cavitation
• Chemical causes
– Sulfate attack;
– Sea water attack;
– Acid attack;
– Alkali-silica reaction;
– Corrosion of reinforcement Effect of Connectivity
Durability and Transport Properties of
Concrete
• Since the chemical attack takes place within the
concrete mass, the attacking agent must be able to
penetrate throughout the concrete.
• The rate of the attacking agent penetrates into the
concrete depends on its transport properties
• Transport properties of concrete are much related to
its durability

Transport Properties of Concrete

• Transport properties are the ease with which liquids or
gases can travel through concrete
• As far as the ease to movement of fluids through
concrete is concerned, three transport properties
Schematic Representation of Materials of Similar Porosity
should be distinguished
– Permeability refers to flow under a pressure differential
– Diffusion is the process in which a fluid moves under a differential
in concentration
– Absorption is the process in which a liquid moves due to capillary
Suction
Effect of Tortuosity Water Permeability of Cement Paste with
Progress of Hydration

Water Permeability of Cement Paste &

Coefficient of Permeability Concrete
• Flow in capillary pores in saturated concrete follows
Darcy’s law for laminar flow through a porous
medium:

Water Permeability and W/C Ratio for

Mature Cement Paste (93% of Cement Hydrated) well graded agg will interrupt water flow, lower permeability

Chemical Attack
• Sulfate attack
• Alkali-silica reaction
• Corrosion of reinforcement
• Carbonation

Sulfate attack
• Main factor that deteriorate concrete, cause expansion due to
reaction with hydration products
• Sulfates of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium which
occur in soil or in groundwater can react with hydrated cement
paste
• Sulfates in groundwater are usually of natural origin but can also
come from fertilizers or from industrial effluents. These sometimes
contain ammonium sulfate, which attacks hydrated cement paste.
Water Permeability and Capillary Porosity
of Cement Paste • Mechanism and Process of Deterioration
– Penetration of sulfate ions into concrete (4% acceptable
concentration)
– They react with calcium hydroxide (CH) to form gypsum (CSH2)
– Gypsum further reacts with C3A to form ettringite(C6AS3H32)
– Formation of ettringite introduces volume expansion of hardened
concrete which causes internal stresses and cracking

Sequence of Sulfate attack

Effects of Cement Type and W/C Ratio on Corrosion of Reinforcement
Sulfate attack • Structural concrete is usually designed in combination
with reinforcing steel bars due to the low tensile
strength of the concrete
• The strongly alkaline nature of Ca(OH)2 (pH of about 13)
prevents the corrosion of the steel reinforcement by the
formation of a thin protective film of iron oxide on the
metal surface; this protection is known as passivity
• As long as this film is stable, the steel is immune to
corrosion.

Two Main Causes Lead to Disruption of

Passivation Film
• Penetration of chlorides into the concrete
– Depassivation occurs when the chloride ion content reaches a
Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) value in the range of 0.2% to 0.4% by weight of the Portland
• Concrete can be damaged by a chemical reaction cement in the concrete adjacent to the steel
between the active silica constituents of the aggregate Fe2+ + Cl- → [FeCl complex]+
and the alkalis in the cement; this process is known [FeCl]+ + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2 + Cl-
as alkali-silica reaction (ASR) • Carbonation of the concrete leading to reduction in pH
• Reactants of ASR: reactive silica, alkalis, and water (ASR can only – Depassivation occurs as pH approaches 9
occur in moist environment, relative humidity 80%)
• Not all types of aggregates contain reactive forms of Carbonation to Corrosion
Silica

Mechanism and Process of Deterioration

of ASR
• The reaction starts with the attack of the siliceous
minerals in the aggregate by the alkaline hydroxides
derived form the alkalis in the cement
• The alkali-silicate gel formed attracts water by
absorption or by osmosis and thus tends of increase
in volume
• Since the gel is confined by the surrounding cement
paste, internal pressures result and eventually lead to
expansion, cracking and disruption of the cement
paste (pop-outs and spalling) and to map cracking of
the concrete

Expansion of alkali-silicate gel

• When the expansionary pressure (of agg) exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete, the concrete cracks. Damage Induced by Corrosion
• Propagates vertically with several paths or horizontally
Concrete Failure Due to ASR
• Map cracking or pattern cracking
• The crack width can range from 0.1 mm to
as much as 10 mm in extreme cases
• The cracks are rarely more than 25 mm, or
at most 50 mm, deep.

Control Strategy for ASR

• Do not use alkali-reactive aggregate
• Do not use cements having a high alkali content
• Use suitable proportions of either fly ash or slag in the
concrete
• Ensuring the environment is dry

Carbonation ( penetration of CO2)

• CO2 + Ca(OH)2 à CaCO3 + H2O
• reaction decreases alkalinity, destroy passive areas and leave Corrosion Protection
concrete susceptible to corrosion. Deeper the carbonation, higher • Proper Cover of at least 50 mm
risk in corrosion of steel. • Lower W/C ratio and sufficient Cement
• Sufficient Curing time
Factors Affecting Rate of Carbonation • Denser concrete, good Compaction
• Avoid using Chlorides
• Pozzolan addition, slag addition