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Chapter 4 Structural Analysis

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Chapter 4 Structural Analysis

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กิตติพงศ์ ศรีอาจ
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4 42 43 44 45 46 SECTION 4 (SI): STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION TABLE OF CONTENTS SCOPE, DEFINITIONS. NOTATION, ACCEPTABLE METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS. MATHEMATICAL MODELING: 45.1 Gener Structural Material Behavior. 4552.1 Elastic Versus Inelastic Behavior. 4522 Blastic Behavior. 45.23 Inelastic Behavior 453 Geometry ‘45.3.1 Small Deflection Theory. 4532 Large Deflection Theory. 4532.1 General 4532.2 Approximate Methods 453.2.2a General 453.22 Moment Magnification Bears Columns Lm 453.23 Refined Methods .. 434 Modeling Boundary Conditions 45.5 Equivalent Members. STATIC ANALYSIS, 4.6.1 Influence of Plan Geometry. [Link] Plan Aspect Ratio [Link] Structures Curved in Plan [Link].1 General 4.611.222 Single-Girder Torsionally Stiff Superstructures [Link] Multicell Concrete Box Gite... [Link].4 Stee! Multiple Beam Supersiructures.. 461.248 General 46.1.2.4b LGirders 4.6.1.24e Closed Box and Tub Girders 4.62. Approximate Methods of Analysis, 4.62.1 Decks : [Link] General . 462.12 Applicability 4.62.13 With of Equivalent ineror Sips. ee 462.140 General [Link].4b Longitudinal Edges, [Link].4e Transverse Edges. 4.62.18 Disteibution of Whee! Loads [Link] Calculation of Force Effects. 4.62.17 Cross-Sectional Frame Action. [Link] Live Load Foree Effects for Fully and Partially Filled Grids and for Unfilled Grid Decks Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slabs. [Link] Inelastic Analysis, 4.62.2 BeamnSleb Bridges 462211 Application 7 [Link] Distribution Factor Method for Moment and Sheat 46.2.2.2a Interior Beams with Wood Decks. 4.62.2.2b Interior Beams with Concrete Decks. 4.62.2.2c Interior Beams with Corrugated Steel Decks... 4062.2.24 Exterior Beams 462.2.2e Skewed Bridges “ AASHTO LRFD Bance DEsiGn [Link].2f Flexural Moments and Shear in Transverse Floorbeams... 4.62.23 Distribution Factor Method for Shear. 4622.38 Interior Beams. 4.62.2.3b Exterior Beams [Link].3¢ Skewed Bridgos 462.24 Curved Steel Bridges 4.62.25 Spevial Loads with Other Trafic. 46.2.3 Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges 4.62.4 Truss and Arch Bridges. 4.62.5 Bsfective Length Factor, K. 4.62.6 Effective Flange Width 4.62.61 General [Link].2 Segmental Concrete Box Beams and Single-Cell, Cas 4.62.63 Castin-Place Multicell Superstruciures 4.62.64 Orthotropic Steel Decks, 4.62.7 Lateral Wind Load Distribution in Multibeam Bridges. 462.71 ESections 4.62.72 Box Sections 4.62.73 Construction. [Link] Seismic Lateral Load Distibution [Link] Applicability 4.62.82 Design Criteria. 4.62.83 Load Distribution 4.629 Ansys of Segmental Cont ridge. 4629.1 Gener... 462.92 Strut-and-Tie Models 4.62.93 Effective Flange Width. 46294 Transverse Analysis. [Link] Longitudinal Analysis 4629.50 General 4.62.9.5b Freetion Analysis. 467.0550. Analysie nf the Final Simcharal Sytem 462.10 Equivalent Swip Widths for Box Culverts 462.101 General, [Link] Case 1: Traffic Travels Parallel to Span 4.62.103 Case 2: Traffic Travels Perpendicular to Span. Iverts 4.63.1 General 4632 Decks 4632.1 General. 4.63.22 Isotropic Plate Mode! Plate Model 46531 General 463.32 Carved Seal Bridges [Link] Cellular and Box Bridges. 4.635 Truss Bridges 4636 Arch Bedges 463.7 CableStayed Bridges. 4.638 Suspension Bedges 4.6.4 Redistribution of Ne eaative Moments i Continuous Beam Bridges “464.1 Gener . [Link] Refined Method 4643 Approximate Procedure 465 Stability 4866 Analysis for Temperature Gradict ‘Tame oF Conrenrs (SI) i 4.7 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS, 4.71 Basic Requirements of Structural Dynamics... ) 47.1.1 General 47.12 Distribution of Masses. 427.13 Siifiness. 47.14 Damping... 4.7.15 Natural Frequencies. 4.72 Elastic Dynamic Responses 4772.1 Vehicle-Induced Vibration 4.72.2. Wind-lnduced Vibration 4722.1 Wind Velocities... [Link] Dynamic Effects 47.223 Design Considerations 4.73 Inelastic Dynamic Responses 473.1 Gener. 4.73.2 Plastic Hinges and Yield Lines, 4.74 Analysis for Earthquake Loads, 4741 General... : 4742 Single Span Bridges 47.43. Multispan Bridges. 4743.1 Selection of Method. 47.432 Single-Mode Methods of Analysis. 4.74328 General oe 47.432b Single-Mode Spectral Method. 47.432c Uniform Load Method. 47.433 Multimode Spectral Method. 47.434 Time-History Method 4.144 Minimum Displacement Requirements 4.7.5 Analysis for Collison L600 48 ANALYSIS BY PHYSICAL MODELS 48.1 Scale Model Testing 4.82 Bridge Testing REFERENCES, APPENDIX Ad DECK SLAB DESIGN TABLE. SECTION 4(S1) STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION 4.1 SCOPE ‘This Section deseribes methods of analysis suitable forthe design and evaluation of bridges and is limited to the modeling of structures and the determination of force effets. Other methods of analysis thet are based on documented material characteristics and that satisfy equilibrium and compatibility may also be used. In general, bridge structures are to be analyzed elastically. However, this Section permits the inelastic analysis or redistribution of force effects in some continuous beam superstructures. It specifies inelastic analysis for compressive members bebaving inelastically and as an alternative for extreme event limit states. “a ca This Section identifies and promotes the application of methods of structural analysis that are suitable for bridges, The selected method of analysis may vary from ‘the approximate to the very sophisticated, depending on the size, complexity, and importance of the structure ‘The primary objective in the use of more sophisticated ‘methods of analysis is to obtain a better understanding. ‘of structural behavior. Such improved understanding may often, but not always, lead to the potential for saving material The outlined methods of analysis, which are suitable forthe determination of deformations and force effects in bridge structures, have been successfully demonstrated, and most have been used for years. Although many methods will require a computer for practical implementation, simpler methods that are amenable to hand calculation and/or to the use of existing computer programs bused on line-structure analysis have also been provided, Comparison with hand calculations should always be encouraged, and basic equilibrium checks should be standard practice ‘With rapidly improving computing technology, the more refined and complex methods of analysis’ are expected fo become commonplace. Hence, this Section addresses the assumptions and limitations of such ‘methods. It is important that the user understand the ‘method employed and its associated limitations In general, the suggested methods of anslysis are ‘based on linesr material models. This does not mean that cross-sectional resistance ig Limited to the linear range. ‘This presents en obvious inconsistency in that the analysis is based on material Hinearity and the resistance ‘model may be based on inelastic behavior for the strength limit states, This same inconsistency existed, however, in the load factor design method of provious ditions of the AASHTO Standard Specifications, and is present in design codes of other nations using a factored design approach. ‘The loeds and Toad factors, defined in Section 3, fand the resistance factors specified throughout these Specifications were developed using probabilistic principles combined with analyses based on linear ‘material models. Hence, analysis methods based on ‘material nonlinearities to obtain force effects that are ‘more realistic atthe strength limit states and subsequent ‘economics that may be derived are permitted only where explicitly outlined herein, ‘Some nonlinear behavioral effects are addressed in both the analysis and resistance sections. For example, long column behavior may be modeled via geometric ‘nonlinear methods. and may also be modeled using. approximate formulae in Sections 5, 6, 7, and 8. Bither method may be used, but the more refined formulations are recommended. 42 42 DEFINITIONS Accepted Method of Analysis—A method of analysis that requires no further verification and that has become a regular part of structural enginccring practice, Are Span—Distance between centers of adjacent bearings, or other points of support, measured horizontally slong the ‘centerline of horizontally curved member. Aspect Ratio—Ratio of the length tothe width ofa rectangle Boundary Conditions—Structural restraint characteristics regarding the support for and/or the continuity between structural models, Bounding—Taking two or more extreme values of parameters to envelop the response with a view to obtaining a conservative design Classical Deformation Method A method of analysis in which the structure is subdivided into components whose stiffness can be independently calculated. Equilibrium and compatiblity among the components is restored by determining the deformations atthe interfaces. Classical Force Method—A method of analysis in which the structure is subdivided into statically determinate components. Compatibility among the components is restored by determining the interface forces. Closed-Box Section—A cross-section composed of two vertical or inclined webs which has at least one completely enclosed cell. closed-section member is effective in resisting applied torsion by developing shear flow in the webs and flanges (Clased-Form Solution —One or more equations, including those based on convergent series, that permit calculation of foroe effects by the direct introduction of loads and structural parameters. Compatibility —The geometrical equality of movement atthe interface of joined components Component—A structural unit requiring separate design consideration; synonymous with member. Condensation— Relating the variables to be eliminated from the analysis to those being kept to reduce the number of ‘equations tobe solved, Core Wiat—The width of the superstructure of monolithic construction minus the deck overhangs Cross-Section Distortion—Distorton of the cross-section ofa closed-box or tub section due to torsional loading. Curved Girder—An I, closed-box, of tub girder that is curved ina horizontal plane. Damper—A device that transfers and reduces forces between superstructure elements and/or superstructure and substructure elements, while permitting thermal movements. The device provides damping by dissipating energy under seismic, braking, or other dynamic loads. Deck—A component, with or without wearing surface, direetly supporting wheel loads. Deck System A superstructure in which the deck is integral with its supporting components or in which the effects or deformation of supporting components on the behavior ofthe deck is significant, Deformation—A change in structural geometry due to force effects, including axial displacement, shear displacement, and rotations Degree-of-Freedom—One of a number of translations or rotations required to define the movement of a node. The displaced shape of components and/or the entire sructure may be defined by # number of degrees-of freedom. Suction 41 FRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION 43 Design-—Proportioning and detsiling the components and connections of a bridge to satisfy the requirements of these Specifications. Dynamic Degree-of Freedom -A degree-of freedom with which mass or mass effects have been associated. Elastic—A sicuctural material behavior in which the ratio of sess to strain is constant, the material returns to its original unloaded state upon load removal. Element—A part of « component or member consisting of one material End Zone—Region of structures where normal beam theory does not apply due to structural discontinuity and/or distribution of concentrated loads. Equilibrium state where the sum of forces and moments about any point in space is 0.0. Equivalent Beam—A single straight or curved beam resisting both flexural and torsional effects. Equivalent Sirip—An antificial linear clement, isolated from # deck for the purpose of analysis, in which extreme force effects caleulated for a line of wheel loads, transverse or longitudinal, will approximate those actualy taking place in the deck. Finite Difference Method—A. method of analysis in which the governing differential equation is satisfied at discrete points on the strcture Finite Element Method—A meted of analysis in which a structure is discretized into elements connected at nodes, the shape of the clement displacement field is assumed, partial or complete compatibility is maintained among the clement interfaces, and nodal displacements are determined by using energy variational principles or equilibrium methods Finite Strip Method—A method of analysis in which the structure is discretized into parallel strips. The shape of the strip displacement field is assumed and partial compatiblity is maintained among the element interfaces. Model displacement parameters are determined by using eneray variational prineiplos or equilibrium mathode. First-Order Analysis—Analysis in which equilibrium conditions are formulated on the undeformed structure; that the effect of deflections is not considered in writing equations of equilibrium, Flange Lateral Bending Stress—The normal stress caused by flange lateral bending. Folded Plate Method—A method of analysis in which the structure is subdivided into plate components, and both ‘equilibrium and compatibility requirements are satisfied atthe component interfaces. Footprint—The specified contact area between wheel and readway surface, Force Effect—A deformation, sess, or sess resultant, ie, axial force, shear fore, flexural, or torsional moment, ‘aused by applied loads, imposed deformation, or volumetric changes. Foundation-A supporting clement that derives its resistance by transfersing its load tothe soil or rock supporting the bridge. Frame Action ‘Transverse continuity between the deck and the webs of cellular cross-section or between the deck and primary components in large bridges. Frame Action for Wind—Teansverse flexure of the beam web and that of framed stiffeners, if present, by which lateral wind load is partially or completely transmitted to the deck. Girder Radius—Toe radius of the circumferential centerline ofa segment of a curved girder. Global Analysis—Analysis of a structure es whole. 44 AASHTO LRED Buupge Desicy SeeciricarioNs ($1) Governing Position—The location and orientation of transient load to cause extreme force effects. Grillage Analogy Method—A method of analysis in which all or part of the superstructure ig discretized into ‘orthotropic components that represent the characteristics ofthe structure. Inelastic—Any structural behavior in which the ratio of stress and strain is not constant, and part of the deformation remains afterload removal. Lane Live Load—The combination of tandem axle and uniformly distributed loads or the combination of the design ‘ruck and design uniformly distributed load. Large Deflection Theory~Any method of analysis in which the effects of deformation upon force effects is taken into account Lateral Flange Bending—Bending of a flange about an axis perpendicular to the flange plane due to lateral loads applied to the lange and/or nonuniform torsion in the member. Lover Rule—The statical summation of moments about one point to calculate the reaction at a second point. Linear Response—Stractural behavior in which deflections are directly proportional to loads. Loca! Anaiysis—An in-ept study of stains and suesses in or among components using force efeos obtained from a nore global analysis Memtber—Same as Component. Method of Analysis—A mathematical process by which structural deformations, forces, and stresses are determined. Mode! A mathematical or physical idealization of a structure or component use for antlyss Monolithic Construction Single cell steel andlor concrete box bridges, solid or cellular castin-place concrete deck fyetoms, and decks eontiting of precast, coli, or oeliular longitudinal elemente affeotivaly ied together by transverse posttensioning. MIR Method’—An approximate method for the anelysis of curved box girders in which the curved girder is treated as ‘an equivalent straight girder to calculate flexural effects and as a corresponding straight conjugate beam to calculate ‘the concomitant St. Venant torsional maments due to curvature. Negative Moment—Moment producing tension atthe top of a flexural element. ‘Node—A point where finite elements or grid components meet; in conjunction with finite differences, a point where ‘the governing differential equations are satisfied, Nonlinear Response—Structural behavior in which the deflections are not directly proportional to the loads due to ‘stresses inthe inelastic range, or deflections causing significant changes in force effects, or by a combination thereof. Nomuniform Torsion—An internal resisting torsion in thin-walled sections, also known as warping torsion, producing shear stress and normal stresses, and under which cross-sections do not remain plane. Members resist the externally applied torsion by warping torsion and St, Venant torsion, Each of these components of intemal resisting torsion varies along the member length, although the extemally applied concentrated torque may be uniform along the ‘member between two adjacent points of torsional restraint. Warping torsion is dominant over St. Venant torsion in members having open cross-sections, whereas St. Venant torsion is dominant over warping torsion in members having closed cross-sections Open Section—A cxoss-sestion which has no enclosed cell. An open-section member resists torsion primarily by ‘nonuniform torsion, which causes normal stresses atthe flange tips, Orthotropic—Perpendicular to each other, having physical properties that differ in two or more orthogonal directions. [Seco (6D: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION as Panel Point-—The point where centerlines of members meet, usually in trusses, arches, cable-stayed, and suspension bridges. Pin Connection—A connection among members by a notionally frictionless pin at a point. Pinned End—A boundary condition permitting free rotation but not translation inthe plane of action Point of Contraflexure—The point where the sense of the flexural moment changes; synonymous with point of inflection. Positive Moment—Moment producing tension atthe bottom ofa flexural element, Primary Member—A memiver designed to carry the loads epplied tothe structure as determined from an analysis, Rating Vohicle—A sequence of axles used as a common basis for expressing bridge resistance Refined Methods of Analysis — Methods of structural analysis that consider the entire superstructure as an integral unit ‘and provide the required dedlections and actions. Restrainers—A system of high-strength cables or rods that transfers forces between superstructure elements and/or superstructure and substructure elements under seismic or other dynamic loads after an initial slack is taken up, while permitting thermal movements Rigidity Force effect caused by a corresponding unit deformation per unit length of « component. Secondary Member—A member in which stress is not normally evaluated in the analysis. Second-Order Analysis—Analysis in which equilibrium conditions are formulated on the deformed structure; that is, in which the deflected position ofthe structure is used in writing the equations of equilibrium. Series or Harmonic Method—A. method of analysis in which the load model is subdivided into suitable pars, allowing each part te corespond to one term of = convergent infinite keris by which structural deformations are described, ‘Shear Flow—Shear force per unit width acting parallel to the edge of plate element. ‘Shear Lag—Nonlinear distribution of normal stress across a component due to shear distortions. Shock Transmission Unit (STU—A device that provides 2 temporary rigid link between superstructure elements and/or superstruenire and substructure elements under seismic, braking, or other dynamic loads, while permitting thermal movements, ‘Skew Angle—Angle between the centerline ofa support anda line normal to the roadway centerline ‘Small Deflection Theory—A basis for methods of analysis where the effects of deformation upon force effects in the structure is neglected. Spacing of Beams—The center center distance between lines of support. Spread Beams—Beams notin physical contact, carrying a cast-in-place concrete deck, Stifiress—Force effect resulting fiom a unit deformation. ‘Sirain—Elongation per unit length Stress Range—The algebraic difference between extreme stresses. ‘St. Venant Torsion —That portion of the internal resisting torsion in « member producing only pure shear stresses on a cross-section; also refered to as pure torsion or uniform torsion. +6 2 AASHTO LRED Brine Dision Srrcificari0Ns (SE) Submodel—A constituent pat of the global structural model ‘Superimposed Deformarion—Bffect of settlement, creep, and change in termperature and/or moisture content, ‘Superposition—The situation where the force effect due to one loading can be added to the force effect due to another loading. Use of superposition is only valid when the stress-strain relationship is linearly elastic and the small deflection theory is used Tandem—Two closely spaced and mechanically intereonnected axles of equal weight Through-Thickness Stress—Bending stress in a web or box flange induced by distortion ofthe cross-section. Torsional Shear Siress—Shear stress induced by St. Venant torsion. Tub Section An open-topped section which is composed of a bottom flange, two inclined or vertical webs, and top anges. Uncracked Section—A section in which ibe concrete is assumed to be fully effective in tension and compression. ¥-Load Method—An approximate method for the analysis of curved I-girder bridges in which the curved ginders are represented by equivalent straight girders and the effects of curvature are represented by vertical and lateral forces applied at cross-fiame locations. Lateral flange bending at brace points due to curvature is estimated, Warping Siress—Normal stress induced in the cross-section by warping torsion and/or by distortion of the cross-section Whee! Load-—One-balf ofa specified design axle load. Yield Line A plastic hinge line, Yield Line Method—A method of analysis in which a number of possible yield Kine patterns are examined in order 10 determine load-carrying capacity. 43 NOTATION area ofa stringer, beam, or component (mn?) ([Link].1) crosesectional area of barrier (mnm’) (C4.62.6.1) de = cross-section area—transformed fr stel beams (mm*) (C4.6.6) 4 area enclosed by centrlnes of elements (ram) (C4.[Link]) a total area of stiffeners (mm?) ([Link]) a length of transition region for effective Mange width ofa concrete box beam (mm); longitudinal stiffener, spacing, or rib width in an orthotropic steel deck (mm) ([Link].2) ([Link].4) a spacing of transverse beams (mam) ([Link]) = tre length (mm); width ofa beam (mum); width of plate element (mn); lange width each side ofthe web (nm) ([Link]) ([Link]) (C4.62.2.1)(4.62.62) bh = effective lange width corresponding, to the particular position of the section of interest in the span as specified in Figure 462.621 (tam) ([Link]) by = effective flange width for interior portions of @ span as determined from Figure [Link]-2; a special case of 6 (mm) ([Link]) d, = _eective flange width for nonmal forces acting at anchorage zones (mm) (4.62.62) = with of web projected to midplane of deck (mm) ([Link].2) a effective flange width at interior support or for cantilever armas determined from Figure [Link].22; a special case of 2 (aun) (4.62.62) c continuity factor; stiffness paremeter ([Link]) ([Link]) Ge ‘moment gradient coefficient (45.3.2.2b) G the dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient (C4.7.4.3.2b) ‘parameter for skewed supports ([Link]¢) D © _ web depth ofa horizontally curved girder (mm); D/D,; width of distribution per lane (mm); (C4.[Link]) (4.62.18) (4622.1) SECHON 4 (I): STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION 4 flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-mm"/mm) ([Link].8) flexural rigidity perpendicular tothe maia bars (N-mm" mmm) ([Link].8) 3000 ram OP i 20400). (462.182) + Main bars parte to afi: For £-$3000 mm Myo = 4080 24C (462.183) For L> 3000 ram s40so"™ (u* ~34 900) Mga SC) sais) whee 2 = yen leg fm ceneriosentr of repens oom © = soniity fico: 10 for stp supa and 0.8 for continuous spans Dd, D. = flexural rigidity of deck in main bar direction (N-mm"imm) flexural rigidity of deck perpendicular to min bar direction (N-mm"/mm) For grid decks, D, and D, should be calculated as AL, and El, wivere £ is the modulus of elasticity and J, and J, are tue moment of inertia per unit width of deck, considering the section as cracked and using the transformed area method for the main bar direction and perpendicular to main bar direction, respectively ‘Moments for fatigue assessment may be estimated for all span lengths by reducing Eq. 1 for main bars perpendicular to traffic or Eq, 3 for main bars parelll to traffic by a factor of 3, C46218 ‘The moment equations are based on orthotropic plate theory considering vehicular live loads specified Article 3.6, The equations take into account relevant factored load combinations including truck and tandem loads. The moment equations also account for dynamic Toad ‘allowance, multiple presence factors, and load positioning on the deck surface to produce the largest possible moment. ‘Negative moment can be determined as maximum ‘simple span positive moment times the continuity factor, ‘The reduction factor of 3.0 in the last sentence of Antcle 4.62.18 accounts for smaller dynamic load allowance (15 percent vs, 33 pereen), smaller load factor (0.75 vs. 1.73) and no multiple presence (1.0 vs. 1.2) when considering fatigue. Use of Eqs. 1 and 3 for ail spans is appropriate as Eqs. 1 and 3 reflet an individual design truck on shore-span lengths while Bgs.2 and 4 reflect the influence of multiple desig tandems that control moment envelope on longer span lengths. The approximation produces reasonable ‘estimates. of fatigue moments, however, improved estimates can be determined using fatigue truck pateh loads in the infinite series formula provided by Higgins (2003) Actual D, and D, values can vary considerably depending on the specific deck design, snd using assumed values based only on the general type of deck ccan lead to unconservative design moments. Flexural rigidity in each direction should be calculated analytically as BY considering the section as cracked and using the ansformed area method. SECTION 4 (SI): STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION 40 Deflection in units of mm due to vehicular live load may be determined as; ‘+ Main bars perpendicular to tafe: ages eee ([Link].8-5) ‘© Main bars parallel to traffic: 1260" D, (4.62.18-6) 4.62.19 Inelastic Analysis The inelastic finite element analysis or yield line analysis may be permitted by the Owner. 4622.1 Application ‘The provisions of this Article may be applied to straight gitder bridges and horizontally curved concrete bridges, as well as horizontally curved steel girder bridges’ complying with the provisions of, Article [Link]. The provisions ofthis Article may also bbe used to determine a starting point for some methods of analysis to determine force effects in curved girders of any degree of curvature in plan Except as specilied in Aricle 462.25, the provisions of this Article shall be taken to apply to ‘bridges being analyzed for: © Assingle lane of loading, oF ‘© Multiple lanes of tive toad yielding approximately the same force effect per lene. If one lane is loaded with a special vehicle or ‘evaluation permit vehicle, the design force effect per girder resulting from the mixed traffic may be ‘determined as specified in Article [Link]. For beam spacing excoeding the range of applicability as specified in tables in Articles 4.6,2.2.2 ‘and [Link], the live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the loaded lanes based on the lever rule unless specified otherwise herein, The provisions of Article [Link].2 specify that ‘multiple presence factors shall not be used with the approximate load assignment methods other than statical ‘moment or lever arm methods because these factors are already incorporated in the distribution factors. ‘The deflection equations permit calculation of the ‘midspan displacement fora deci under service load. The equations are based on orthotropic plate theory and consider both truck and tandem loads on a simply supported deck. Deflection may be reduced for decks continuous ‘over three or more supports. A reduction factor of 0.8 is conservative, 46.224 ‘The V-load method is one example of a method of curved bridge analysis which starts with straight girder distribution factors (United States Steel, 1984), ‘The lever rule involves summing moments about fone support to find the reaction at another support by assuming that the supported component is hinged at interior suppor. ‘When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model should be taken as shown in Figure Cl. Moments should be taken about the assumed, ‘or notional, hinge in the deck over the middle girder t9 find the reaction on the exterior girder. ‘Assumed Hinge Figure C4.[Link]-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges. Provisions in Articles [Link] and 4,[Link] that do nol appear in earlier editions of the Standard Specifications come primarily from Zokaie etal. (199), Comrection factors for continuity have been deleted for two reasons: 428 Bridges not mecting the requirements of this Article shall be analyzed as specified in Article 4.63. ‘The distribution of live load, specified in Articles [Link].2 and [Link].3, may be used for girders, beams, and stringers, other than multiple steel box bbeams with concrete docks that meet the following conditions and any other conditions identified in tables of distribution factors as specitied herein © Width of deck is constant; ‘© Unless otherwise specified, the mmber of ‘beams is not less than four; ‘© Beams are parallel and have approximately the samo stiffness; ‘+ Unless otherwise specified, the roadway part of the overhang, d., does not exceed 910 mm; # Curvature in plan is less than the limit specified in Anicle 4.61.24, or where distribution factors are required in order to implement an acceptable approximate or refined analysis method satisfying the requirements of Article 44 for bridges of any degree of curvature in plan; and * Cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in Table I. Where moderate deviations from a constant deck ‘width or parallel beams exist, the distribution factor may citer be varied at selected locations along the span or else a single distribution factor may be used in conjunction with a suitable value for beam spacing, AASHTO LRED Bance. Desi CIFICATIONS (ST) ‘© Comection factors dealing with $ percent adjustments were thought 1o imply misleading levels of accuracy in an approximate method, and Analyses of many continuous beam-slab-type bridges indicate that the distribution coefficients for negative moments exceed those obtained — for positive moments by approximately 10 percent. On the other hand, it has been observed that stresses st or near an internal bearing are reduced due to the fanning of the reaction foree. This reduction is about the same magnitude as the increase in distribution factors, hence the two tend to ceancel each other out, and tus are omitted from these Specifications. In Strength Load Combination 1, applying = distribution factor procedure to a loading involving 2 heavy permit load can be overly conservative unless lane- by-lane distribution factors are available, Use of a refined method of analysis will circumvent this situation, A rational approach may be used to extend tho provisions of this Article to bridges with splayed girders, The distribution factor for live load at any point along the span may be calculeted by setting the gicder spacing in the equations of this Article equal to half the sum of the eenterto-center distance between the girder under consideration and the two girders to either side. ‘This will result in a variable distribution factor along the leneth of the girder While the vatiahle dstibntion factor is theoretically correct, itis not compatible with existing line girder computer programs that oaly allow constant distribution factor. Further simplifications may be used to allow the use of such computer programs. One such simplification involves running the computer program a number of times equal to the number of spans in the bridge. For each run, the girder spacing is set equal to the maximum girder spacing in one span and the tesalls ftom this run are applied to this span, This approach is guaranteed to result in conservative design. In the past, some jurisdictions applied the latter approach, but used the girder spacing at the 2/3 or 3/4 points of tre span; which will also be an acceptable approximation ‘Most of the equations for distribution factors were derived for constant deck width and perallel beams, Past designs with moderate exceptions to these two assumptions have performed well when the SD distribution factors were used. While the distribution factors specified herein are more representative of actu bridge behavior, common sense indicates that some ‘exceptions are slill possible, especialy if the parameter ‘Sis chosen with prudent judgment, or ifthe factors are appropriately varied at selected locations along the span. ‘SECTION 4 (SI): STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION Cast-in-plece multicell concrete box girder bridge types may be designed as whole-width structures. Such cross-sections shall be designed for the live load distribution factors in Articles [Link].2 and [Link] for interior girders, multiplied by the number of girders, i, webs. ‘Additional requirements for multiple steel box girders with concrete decks shall be as specified in Article [Link].26, ‘Where bridges meet the conditions specified herein, permanent loads of and on the deck may be distributed uniformly among the beams and/or stringers. Live load distribution factors, specified herein, may be used for permit and rating vehicles whose overall width is comparable to the width ofthe design truck ‘The following notation shall apply to tables in Articles 462.2.2 and [Link]: area of stringer, beam or girder (mm?) ‘width of beara (a) = stiffness parameter ‘width of distribution per lane (mm) depth of beam or stinger (mam) distance from the exterior web of exterior beam to the interior edge of curb or traffic barier co) correction factor distribution factor polar moment of inertia (mma) St. Venant's torsional inertia (mae) constant for different types of constuction longitudinal stiffness parameter (mms) span of beam (mm) = number of beams, stringers or girders ‘number of calls in a concrete box girder = number of design lanes as specified in Amico [Link] spacing of beams or webs (ram) t= depth of steel grid or corrugated stee! plank including integral concrete overlay or structural concrete component, less a provision for srinding, grooving, of wear (sam) depth of structural overlay (ram) depth of concrete slab (ms) W = edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm) AAbASe SEEURASORS W, = half the web spacing, plus the total overhang (om) 8 = skew angle ©) = Poisson's ratio Unless otherwise stated, the stiffness parameters for area, moments of inertia and torsional stiffness used hherein and in Articles [Link].2 and [Link].3 shall be taken as those of the cross-section to which traffic will, bb applied, ic., usually the composite section 429 Whole-width design is appropriate for torsionally- stiff cross-sections where load-sharing between girders is extremely high and torsional Toads ere hard to estimate, Prestressing force should be evenly distributed betwicen girders. Cell width-to-height ratios should be approximately 2:1 In lion of more refined information, the St. Venant torsional inertia, J, may be determined as: ‘© For thin-walled open beam: salam (ets2as-y + For stocky open sections, e.g. prestressed [- ‘beams, T-beams, etc, and solid sections: ran (4622.12) + For closed thin-walled shapes: pet (©462.2.1-3) ee where: b= width of plate element (mm) 1 = thickness of plate-like element (nam) A = area of eross-section (mm") J, = polarmoment of inertia (mm*) Ay = area enclosed by centerline of elements (ms?) = length ofa sie element (mm) Eq, C2 has been shown to substantially uundorestimate the torsional stifiness of some concrete [- beams and a more accurate, but_more complex, approximation can be found in Eby etal. (973). ‘The transverse post-cnsioning shown for some cross-sections herein is intended 10 make the units act together. A minimum 1.7 MPa prestress is recommended For beams with variable moment of inertia, K, may be based on average properties, For bridge types “6” “g." “hy” “i” and “.” longitudinal joints between precast units of the cross- section are shown in Table I. This type of construction facts as a monolithic unit if sufficiently intexconnected,

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