Building Structures I

Module 01
• Different construction materials with emphasis on structural
properties viz. steel, concrete, wood, glass, aluminum.
• Different types of loads, the structure is being subjected to as per IS
875 Part I & II.
Brittle or ductile?
• Steel
• Concrete
• Wood
• Glass
• Aluminum
Ductile Material Brittle Material
Materials able to Materials that break or
undergo significant fail without significant
deformation under the deformation.
action of load before
rupturing or failing.
Fail slowly. Fail suddenly.
Can absorb lot of energy Absorb little energy
prior to failure. prior to failure.
Steel, Aluminum, copper Glass, plain concrete,
etc. cast iron, wood, etc. a. Ductile failure
b. Brittle failure

Failure of a
steel rod
Failure of a concrete cube Failure of a reinforced concrete column
Concrete
• One of the most popular construction materials.
• Primarily composed of cement, water, and coarse and
fine aggregates.​
• The hardened cement paste that binds the aggregates together and
contributes to the strength of concrete.​
• In addition to the above ingredients, a variety of mineral and chemical
admixtures are also added to prepare concrete in the present
scenario.
 Constituents
Cement Water

Sand Gravel
(Fine (Coarse
Aggregate) Aggregate)
 Process of
construction
• To prepare good quality and durable concrete the
ingredients must be​
• Precisely determined​
• Properly mixed​
• Carefully placed​ in moulds or formwork
• Compacted to remove voids​
• Properly cured so that the desired properties
are obtained​ and to ensure concrete attains
it strength
• They should also be inspected at regular intervals
and maintained adequately until
their intended life.​
Applications
• Ideally suited for the construction of floor and
roof slabs, columns and beams in residential
and commercial buildings.​
• Bridges of small, medium and long spans –
aesthetically superior and economical
compared to steel bridges.​
• Earth retaining structures - abutments for
bridges and retaining walls for earthen
embankments.​
• Water retaining structures – ground and
overhead tanks and hydraulic structures
(gravity and arch dams).​
• Large domes for water tanks, sports stadiums
and conference halls.​
• Reinforced concrete grid floors comprising of beams and slabs are
widely used to cover large areas like conference halls where column
free spaces are an important requirement.​
• Folded plate construction is used in industrial structures for large
column free spaces.​
• Marine structures – wharfs, quay walls, watchtowers and lighthouses.
Power transmission poles.​
• TV transmission towers.​
• Multistorey reinforced concrete buildings are commonly used for
residential and office complexes.​
• Reinforced concrete piles are used for the foundations of bridges and
buildings.​
• Pavements for highways and airport runways.​
• Heavy duty floors in factories.​
Advantages
• Versatility of shape - It can be poured and moulded into any shape -
simple slabs, beams, and columns to complicated shells and domes, using
formwork.
• Availability of materials - The materials required for concrete (sand,
gravel, and water) are often locally available and are
relatively inexpensive.
• Low maintenance - Concrete members require less maintenance
compared to structural steel or timber members.​
• Good rigidity - RC members are very rigid, hence vibrations are seldom a
problem in concrete structures.
• Water and fire resistance - RC offers great resistance to the actions of
fire without any special fireproofing material, and water, provided it is
properly cured.
• Compressive strength - Concrete has considerable compressive
strength compared to most other materials.​
• Economical - It is economical, especially for footings, basement walls,
and slabs.​
• Low-skilled labour - Comparatively lower grade of skilled labour is
required for the fabrication, erection, and construction of concrete
structures than for steel or wooden structures​
Disadvantages
• Low tensile strength - Concrete has a very low tensile strength and
cracks when it experiences tension. It requires steel reinforcement to
resist tension.
• Relatively low strength - Concrete has relatively low strength per unit
weight or volume when compared to steel.
• Hence, larger structural members are required compared to structural
steel – this aspect is important for tall buildings or long-span
structures.​
• Concrete attains its full strength at 28 days of age, and requires
constant curing – this adds to the time before the structure can be
used.
• Requires formwork and
shoring - Formwork is
needed to hold the concrete
in place until it hardens
sufficiently and gains
strength.
• New concrete members also
require to be supported by
props or shoring until they
gain sufficient strength to
support themselves.
• These materials and the
associated labour adds to
the cost of the project.
Workability
• A property of fresh concrete that determines the ease
and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted,
and finished.​
• Affected by water/cement ratio, aggregate type and grading,
aggregate/cement ratio, presence of admixtures, fineness of cement,
and temperature.​
• Tests – Slump, Compacting Factor, Vee Bee Consistency, Flow Table –
IS 1199: 1955.
• Water/cement ratio – A low water/cement ratio results in improper
hydration and difficulty in placing and finishing, due to a low water
content. While a high w/c ratio improves workability, it also increases
segregation and negatively impacts finishing and final strength.
• Aggregate size, shape, texture and grading – Aggregates with larger
surface areas (elongated and flaky aggregates) require more cement
paste to coat them.
• Large and/or rounded aggregates possess lesser surface area, but lack
the angularity to develop proper bonds with the cement paste.
• Rough textured aggregates have a higher surface area than smooth
aggregates.
• Well graded aggregates have fewer voids and are more workable than
poorly graded aggregates.
• Aggregate/cement ratio – For the same w/c ratio, a higher proportion
of aggregates reduces workability.
• Admixtures – Plasticizers and superplasticizers reduce attraction
between cement and aggregate particles, allowing concrete to be
more flowable without increasing the water content.
• Fineness of cement – Finer grades of cement require more water due
to increased surface area.
• Temperature – At higher temperatures, hydration speeds up and
water evaporates quickly, causing concrete to lose workability.
Slump Test
• The most commonly used method to measure the consistency of the
concrete.
• It is carried out using the Abrams cone.
• This cone is placed on a hard non-absorbent surface and filled with
fresh concrete in three stages, and each time the concrete is tamped
using a rod of standard dimensions.
• The mould is carefully lifted vertically upwards without disturbing the
concrete in the cone, allowing the concrete to subside.
• This subsidence is termed as slump and is measured to the nearest 5
mm.
• A slump of about 50–100 mm is used for normal RC.
(a)Typical mould for
slump test
(b)Measuring slump
(c)Types of slump
 Steel

Structural Reinforcement
Steel Steel
• Steel is an Alloy – A combination of Iron and Carbon, in different
ratios.
• One of the most commonly used building materials
• India is the 3rd largest producer of steel, after China and Japan
Structural Steel Sections
Advantages
• Steel is ductile, which prevents sudden failure. It is also malleable, which
allows it to be moulded into a variety of shapes and sizes.
• Possesses high strength to weight ratio – Even lightweight and small
sections possess high strength, making them very useful in construction of
large structures.
• A durable material that can withstand earthquakes and typhoons.
• Steel sections are well suited for off-site, large scale production and rapid
on-site erection.
• Can be fastened together by simple connecting devices like bolts and
welds.
• Existing structures can be easily modified and reinforced.
• Steel structures are lighter than concrete structures, thus having lower
foundation costs resulting in economical structures.
• It is the ultimate recyclable material - steel can be recycled any number of
times.
Disadvantages
• High Maintenance costs – Require periodic painting to prevent
corrosion.
• High Fireproofing costs – Steel is susceptible to loss of strength in
building fires. Insulation of steel members is necessary.
• Susceptible to buckling when the length or slenderness ratio of
columns increases.
• Aggressive environments reduce the fatigue strength of steel, i.e. its
ability to withstand cyclic loading.
• Susceptible to brittle failure in cold weather, particularly when the
temperature dips below 4 to -12 °C
Eiffel Tower (1889) WTC (1973) Petronas Towers (1999)
 Howrah Bridge (1943)

Golden Gate Bridge (1937)

Hong Kong Zhuhai Macau Bridge (2018)

Empire State Building (1931)
M G Road Metro Station Trinity Circle Metro Station
Reinforcement Steel
• Steel reinforcements are provided in RCC to resist tensile stresses.
• Steel bars used in concrete should be clean and free from loose mill
scales, dust, loose rust and any oily materials, which will reduce bond.
• Cold twisted deformed bars (CTD bars or Torsteel bars - IS: 1786-
1985) are made by hot rolling the bars from high-strength mild steel,
with two or three parallel straight ribs and other indentations on it.
• Thermo-mechanically treated reinforcement bars (TMT Bars) -
rapidly cooled to about 450°C by a controlled quenching process
using water when they are leaving the last stand of the rolling mill at a
temperature of about 950°C.
• Advantages of TMT bars - Strength, weldability, ductility, and
economy. More corrosion resistant than CTD bars.
• IS 1786 specifies four grades
for High Yield Strength
Deformed (HYSD) bars - Fe 415,
Fe 500, Fe 550, and Fe 600.

• The grade denotes the yield

strength of steel in MPa – the
stress at which the bar starts to
yield and undergo permanent
deformation.
Beam Reinforcement
Column Reinforcement
Slab Reinforcement
Column Reinforcement
Loads
• The loads acting on a structure due to natural or man-made elements must
be determined before designing any structure.
1. Mass and gravitational effect (m × g): Dead loads, imposed loads, snow,
ice, and earth loads, and hydraulic pressure.
2. Mass and its acceleration effect (m × a): Earthquake, wind, impact, and
blast loads.
3. Environmental effects: Loads due to temperature difference, settlement,
and shrinkage. Also termed as indirect loads.

• Dead, imposed, and wind loads for buildings and their combinations to be
considered in design are given in Indian Standard (IS) 875, Parts 1–5.
• Data regarding earthquake loads is specified in IS 1893.
Dead Load
• The load that is fixed in magnitude and position.
• Depends on the weight of the structure and its associated
non-structural components - slabs, beams, walls,
columns, partition walls, false ceilings, façades, claddings,
water tanks, stairs, brick fillings, plaster finishes, and
other services (cable ducts, water pipes, etc.).
• After the design process, the assumed dead load must be
considered with the actual dead load – if the difference is
significant, it should be revised, and the structure should
be redesigned.
• Dead weights of different materials are provided in code
IS 875 (Part 1: Dead loads).
Weight of Building Materials as per IS 875 Part 1

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Imposed (Live) Loads
• Gravity loads other than dead loads -
occupancy by people, movable equipment and
furniture within the buildings, stored materials
such as books, machinery, and snow.
• Different for different types of buildings such
as domestic, office, and warehouse.
• Often vary in space and in time.
• Considered as uniformly distributed loads
(UDLs) or concentrated loads.
• Provided in IS 875 (Part 2: Imposed loads)
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Live loads on floors as per IS 875 (Part 2)

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Wind Load
• Caused by differences in atmospheric
pressures, which are primarily due to the
differences in temperature.
• Wind flow manifests itself into gales,
cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes,
thunderstorms, and localized storms.
• Horizontal wind flow exerts lateral pressure
on the building envelope.
• IS Code 875:1987 (Part 3) provides
information on wind loads.

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• Wind load depends on
1. Velocity and density of air
2. Height above ground level
3. Shape and aspect ratio of the building
4. Topography of the surrounding ground
surface
5. Angle of wind attack
6. Solidity ratio or openings in the
structure
7. Susceptibility of the structural system
under consideration to steady and time-
dependent (dynamic) effects induced by
the wind load
• The wind may create positive
pressure or negative pressure
(suction) on the sides of the building

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Earthquake Load
• Inertial forces acting on a house due to earthquake-induced ground
motions
• Generally acts horizontally on each element of the structure and is
proportional to their mass.
• IS 1893 (Part 1) adopts the following seismic design philosophy:
1. Minor and frequent earthquakes should not cause any damage to the structure.
2. Moderate earthquakes should not cause significant structural damage but could have
some non-structural damage (structure will become operational once the repair and
strengthening of the damaged main members are completed).
3. Major and infrequent earthquakes should not cause collapse (the structure will
become dysfunctional for further use, but will stand so that people can be evacuated,
and property recovered).

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At Rest During Earthquake

Seismic Zones in India

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 Wind Load
Dead Load

Live Load Earthquake

Load
Snow and Ice Loads
• Considered in the mountainous (Himalayan) regions in the northern
parts of India.
• Freshly fallen snow weighs up to 96 kg/m3 and packed snow 160
kg/m3.
• The roofs in such regions must be designed to resist the more severe
out of snow loads or imposed loads.
• These loads are provided in IS 875 (Part 4).

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Impact Load
• An important criterion in industrial buildings where machinery will be
mounted on floors and in bridges.
• Caused by impact due to vertical crane, moving machinery.
• The loads due to cranes and other machineries are often obtained
from the manufacturers or suppliers.

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Other Loads and Effects
• Foundation movements – Settlement, vertical tilt, angular distortion.
• Temperature effects – Expansion and shrinkage.
• Soil and hydrostatic pressure – Exerted on retaining and basement walls by soil,
water or both.
• Erection loads – Transportation, storing, lifting and bracing of precast members.
• Construction loads – Shoring and formwork of new slabs impose loads on existing
slabs.
• Vibration.
• Fatigue.
• Flood loads – Hydrostatic, erosion – loss of bearing capacity, debris impact.
• Axial shortening of columns – Occurs in RC buildings over 30 storeys in height.
• Covered by IS 875 (Part 5).
• Blast loading – IS 6922.
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 Flood Load
Snow Load

Rain Load Soil Pressure