Dry Land Agriculture

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Growing of crops entirely under rainfed conditions is known as dry land agriculture. Depending on the
amount of rainfall received, dry land agriculture can be grouped into three categories viz., 1. Dry
farming, 2. Dry land farming, and 3. Rainfed farming.
Dry farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of less than 750 mm. Crop
failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop period. These are arid regions
with a growing season (period of adequate soil moisture) of less than 75 days. Moisture conservation
practices are necessary for crop production. Emphasis is on soil and water conservation, sustainable
crop yields and limited fertilizer use according to soil moisture availability.
Dry land farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of more than 750 mm. In
spite of prolonged dry spells, crop failure is relatively less frequent. These are semiarid tracts with a
growing period between 75 and 120 days. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop
production. However, adequate drainage is required especially for vertisols. Main emphasis is on soil
and water conservation, sustainable crop yields and limited fertilizer use according to soil moisture
availability.
Rainfed farming is crop production in regions with annual rainfall of more than 1150 mm. Crops
are not subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop period. These are humid regions with growing

Table 13.1. Distinguishing Features of Dry Land Farming and Rainfed Farming

Constituent Dry land farming Rainfed farming

Rainfall (mm) <800 >800

Moisture availability to the crop Shortage Enough
Growing season (days) <200 >200
Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as uplands Humid and
of sub-humid and humid region sub-humid regions
Cropping system Single crop or intercropping Intercropping or double
cropping
Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

period of more than 120 days. Emphasis is on disposal of excess water, maximum crop yield, high
levels of inputs and control of water erosion.
UNESCO for Asia and the Pacific distinguished dry land agriculture mainly into two categories:
dry land and rainfed farming. The distinguishing features of these two types of farming are given in
Table 13.1.
The words “Arid” and “Semiarid” must be understood differentially from dry farming. All the dry
farming areas are located in arid and semi arid regions only. But not all the arid and semiarid regions
come under dry farming areas. When irrigation facilities are available, irrigated farming is practiced
extensively in arid and semiarid regions also. Similarly the two words arid/semiarid and tropical/
temperate must be understood correctly. Arid or semiarid refers to moisture regimes where as tropical
or temperate refers to thermal (temperature) regimes of an area.
A. Arid Regions of the World
The climate of arid region is characterized by very low rainfall, usually less than 200 mm per year,
occurring in a very short period, rainless dry spells, may at times, stretch for more than a year.
Depend-ing on temperature regimes and location from the equator, the arid regions are classified into
Arid Tropics with mean annual temperature exceeding 18ºC and Arid Temperate regions with mean
annual temperature less than 18ºC. The following are the five arid zones in the world:
North African Eurasian–Sahara and Tar desert
North American desert–Arizona in USA
South American desert–Peru
South African desert–Namibia
Australian desert–Central Australia

B. Semi Arid Regions of the World

Depending on distance from the equator and temperature regimes, semi arid regions are divided into
Semi Arid Tropics, usually termed as SAT regions and semi arid temperate regions.
(a) Semi arid tropics (SAT): This region lies between 10º and 30º N and S latitudes. It is spread
over 48 countries in four continents of Asia, Australia, America and Africa. It covers many parts in
Africa, India, Pakistan and North Eastern Burma in Asia, Northern Australia and Mexico, Paraguay,
Bolivia and Venezuela in South America. The total area of SAT is estimated to be 18.9 million square
kilometers. West Africa accounts for 24% of semi arid tropics, East Africa 18%, South Africa 20%,
Latin America 17%, Australia 10% and South Asia 11%. A semi arid climate is essentially a mixed
climate in which a fairly moist or rainy season alternates with a completely dry season. Hence, the
climate is described as alternating wet and dry climate. Rainfall occurs during 2-7 months of the year.
When number of wet months is 2.0-4.5, it is described as dry SAT and when rainy month ranges from
4.5 to 7.0, it is called as wet SAT. Rainfall quantity ranges from 400-750 mm per year, with a
variability of 20-30%. But, the onset, closure and duration of rainy season exhibits wide variability
between years. Distribution of rainfall within the season also exhibits wide fluctuations between years.
A greater portion of rainfall is received in high intensity over a short duration, leading to run off.
Mean annual temperature is more than 18ºC and during most months, PET is higher than precipitation.
Soil moisture inadequacy is the major constraint for cropping.
(b) Semi arid temperate region: It covers in Russia, North Western China, USA and Canada. Though
annual rainfall is low, PET also is low during many months. Mean annual temperature is less than 18ºC.
Maximum temperature during summer is 33ºC while minimum temperature may reach −26ºC during winter
months. Temperature rather than moisture is the critical limiting factor for crop production.

13.2 INDIAN AGRICULTURE - SCENARIO

A. Location
India, a tropical country is located between 8° and 36° N of the equator and between 68° and 96° E
longitude.
B. Temperature
The tropic of cancer, which passes through the middle of the country, divides it into two distinct
climates. The tropical climate in the South where all the 12 months of the year have mean daily
temperature exceeding 20°C; and in the North where a sub-tropical climate prevails. In sub-tropics
during the winter months, it is cool to cold. Frosts occur sometime during the months of December
and January. Some areas in the Northern India have a temperate climate. Here, it snows during the
winter months and freezing temperatures may extend to two months or more during the year.
C. Rainfall
Rainfall in India varies considerably. In some parts of the Thar desert, located in Western Rajasthan,
the annual rainfall is as low as 100 mm; while in the East, the annual rainfall may be as high as 10,000
mm or more. In some areas, it may rain for a month or two during the year, in others as many as 11
months may be rainy.
Rainfall aberrations - Deficit in the quantity of rainfall adversely affects crops growth through
inadequate supply of moisture. It leads to lower yield and even complete crop failure. High intensity
rainfall causes runoff and soil erosion. It reduces the storage of rainfall in the soil. Erratic distribution
leads to long dry spells during crop growth and cause moisture stress. High variability in the onset of
rainy season affects time of sowing. Delayed onset also affects crop choice. Early withdrawal or ces-
sation of rainfall before the normal time of closure will lead to moisture stress at maturity and reduce
crop yield. Dry spells during rainy season affect crop growth depending on length of dry spell, sage of
occurrence and soil type. Dry spells over 3 weeks are usually harmful.

Dry spell after sowing Germination and establishment affected

At vegetative stage Stem elongation, leaf area expansion and affects dry
matter accumulation.
At flowering Very critical for pollination and affects grain setting.
At ripening Affects grain development and yield.

Rainfall on crop production: Primary source of water for the earth is precipitation. About 40%
of food produced depends on rainfall. The choice of crop and variety depends on rainfall. The crops
depend on rainfall for their moisture need. Though rivers, tanks and well can supplement the rainfall,
these sources also depend on the rains ultimately. Deficient rains limits crop growth and heavy rains
are even more harmful. Occurrence of drought and famines are mainly due to inadequate rainfall over
a continuous period of time.
D. Monsoon
India is a monsoonal country. In the tropical and sub-tropical regions, almost 80% of the total annual
rainfall is received during the monsoon-rainy season. There are two types of monsoons received in India.
During the main rainy season extending from June/July to September/October, the rains we receive are
called as Southwest monsoons. They are called thus, because the rainy season sets in first in the South of
India and rains progress gradually towards the West of the country.
(i) Onset of monsoon: At Trivandrum in Kerala State, the south-west monsoon breaks around
June 1; at Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh around June 5; at Mumbai around June 10; and at
Jaipur or Jodhpur towards end of June or early July. The normal dates of onset are just
averages, in actual terms there may be a week or 10 days delay or earliness. These are just
guide dates for agricul-tural operations or crop calendars. The actual dates vary from year to
year. North-east monsoons occur due to cyclonic disturbances in the Bay of Bengal. Their
normal date of onset is between November 1 and November 15. These rains withdraw by about
end of January and occur in areas located below 10°N latitude in India.
(ii) Rainfall distribution: The rainy season extends to about 2-4 months across most of agricultural
regions in Northern and North-west India; it extends to 5 months in Peninsular India (e.g.,
Hyderabad), and is of a much longer duration in some Southern areas (e.g., Bangalore or
Trivandrum).
(iii) Rainfall climatology: Study of rainfall over a long period is called rainfall climatology. It
reveals general pattern of rainfall of a particular place. It helps in understanding the amount,
intensity, distribution and other rainfall characteristics. Rainfall analysis also helps in
classifica-tion of climate. Suitable and efficient cropping systems can be developed by
understanding the rainfall pattern. Rainfall analysis helps in taking decisions on time of
sowing, scheduling irriga-tion, time of harvesting etc. It is necessary for designing farm ponds,
 tanks or irrigation projects. Amount, distribution and intensity of rainfall are the important
aspects of rainfall that have considerable influence on crop production.
Precipitation is water in liquid or solid forms, falling to the earth. It always precedes
conden-sation or sublimation or a combination of the two and is primarily associated with
raising air. In the same way, isotherms and isobars are used to show temperature and pressure
distribution respectively, isohyets for rainfall distribution. An isohyet is a line connecting
points with equal values of rainfall. Change of state from water vapour to liquid water is
condensation. When moist air comes in contact with cool surfaces, it may be cooled to the
point where its capacity to hold water vapour is exceeded by the actual amount in the air. Part
of the water vapour then condenses into liquid form on the cool surface, produce dew. When
this happens, the latent heat of vaporization, in this process, called the latent heat of
condensation is released. At temperature below freezing, water may bypass the liquid form in
its change of state. When dry air with a temperature well below freezing comes in contact with
ice, molecules of ice (H2O) pass directly into the vapour state by the processes of sublimation.
(iv) Forms of precipitation: Condensation forms of fog, dew and frost are not considered to be
precipitation. The common precipitation forms are rain, drizzle, snow, sleet and hail. Of these,
drizzle and light snow are the only forms likely to fall from clouds having little or no vertical
development. Fog results when atmospheric water vapour condenses to water droplets or ice
crystals, become visible and will have their base in contact with ground.
(v) Types of rainfall based on distribution: In India, all areas located between 20°N of equator to
40°N, the rainfall is unimodal and almost all of the annual rainfall is received due to South-west
monsoons. In South India, the areas located below 10°N, the rainfall is bimodal or it has two peaks–
one peak during the South-west rainy season and the second peak in North-east monsoon.
(vi) Rainfall quantity: Generally, yield levels are determined by the amount of precipitation above the
basic minimum required to enable the crop to achieve maturity. Though rainfall has major influence
on crops yield, yields are not always directly proportional to the amount of precipita-tion. Rainfall
may also be in excess of the optimum and thereby cause reduced yields, which may appear
paradoxical to semi-arid climates. When the rainfall is concentrated in 4-5 months of the year, there
may be periods when the rate of precipitation exceeds the intake rate of soil. As a result,
considerable runoff occurs, plant nutrients are leached out of the root zone and crops are adversely
affected by anaerobic conditions (germination, establishment etc.), especially if the excess
precipitation occurs during the cool season. It may uproot and wash away young seedlings, causes
lodging of grown up crops and affect pollination and seed setting.
Based on the average rainfall over years, the receipt of rainfall during a year is classified by
IMD as below:
−19 to + 19% = Normal
+20 to + 59% = Excess
>+59% = Wet
−20 to −59% = Deficit
< −60% = Scanty
(vii) Rainfall analysis
Intensity of rainfall: Intensity of rainfall mainly influences soil erosion. Study of rainfall inten-
sity helps in probable period of floods, filling of irrigation tanks etc. If the intensity of rainfall
exceeds the rate of soil infiltration, runoff starts. High intensity rainfall causes soil erosion. The
runoff from hills and mountain slopes is collected in tanks. The relationship between intensity
of rainfall and runoff is given below:
Less than 12.5 mm - Runoff is rare
12.5–25.0 mm - Runoff in 35% occasions
25.0–50.0 mm - Runoff in 80% occasions
Above 50.0 mm - Runoff in 100% occasions
 Distribution of rainfall: The amount of rainfall received at periodic intervals like weeks, months,
seasons etc. indicates distribution. In addition, distribution of rainfall can be known by the
length of dry spells, wet spells and rainy days. Distribution of rainfall is more important than
total rainfall. It can be illustrated with following example taking rainfall related indices of
Hyderabad and Sholapur.

Index Hyderabad Sholapur

Annual rainfall (mm) 764 742

Seasonal rainfall (mm) 580 556
Coefficient of variation (%) 26 28
Potential evapotranspiration (mm) 1757 1802
Growing season (days) 130 148
Soil Vertisol Vertisol

It is apparent from the data that annual rainfall is fairly similar at both locations as seasonal
rainfall. The rainfall is equally variable and the potential evapotranspiration is fairly similar
atthe two locations. The growing season is slightly less at Hyderabad compared to Sholapur.
From the above, one could probably anticipate that the production potentials are quite similar.
How-ever, rainy season crops are successful at Hyderabad and the annual yields range from
5,000 to 7,000 kg/ha while at Sholapur rainy season crops are risky and annual yields range
from 1,000 to 2,000 kg/ha. Low grain yields at Sholapur are mainly due to discontinuous
rainfall or long breaks in rainfall during the crop period.
Dependability/reliability of rainfall: Rainfall in dry farming regions is characterized by high
variability and less reliability. The variability occurs in quantity of rainfall, onset and closure of
rainy seasons, duration of rainfall and distribution within rainy season. The spatial variability
refers to the variability of rainfall between two locations and the temporal variability refers to
the variations over time i.e., between years, between seasons and within season. Variability of
rainfall is the greatest hazard to crop production in the dry farming regions. The dependability
can be estimated by 75 per cent probability rainfall and by coefficient of variation. It indicates
that there is 75 per cent probability of receiving a particular amount of rainfall in three years
out of four years. It can be estimated by arranging the amount of rainfall present at the three-
fourth’s place in the descending order line is the 75 per cent probability rainfall.

EXAMPLE

Annual rainfall during different years Rainfall arranged in descending order

Years Amount (mm) Amount (mm) Ascending order

1950 850 1020 1

1951 950 950 2
1952 1020 870 3
1953 625 850 4
1954 750 750 5
1955 550 725 6
1956 650 650 7
1957 475 631 8
1958 631 625 9
1959 725 550 10
1960 870 525 11
 1962 525 475 12

Out of 12 years, 631 mm and above rainfall was received in eight years and it is the 75 per cent
probability rainfall.

Σx −Σx n
2 2
SD =
n−1
Dependability of rainfall based on CV

Period Dependable Not dependable

Annual 25% > 25%

Seasonal 50% > 50%
Monthly 100% > 100%
Weekly 150% > 150%
Daily 250% > 250%

13.3 DRY FARMING IN INDIA

About 70% of rural population lives in dry farming areas and their livelihood depend on success or failure
of the crops. Much of the increase in food production in the recent past is estimated to be mainly due to
irrigated areas. Since 1950, the extent of irrigated land in the world has increased from 94 [Link] to about
220 [Link]. During the 1980s, however, the rate of irrigation development has dropped materially and is
presently less than 1 per cent per year, whereas the world population is increasing at 1.7 per cent per
annum. Irrigated land accounts for 18 per cent of the cultivated land but produces 33 per cent of the food.
The cost of irrigation and drainage development of new systems averages over $5,000 per ha and can be as
high as $10,000. Therefore, it is inevitable that in future, the additional food has to come mainly from the
dry lands. With the current pace of irrigation development, it is assumed that the gross irrigated area is
6
likely to increase to 75 × 10 ha and more than 55 per cent of the gross cropped area will continue to be
farmed under rainfed conditions. In India, nearly 43 [Link] out of 143 [Link] of the cultivated area was
irrigated, leaving the remaining 100 [Link] as rainfed. According to experts, even when the ultimate
irrigation potential is reached, 55 per cent of the net sown area will be still, rainfed. The contribution
(production) of rainfed agriculture in India is about 45 per cent of the total food grain, 75 per cent of
oilseeds, 90 per cent of pulses and about 70 per cent of cotton. In the 21st century, the contribution of dry
lands will have to be 60 per cent if India is to provide adequate food to 1090 m people. Hence, tremendous
efforts both in the development and research fronts are essential to achieve this target. More than 90 per
cent of the area under sorghum, groundnut, and pulses is rainfed. In case of maize and chickpea, 82-85 per
cent area is rainfed. Even 78 per cent of cotton area is rainfed. In case of rapeseed/mustard, about 66 per
cent of the area is rainfed. Interestingly, but not surprisingly, 62, 44, and 35 per cent area under rice, barley
and wheat, respectively, is rainfed.
Although, India is blessed with average annual rainfall of about 1200 mm, slightly above the
global mean of 990 mm, the fate of dry land crops oscillates with the quantity, onset, and progress,
spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon rains. Of the mean annual rainfall, 30 per cent of the
country gets less than 750 mm and 40 per cent between 750 and 1250 mm. Only 20 per cent area is
blessed with rainfall between 1250 and 2000 mm, leaving about 10 per cent area with annual rainfall
over 2000 mm. A critical appraisal of the existing rainwater availability shows that:
India receives 400 M ha m of rain water annually,
About 160 M ha m falls on agricultural land,
 Nearly 24 M ha m is available for harvesting in small scale water harvesting structures,
About 186 M ha m goes to rivers as runoff, and
Around one-fourth of the total annual rainfall is received before or after cropping season.
At present, 3 ha of dry land crop produce cereal grain equivalent to that produced in 1 ha irrigated
crop. There is a scope for doubling the average yield of dry land crops. Improvements in the produc-tivity
of dry land crops are largely indiscernible. With limited scope for increasing the area under plough, only
option left is to increase the productivity with the modern technology and inputs, since the per capita land
availability, which was 0.28 ha in 1990, is expected to decline 0.17–0.19 ha in 2010.
The productivity of grains already showed a plateau in irrigated agriculture due to problems
related to nutrient exhaustion, salinity build up and raising water table. Therefore, the challenges of
the present millennium would be to produce more from less of dry lands while ensuring conservation
of existing resources. Hence, new strategies would have to be evolved which would make the fragile
dry land ecosystems more productive as well as sustainable. In order to achieve evergreen revolution,
we shall have to make grey areas (dry lands) as green through latest technological innovations. Dry
land offers good scope for development of Agro forestry, Social forestry, Horti-Sylvi-pasture and such
other similar systems which will not only supply food, fuel to the village people and fodder to the
cattle but forms a suitable vegetative cover for ecological maintenance.
A. Development
1920 Scarcity tract development given importance by the RCA
1923 Establishing Dry land Research Station at Manjri (Pune) Tamhane to Kanikar 1926
1933 Research Stations established at Bijapur and Solapur
1934 Research Stations established at Hagari and Raichur
1935 Research Stations established at Rohtak (Punjab)
1942 Bombay Land Development Act passed
1944 Monograph on dry farming in India by N.V. Kanitkar (Bombay, Hyderabad, Madras Dry
Farming Practices)
1953 Establishment of Central Soil Conservation Board
1955 Dry Farming Demonstration Centres started
1970 Establishment of 23 Research Centres under AICRPDA
1972 Establishment of ICRISAT
1976 Establishment of Dry land Operational Research Projects
1983 Starting of 47 model watersheds under ICAR
1984 Initiation of World Bank Assisted Watershed Development Programmes in four states. Es-
tablishing Dry land Development Board in Karnataka
1985 Birth of Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture at Hyderabad
1986 Launching of NWDPRA programmes by Government of India in 15 states.

B. Factors Affecting Dry Farming

Most of the cropping in the arid and semi arid regions continues to be under rainfed conditions. A majority
of the farmers are small farmers with meager resources. The poor resources base permits only low input
subsistence farming with low and unstable crop yields. The low productivity of agriculture in dry
farming regions is due to the cumulative effect of many constraints for crop production. The
constraints can be broadly grouped into:
Climatic constraints,
 Soil related constraints,
Cultivation practices, and
Socio economic and political constraints.
I. Climatic constraints
High atmospheric temperature
Low relative humidity
Hot dry winds
High atmospheric water demand (potential evapotranspiration) exceeding precipitation during
most part of the year
Vagaries of monsoon.
(i) Variable rainfall - Annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year and naturally its coefficient
of variation. Generally, higher the rainfall less is the coefficient of variation. In other words,
crop failures due to uncertain rains are more frequent in regions with lesser rainfall.
(ii) Intensity and distribution - In general, more than 50 per cent of total rainfall is usually
received in 3–5 rainy days. Such intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of water due to
surface runoff. This process also accelerates soil erosion. Distribution of rainfall during the
crop-growing season is more important than total rainfall in dry land agriculture.
(iii) Late onset of monsoon - If the onset of monsoon is delayed, crops/varieties recommended to
the region cannot be sown in time. Delayed sowing lead to uneconomical crop yields.
(iv) Early withdrawal of monsoon - This situation is equally or more dangerous than late onset of
monsoon. Rainy season crops will be subjected to terminal stress leading to poor yields.
Similarly, post-rainy season crops fail due to inadequate available soil moisture, especially
during reproductive and maturity phases.
(v) Prolonged dry spells - Breaks of monsoon for 7–10 days may not be a serious concern. Breaks
of more than 15 days duration especially at critical stages for soil moisture stress leads to
reduction in yield. Drought due to break in monsoon may adversely affect the crops in shallow
soils than in deep soils.
II. Soil constraints
The soil constraints are: 1. Inadequate soil moisture availability, 2. Poor organic matter content, 3.
Poor soil fertility, and 4. Soil deterioration due to erosion (wind, water).
III. Cultivation practices
The existing management practices adopted by the farmers are evolved based on long-term experience by
the farmers. The analysis of traditional system revealed that on one hand, the traditional system suffers due
to the fact that yield levels are low and unstable, while on the other hand, it has strong points due to which
it has stood the test of time. The traditional management practices are listed below:
Ploughing with country plough which is replaced by tractor, ploughing just prior to sowing
Ploughing along the slope
Broadcasting seeds/gorru sowing/sowing behind the country plough leading to poor as well as
uneven plants stand
Selection of traditional varieties
Monsoon sowing
Choice of crop based on rainfall
Application FYM in limited quantity
Hand weeding
Mixed cropping
Use of conventional system of harvesting, and
Traditional storage system.
 Among the traditional management practices, the fallowing practices are technically sound and
can be practiced (strength).
Monsoon sowing: This still holds good for crops like maize, red gram, bajra and karunganni
cotton.
Choice of crop based on rainfall: Farmers take up coriander for late onset of monsoon. This
traditional practice has been experimentally proved to be correct.
Hand weeding: It has proved to be as effective as herbicide application in terms of weed control
and yield.
Mixed cropping: Farmers adopt many mixed cropping systems based on their experience.
Ground-nut and red gram are sown in 6:1 ratio. Sorghum black gram, green gram and Lab-Lab
(mochai) crops are broadcasted. Cotton + black gram is sown in 6:1 ratio or black gram is sown
in border. Even though the yield is less, there is some stability in yield due to mixed cropping
and it is an insurance against risk of complete failure.
Traditional system of harvesting processing consumes more labourers, but it can be followed
because of no loss in grain during the process of harvest.
Traditional storage is based on sound practical knowledge as well as it involves low cost technology
In certain pockets, pre monsoon sowing or early sowing of crops are taken.
Inter cultivation with plough in between crop rows is one of the best insitu soil moisture
conservation techniques.
Weakness in traditional system - Most management practices are not aimed at soil moisture conservation.
Traditional system does not build up nutrient status in the soil; on the contrary it depletes the fertility status.
Genotypes/varieties used are poor yielders. Spatial and temporal variations are not effectively utilized in
the mixed cropping adopted by the farmers. This results in no yield advantage. One of the most serious
limitations due to traditional management practices is low plant population per unit area, which ultimately
reduces yield. Run off is neither collected nor used efficiently.
IV. Socio-economic contraints

Arid and Semiarid Regions of India

Total area under arid and semiarid regions in India extends over 135.8 [Link]. (Table 13.1).
Temperature in arid and semiarid temperate region is maximum at 32ºC in July and minimum at
−14ºC in January–February. Temperature in arid and semiarid tropics is maximum at 40–42ºC in May
and minimum varies from 3–5ºC in Punjab and Haryana and 18–24ºC in Tamil Nadu.

Table 13.1. Arid and Semiarid Regions of India

Climate Area ([Link]) Regions

Arid Tropics 31.7 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana,

Parts of Karnataka and Andhra
Arid Temperate 7.0 Jammu and Kashmir
Semiarid Tropics (SAT) 95.7 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Madya Pradesh
Semiarid Temperate 1.4 Jammu and Kashmir
 Table 13.2. Moisture and ThermalRegime for different Climate

Climate Moisture regime Thermal regime Constraints for cropping

Arid Tropics Dry Above 18ºC Moisture

Arid Temperate Dry Below 18ºC Moisture and Temperature
Semiarid tropics Wet-Dry Above 18ºC Moisture
Semiarid temperate Wet-Dry Below 18ºC Temperature

The distribution of arid and semiarid regions of India is given in Table 13.3. Dry farming regions
of India and Tamil Nadu are given in Table 13.4 and 13.5.

Table 13.3. Distribution of Arid and Semiarid Regions of India

State Arid Semiarid

Area (Sq km) % to total area Area (sq. km) % to total

in India area in India

A. Tropics
Rajasthan 196150 61 121020 13
Gujarat 62180 20 90520 9
Punjab 14510 5 31770 3
Haryana 12840 4 26880 3
Uttar Pradesh – – 64230 7
Madhya Pradesh – – 59470 6
Maharashtra 1290 0.4 189580 19
Karnataka 8570 3 139360 15
Andhra Pradesh 21550 7 138670 15
Tamil Nadu – 95250 10
All India 317090 956750

B. Temperate
Jammu & Kashmir 70300 13780

13.4 ARIDITY AND DROUGHT

Low rainfall or failure of monsoon rain is a recurring feature in India. This has been responsible for
droughts and famines. The word drought generally denotes scarcity of water in a region. Though,
aridity and drought are due to insufficient water, aridity is a permanent climatic feature and is the
culmination of a number of long-term processes. However, drought is a temporary condition that
occurs for a short period due to deficient precipitation for vegetation, river flow, water supply and
human consumption. Drought is due to anomaly in atmospheric circulation. The difference between
aridity and drought is given in Table 13.6.

Table 13.6. Aridity and Drought

Particulars Aridity Drought

Duration Permanent feature Temporary condition of scarcity of

varying duration
Factors Culmination of many long term processes Caused by deficient rainfall
 considers all climatic features
Aspect described Description of climate Description of water availability

A. Aridity
Aridity refers to a condition of deficiency of water due to either insufficient precipitation or excess
water loss over supply. The term “arid” is derived from a Latin word, “arere” which means ‘dry’.
Assessment of the degree of aridity of a place is necessary to serve as a base for the application of
technology, for the interpretation of resource assessment and for transfer of technology. It is also
useful to analyze the climatic resources and to identify specific climatic constraints for planning
agricultural development. The degree of aridity can be assessed from climatic parameters and plant
criteria. Some important indices related to aridity are given below.
Indices of Aridity:
Thornthwaite and Mather (1955): The classification of Thornthwaite (1948) was modified for
the Moisture Index (Im) and is given below:
Im = 100 [(P-PE)/PE]
where, P = Precipitation,
PE = Potential evapotranspiration

Im Quantity Climate classification

100 and above Per humid

20−100 Humid
0–20 Moist sub humid
−33.3−0 Dry sub humid
−66.7 to −33.3 Semi arid
−100 to −66.7 Arid

Troll (1965): Based on thermal and hygric variables and number of humid months, climate is
classified and said to be of agricultural use. Humid month is one having mean rainfall exceeding the
mean potential evapotranspiration.

Humid months Climate classification

12.0–9.5 Tropical rainforest

9.5–7.0 Humid Savannah
7.0–4.5 Dry Savannah (Wet–dry SAT)
4.5–2.0 Thorn Savannah (Dry SAT)
2.0–1.0 Semi desert (Arid)
1.0–0.0 Desert (Arid)

Papadakis (1961): Moisture Index (H) based on precipitation, soil moisture storage and PET
was developed.
H=[P+W]/E
Where,
P = Monthly precipitation
E = Monthly PET
W = Water stored from previous rainfall
 H value Climate

Less than 0.25 Arid

0.25 to 0.50 Dry
0.50 to 0.75 Intermediate
0.75 to 1.00 Intermediate humid
1.00 to 2.00 Humid
More than 2.00 Wet

Hargreaves (1971): Moisture Availability Index (MAI) is used for the classification. It is the
ratio of dependable precipitation to potential evapotranspiration. It is a measure of adequacy of
precipi-tation in supplying crop water demand.

MAI  Dependable precipitation  75% probable rainfall

Potential evapotranspiration

MAI Climate classification

0.0–0.33 during all months Very arid

More than 0.34 for 1–2 months Arid
More than 0.34 for 3–4 consecutive months Semi arid

Steiner et al. (1988): Steiner et al. (1988) consider aridity index concept of the United Nations
conference on Desertification based on the balance between precipitation (P) and evapotranspiration
(ETP) to be appropriate for wide scale adoption. According to this, the areas with P/ETP ratio between
0.03 and 0.2 are arid and areas with the ratio between 0.2 and 0.5 are semi-arid.
FAO classification: FAO classification is based on ‘growing period concept’ . Growing period is
the number of days during a year when precipitation exceeds half the potential evapotranspiration,
plus a period to use an assumed 100 mm of water from excess precipitation (or less, if not available)
stored in the soil profile. Areas having a growing period between 1 and 74 days are classified as arid
and those with a growing period between 75 and 119 days are semi-arid.
ICAR classification of agroclimatic zones: ICAR while establishing the dry land centers in
different agroclimatic zones of the country in 1970, used the simple formula of Thornthwaite (1955)
for estimating the moisture index.
Moisture Index = 100 [(P-PE)/PE]
Thornthwaite and Mathur (1955) classified only six categories, while the ICAR had eight
moisture indices with eight moisture belt indicating eight zones in India. The scale adopted in defining
climatic zones in terms of moisture indices are;

Zone Moisture index Moisture belt

1 < −80 Extremely dry

2 −60 to −80 Semi dry
3 −40 to −60 Dry
4 −20 to −40 Slightly dry
5 0 to −20 Slightly moist
6 0 to +50 Moist
7 +50 to +100 Wet
8 > +100 Extremely wet
B. Drought

I. Definition
There is no universally accepted definition for drought. Early workers defined drought as prolonged
period without rainfall. According to Ramdas (1960), drought is a situation when the actual seasonal
rainfall is deficient by more than twice the mean deviation. American Meteorological Society defined
drought as a period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause a
severe hydrological imbalance in the area affected. Prolonged deficiencies of soil moisture adversely
affect crop growth indicating incidence of agricultural drought. It is the result of imbalance between
soil moisture and evapotranspiration needs of an area over a fairly long period as to cause damage to
standing crops and to reduce the yields. The irrigation commission of India defines drought as a
situation occurring in any area where the annual rainfall is less than 75% of normal rainfall.
II. Classification
Drought can be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of occurrence and using some
specific terms. Demarcation between the classifications is not well defined and many times, overlap-
ping of the cause and effect of one on the rest is seen.

Based on duration
(a) Permanent drought - This is characteristic of the desert climate where sparse vegetation grow-ing is
adapted to drought and agriculture is possible only by irrigation during entire crop season.
(b) Seasonal drought - This is found in climates with well-defined rainy and dry seasons. Most of
the arid and semiarid zones fall in this category. Duration of the crop varieties and planting
dates should be such that the growing season should fall within rainy season.
(c) Contingent drought - This involves an abnormal failure of rainfall. It may occur almost any-
where especially in most parts of humid or sub humid climates. It is usually brief, irregular and
generally affects only a small area.
(d) Invisible drought - This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an area. When rainfall is
inadequate to meet the evapotranspiration losses, the result is borderline water deficiency in
soil resulting in less than the optimum yield. This occurs usually in humid regions.
Based on nature of the users (NCA, 1976)
(a) Meteorological drought - It is defined as a condition, where the annual precipitation is less than
the normal over an area for prolonged period (month, season or year).
(b) Atmospheric drought - It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds.
It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture. It refers to a condition
when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day, when transpiration exceeds
absorption temporarily for a short period. When decreases, absorption keeps pace with transpi-
ration and plants revive (mid day wilt).
(c) Hydrological drought - Meteorological drought, when prolonged results in hydrological
drought with depletion of surface water and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks etc. It
results in deficiency of water for all sectors using water. This is based on water balance and
how it affects irrigation as a whole for bringing crops to maturity.
(d) Agricultural drought - It is the result of soil moisture stress due to imbalance between available
soil moisture and evapotranspiration of a crop. It is usually gradual and progressive. Plants can
therefore, adjust at least partly, to the increased soil moisture stress. This situation arises as a
consequence of scanty precipitation or its uneven distribution both in space and time. It is also
usually referred as soil drought.
 Relevant definition of agricultural drought appears to be a period of dryness during the crop
season, sufficiently prolonged to adversely affect the yield. The extent of yield loss depends on the
crop growth stage and the degree of stress. It does not begin when the rain ceases, but actually
commences only when the plant roots are not able to obtain the soil moisture rapidly enough to
replace evapotranspiration losses. Important causes for agricultural drought are:
Inadequate precipitation,
Erratic distribution,
Long dry spells in the monsoon,
Late onset of monsoon,
Early withdrawal of monsoon, and
Lack of proper soil and crop management
Based on time of occurrence
(a) Early season drought - It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or due to long dry spells
after early sowing.
(b) Mid season drought - It occurs due to long gaps between two successive rains and stored
moisture becoming insufficient during this long dry spell.
(c) Late season drought - It occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop water stress at
maturity stage.
Other terms to describe drought
(a) Apparent drought - What is drought for one crop may not be drought for another crop; what is
drought in red soil may not be drought in black soil.
(b) Physiological drought - It refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb water from soil
even when water is available, due to the high osmotic pressure of soil solution due to increased soil
concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils. It is not due to deficit of water supply.
III. Periodicity of drought:
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) examined the incidence of drought for the period from
1871 to 1967, utilizing the monthly rainfall of 306 stations in the country. It was seen that during
1877, 1899, 1918 and 1972, more than 40 per cent of the total area experienced drought. General
observation on the periodicity of drought in respect of different meteorological subdivisions of India is
given Table 13.7.

Table 13.7. Periodicity of Drought in India

Meteorological subdivisions Period of recurrence of drought

Assam Very rare, once in 15 years

West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Konkan, Once in 5 years
Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Bihar, Orissa
South interior Karnataka, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Once in 3 years
Gujarat, Vidharbha, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kashmir, Rayalaseema and Telangana
Western Rajasthan Once in 2.5 years

IV. Drought periods:

(i) Beginning of drought: Droughts do not occur in Assam, South Kerala and eastern part of West
Bengal. Severe drought begins on 1st October in the northwest arid zone and even much earlier
in the western parts of the country. In the southern arid zone and adjoining interior portion of
Maharashtra, the severe drought begins by the end of November. In most of the central portion
of the country to the east of the line joining Delhi, Udaipur and Baroda, the commencement is
 only in the month of February or later. This is due to high water holding capacity of the black
soil region. In the western coastal region of Maharashtra and Karnataka, the rainfall is very
high. In spite of this, severe drought begins by December-January, probably because of the
lower water holding capacity of the soil. Severe drought commences only after April in
Gwalior, Guna, Jabalpur, Pendra, and Satna regions of Madhya Pradesh.
(ii) Closure of drought: In general, severe drought ends outside the regions of east Bihar, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, and southern Andhra Pradesh only by 1st May. In most of these regions, it
ends after 15th May. In the arid zone of northwest India, severe drought ends normally during
the second fortnight of June, except in the Jaisalmer and Bikaner regions where normally ces-
sation of severe drought is only by the first week of July.
V. Drought on crop production:
Water relations: Drought alters the water status by its influence on absorption, translocation and
transpiration. The lag in absorption behind transpiration results in loss of turgor as a result of
increase in the atmospheric dryness.
Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due to reduction in photosynthetic
rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area and increase in assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack
of translocation).
Respiration: Respiration increases with mild drought but more severe drought lowers water
content and respiration.
Anatomical changes: Decrease in size of the cells and intercellular spaces, thicker cell wall and
greater development of mechanical tissue are the anatomical changes. Stomata per unit leaf
tend to increase.
Metabolic reaction: Almost, all metabolic reactions are affected by water deficits.
Hormonal relationships altered: The activity of growth promoting hormones like cytokinin,
gibberlic acid and indole acetic acid decreases and growth regulating hormone like abscisic
acid, ethylene etc. increases.
Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of N is affected. Since dry matter production is
considerably reduced, the uptake of NPK is reduced.
Growth and Development: Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits.
Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it advances if drought occurs
after flowering.
Reproduction and grain growth: Drought at flowering and grain development determines the
number of fruits and individual grain weight, respectively. Panicle initiation in cereals is
critical while drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen. Drought at grain development
reduces yield while vegetative and grain-filling stages are less sensitive to moisture stress.
Yield: The effect on yield depends on what proportion of the total dry matter is considered as useful
material to be harvested. If it is aerial and underground parts, effect of drought is as sensitive as
total growth. When the yield consists of seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at flowering is
detrimental. When the yield is fibre or chemicals where economic product is a small fraction of total
dry matter, moderate stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yields.

13.5 SOIL MOISTURE CONSTRAINTS

Inadequate soil moisture availability is the major constraint in dry farming. All the above factors
directly and indirectly affect the soil moisture. Availability of soil moisture to crops is affected by
rainfall behavior as well as by various soil properties.
Shallow soils, degraded soils, eroded soils, gravelly soils and coarse textured soils have poor
water holding capacity and hence can not store much of rainfall.
Wind and water erosion remove the finer soil particles and expose the hard, impermeable subsoil
causing less infiltration and less water storage.
 Crusting of soil surface after rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of rainfall, due to high run
off.
Compaction in surface and sub soil hardpans and poor soil structure affect infiltration and water
storage.
Poor organic matter content adversely affects soil physical properties related to moisture storage.

13.5.1 Methods of Soil Moisture Conservation

They are grouped as follows:
By adapting proper tillage
II. Control of run off water and soil erosion
III. Recycling of rain water

By increased rainfall use efficiency

I. Tillage
Tillage may be described as the practice of modifying the state of the soil in order to provide
conditions favourable to crop growth. The objectives of tillage in dry lands are to:
develop desired soil structure for a seedbed, which allows rapid infiltration and good retention of
rainfall.
minimize soil erosion by following practices as contour tillage, tillage across the slope etc.
control weeds and remove unwanted crop plants.
manage crop residues, through mixing of trash is desirable for achieving good tilth and decom-
position of residues. However, the retention of trash on top layers is also useful in reducing
erosion. On the other hand, complete coverage of residues sometimes necessitates control of
insects or to prevent interference with precision planting operations.
obtain specific soil configurations for in situ moisture conservation, drainage, planting etc.
incorporate and mix manures, fertilizers, pesticides or soil amendments into the soil.
accomplish segregation by moving soil from one layer to another, removal of rocks or root
harvesting.
Hence, attention must be paid to the depth of tillage, time of tillage, direction of tillage and
intensity of tillage.
(a) Depth of tillage - The depth of tillage depends on soil type, crop and time of tillage. Deep
tillage of 25–30 cm is beneficial for deep heavy clay soils to improve permeability and to close
cracks formed while drying. In soils with hard pans, deep tillage once in 2–3 years with chisel
plough up to 35–45 cm depth at 60–120 cm interval will increase effective depth for rooting
and moisture storage. Deep tillage is preferable for cotton, red gram and other deep-rooted
crops. It is not recommended for shallow, gravelly, light textured soils.
Medium deep tillage of 15–20 cm depth is generally sufficient for most soils and crops. It is
recommended for medium deep soils, shallow rooted crops, soils with pan free horizon and for
stubble incorporation. Shallow tillage up to 10 cm is followed in light textured soils, and
shallow soils and in soils highly susceptible to erosion. In soils prone for surface crusting,
shallow surface stirring or shallow harrowing is useful.
(b) Time of tillage - Early completion of tillage is often helpful to enable sowing immediately after
rainfall and before the soil dries up. Summer tillage or off-season tillage done with preseason
rainfall causes more conservation of moisture and also enables early and timely sowing. It is
particularly useful for pre-monsoon sowing.
(c) Direction of tillage - For moisture conservation, ploughing across slope or along contour is very
effective. Plough furrows check the velocity of runoff, promote more infiltration when water
stagnates in the depressions caused by plough furrows and improves soil moisture storage.
 (d) Intensity of tillage - It refers to the number of times tillage is done. Frequent ploughing in
shallow light textured soils will pulverize the soils into fine dust and increase the susceptibility
to erosion. In heavy soils, leaving the land in a rough and cloddy stage prior to sowing is useful
for more depression storage. The concept of minimal tillage is also practiced in dry lands. Here
tillage is confined to seeding zone only and the inter-space is not tilled. It not only saves time,
energy and cost but also helps moisture conservation. The practice of “set line cultivation”
adopted in some dry regions is an example of minimum tillage. Here the seed row space is
fixed and season after season, tillage is done only in this seeding strip. The intervening strip is
not tilled.
(e) Modern concept of tillage - In dry lands, rainfall is received simultaneously over a large area. In
order to ensure timely sowing before soil dries up, the interval between land preparations and
sowing must be narrowed down. This calls for completion of tillage over a large area in quick time.
Dependence on bullock power and traditional wooden plough may not help in this regard. Use of
more efficient tillage implements and mechanization of tillage operations are warranted. Tillage in
dry lands also encompasses land shaping for in situ soil moisture conservation. Imple-ments that
can carryout tillage and land shaping in one single operation will help in saving time and cost. If
land preparation, land shaping and sowing can be done in one single operation it can save
considerable time. This is termed as once over tillage, plough planting or conservation tillage.
Suitable tractor drawn machinery like a broad bed former cum seeder, basin lister cum seeder,
which can complete the land shaping and sowing simultaneously, can be used:
minimum/optimum/reduced tillage.
conservation/mulch tillage.
zero tillage.
(i) Minimum/optimum/reduced tillage: The objectives of these systems include (a) reducing en-
ergy input and labour requirement for crop production, (b) conserving soil moisture and reduc-
ing erosion, (c) providing optimum seedbed rather than homogenizing the entire soil surface,
and (d) keeping field compaction to minimum.
(ii) Conservation/mulch tillage: The objectives are to achieve soil and water conservation and
energy conservation through reduced tillage operations. Both systems usually leave crop
residue on the surface and each operation is planned to maintain continuous soil coverage by
residue or growing plants. The conservation tillage practices may advance some of the goals of
alternative farming such as increasing organic matter in soil and reducing soil erosion, but
some conservation tillage practices may increase the need for pesticides. Conservation tillage
changes soil properties in ways that affect plant growth, and reduce water runoff from fields.
The mulched soil is cooler and soil surface under the residue is moist, as a result many
conservation tillage systems have been successful.
(iii) Zero tillage or no-till system: Here, the crop residue is usually shredded and planting is done
without pre tillage. No till planting has problem of adequate weed control.

II. Soil erosion and runoff

Detachment and transport of soil and soil material caused by water and wind are widely prevalent in
dry farming regions. Erosion takes place in both red soils and black soils. Soil and water are the most
critical basic resources, which must be conserved as effectively as possible. No phenomenon is more
destructive than soil erosion through which fertile topsoil and rainwater are lost. Soil and water
conser-vation is the only known way to protect the lands from degradation and conserving rainwater
for improving the productivity of dry land crops. Runoff leads to wastage of rainfall. Under unchecked
conditions, even up to 40% of rainfall may be lost as runoff. Even when moisture conservation
practices are adopted, about 10-20% of rainfall may be lost as runoff because of high intensity rainfall.
Erosion removes topsoil and exposes hard impermeable sub soil, increasing the chances of more run
off. Ero-sion adversely affects soil physical properties such as loss of structure, reduced infiltration,
soil depth and soil moisture storage capacity. Loss of topsoil through erosion leads to loss of plant
nutrients and poor soil fertility.

A. Soil erosion:
Soil erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the topsoil and transportation of the
detached soil particles by wind and/or water. The detaching agents are falling raindrop, channel flow
and wind. The transporting agents are flowing water, rain splash and wind. Out of 328 [Link]. of India’s
geographical area, 175 [Link]. (53.3%) subject to soil erosion and all kind of land degradation. Out of
which 104.6 [Link]. are cultivable. Recent estimates indicate that about 5,333 mt. (16.35 t/ha) of soil is
detached annually (29% carried away by rivers to the sea, 10% deposited in reservoirs resulting 1–2%
loss of storage capacity).
Types of erosion
(a) Geological erosion: It is said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming process. It takes place
under natural vegetative cover completely undisturbed by biotic factors. This long time slow
process has developed the present topographic features like stream channels, valleys, etc.,
through weather abnormalities such as intensive rainfall and biotic interference.
(b) Accelerated erosion: It is due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the activities of man and
animals through land mismanagement, destruction of forests, overgrazing, etc. Soil loss
through erosion is more than the soil formed due to soil forming process.
(c) Water erosion: Water and wind are the main agencies responsible for soil erosion. Loss of soil
from land surface by water, including runoff from melted snow and ice is usually referred to as
water erosion. The major erosive agents in water erosion are impacting raindrops and runoff
water flowing over the soil surface. Erosion and sedimentation embody the processes of
detach-ment, transportation and deposition of soil particles. Detachment is dislodging of soil
particles from soil mass by the erosive agents. Transportation is movement of detached soil
particles (sediment) from their original location. The sediment moves along the stream and part
of it may eventually reach the ocean. Some sediment is usually deposited at the base of the
slopes, reser-voirs and flood plains along the way.
(i) Forms of water erosion: Sheet, Rill, gully, ravine, landslide and stream bank erosion.
(ii) Factors affecting water erosion:
• Rainfall – amount, intensity, duration and distribution
Soils – primary particle size, distribution, organic matter, structure, Fe and Al oxides, initial
moisture content
Topography – nature and length of slope
Soil surface cover – plant canopy or mulches
Biotic interference – disturbance of natural balance
(iii) Losses due to erosion: The losses due to erosion are loss of fertile top soil, loss of rain water,
nutrient losses, silting up of reservoirs, damage to forests, reduced ground water potential, damage to
reservoirs and irrigation channels and adverse effect on public health.
(iv) Water erosion control: Water erosion can be minimized by preventing the detachment of soil
particles and their transportation. Principles of water erosion control are:
Maintenance of soil infiltration capacity
Soil protection from rainfall
Control of surface runoff
Safe disposal of surface runoff
Control measures are grouped in to agronomic, mechanical and forestry measures
 Agronomic: Choice of crops, land preparation, contour cultivation, strip cropping, mulching, ap-
plication of manures and fertilizers and appropriate cropping systems.
Mechanical: Contour bunding, graded bunding, bench terracing, contour trenching, gully control
and vegetative barriers.
Forestry: Perennial trees and grasses.
(d) Wind erosion - Erosion of soil by the action of wind is known as wind erosion. It is a serious
problem on lands devoid of vegetation. It is more common in arid and semiarid region. It is
essentially a dry weather phenomenon stimulated by soil moisture deficiency. The process of
wind erosion consists of three phases: initiation of movement, transportation and deposition.
About 33 [Link] in India is affected by wind erosion. It includes 23.9 [Link] of desert and about
6.5 [Link] of coastal sands.
(i) Forms of wind erosion: Transportation of soil particles by wind takes place in three ways.
Saltation: Movement of soil particles by a short series of bounces along the ground surface.
Suspension: Movement of fine dust particles, smaller than 0.1mm dia floating in the air.
Surface creep: Rolling and sliding of soil particles along the ground surface due to impact of
particles descending and hitting during saltation is called surface creep.
(ii) Factors affecting wind erosion: The factors are soil clodiness, surface roughness, water stable
aggregates and surface crust (Mechanical stability), wind and soil moisture (surface is dry or
slightly moist), field length, vegetative cover, organic matter (cementing), topography and soil
type (sand erodes easily).
(iii) Losses due to wind erosion: Fertile topsoil is lost. Fertile soils are converted into unproductive
sandy soils drifting sand. Yield losses due to abrasive action of wind driven soil particles,
especially on broad leaved crops.
(iv) Wind erosion control: Greatest damage by wind erosion occurs during summer months in dry
regions, where soil surface is bare and wind velocity is at its peak. Basic principles of wind
erosion control are:
Reducing wind velocity at ground surface, sufficient to prevent it being able to pickup soil
particles.
Increasing the size of soil aggregates or covering the soil with a non-erodable surface.
Trapping the saltating soil particles.
Keeping the soil moist so that soil particles moving by saltation loose their momentum at the
surface.
Practices such as stubble mulching and minimum tillage, cover crops, strip-cropping, crop
rotation, wind barriers and shelterbelts and mulches can be practiced to minimize wind erosion.
III. In situ moisture conservation techniques
Storage of rainfall in soil at the place where it falls is termed as “in situ” soil moisture conservation. It
aims at increasing infiltration of rainfall into the soil and reducing runoff loss of rainwater. In situ soil
moisture conservation can be accomplished through.
Cultural/agronomic methods
Mechanical methods
Agrostological/biological methods
Extent of soil moisture storage from rainfall is influenced quantity and intensity of rainfall, slope,
soil properties such as texture, structure, depth, surface characters, presence of subsoil hard pans, rate
of infiltration and permeability, water holding capacity, vegetative cover, etc.

Cultural/agronomical Mechanical methods Agrostological/biological

Methods methods

Addition of organic matter, Basin listing, Bunding, Ridges and Pasture, Strip cropping with
 Summer ploughing, mulching furrows, Tie ridging, Random tie grasses, Ley farming, Vegetative
cultivation, strip cropping ridging, Broad bed furrow, Dead barriers
furrow, Furrows after crop
establishment

1. Cultural /Agronomical methods

(i) Addition of organic matter: By improving soil physical properties and water holding capacity.
(ii) Off season/summer tillage: Plough furrows can hold water in the depressions and thereby increase
the infiltration. When done across the slope, the plough furrows check runoff, reduce the velocity of
runoff water and improve storage. Summer tillage is a traditional practice helps in the storage of
pre-sowing rainfall. When ploughing is done along contour, it is termed as contour ploughing and is
more helpful for in situ moisture conservation. Summer ploughing also helps in control of perennial
weeds, pest control and enables early sowing with onset of rains.
(iii) Contour farming: Ploughing along the contour and sowing reduce soil erosion and reduce
runoff. For e.g., Jowar sown in the black soils on contour line restricts the run off to 13.7% of
the total rainfall and soil loss to 2.4 t/ha/year.
(iv) Cover crops: Erosion will be reduced if the land surface is fully covered with foliage. e.g.,
black gram, green gram, groundnut and fodder grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus
glaucus, dinanath grass, marvel grass. Both contour cropping and cover cropping can be
practiced when the slope is less than 2 per cent.
(v) Mixed cropping
(vi) Inter cropping
(vii) Mulching
(viii) Strip cropping: Strip intercropping involves erosion resistant crops and erosion permitting
crops in alternate strips of 2–3 m width across slope and along the contour. Erosion resistant
crops include grasses and legumes with rapid canopy development. For example, Cenchrus
glaucus + Stylosanthes hamata.
2. Mechanical methods
The basic principle are: (i) shaping the land surface manually or with implements in such a way as to
reduce the velocity of runoff, (ii) to allow more time for rainfall to stand on soil surface, and (iii) to
facilitate more infiltration of rainfall into soil layers.
Choice of any particular method under a given situation is influenced by rainfall characters, soil
type, crops, sowing methods and slope of land.
(i) Basin listing: Formation of small depressions (basins) of 10–15 cm depth and 10–15 cm width
at regular intervals using an implement called basin lister. The small basins collect rainfall and
improve its storage. It is usually done before sowing. It is suitable for all soil types and crops.
(ii) Bunding: Formation of narrow based or broad based bunds across slope at suitable intervals
depending on slope of field. The bunds check the free flow of runoff water, impound the rain-
water in the inter-bund space, increase its infiltration and improve soil moisture storage.
Leveling of inter-bund space is essential to ensure uniform spread of water and avoid water
stagnation in patches. It can be classified into three types:
(a) Contour bunding: Bunds of 1 m basal width, 0.5 m top width and 0.5 m height are formed
along the contour. The distance between two contour bunds depends on slope. The inter-
bund surface is leveled and used for cropping. It is suitable for deep red soils with slope
less than 1%. It is not suitable for heavy black soils with low infiltration where bunds tend
to develop cracks on drying. Contour bunds are permanent structures and require technical
assistance and heavy investment.
(b) Graded/field bunding: Bunds of 30-45 cm basal width, and 15-20 cm height are formed
across slope at suitable intervals of 20-30 m depending on slope. The inter-bund area is
leveled and cropped. It is suitable for medium deep-to-deep red soils with slopes up to 1%.
 It is not suitable for black soils due to susceptibility to cracking and breaching. Bunds can
be maintained for 2-3 seasons with reshaping as and when required.
(c) Compartmental bunding: Small bunds of 15 cm width and 15 cm height are formed in both
directions (along and across slope) to divide the field into small basins or compartments of
40 sq. m. size (8 × 5 m). It is suitable for red soils and black soils with a slope of 0.5-1%.
The bunds can be formed before sowing or immediately after sowing with local wooden
plough. It is highly suitable for broadcast sown crops. CRIDA has recommended this
method as the best in situ soil moisture conservation measure for Kovilpatti region of
Tamil Nadu. Maize, sunflower, sorghum performs well in this type of bunding.
(iii) Ridges and furrows: Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope. The
furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water stagnation. They
collect and store water when rainfall intensity is less. It is suitable for medium deep-to-deep black
soils and deep red soils. It can be practiced in wide row spaced crops like cotton, maize, chillies,
tomato etc. It is not suitable for shallow red soils, shallow black soils and sandy/ gravelly soils. It is
not suitable for broadcast sown crops and for crops sown at closer row spacing less than 30 cm.
Since furrows are formed usually before sowing, sowing by dibbling or planting alone is possible.
Tie ridging is a modification of the above system of ridges and furrows where in the ridges are
connected or tied by a small bund at 2–3 m interval along the furrows. Random tie ridging is
another modification where discontinuous furrows of 20–25 cm width, 45–60 cm length and 15
cm depth are formed between clumps or hills of crops at the time of weeding. Yet another
modification of ridges and furrows method is the practice of sowing in lines on flat beds and
formation of furrows between crop rows at 25–30 DAS. This enables sowing behind plough or
through seed drill.
(iv) Broad Bed Furrow (BBF): Here beds of 1.5 m width, 15 cm height and convenient length are
formed, separated by furrows of 30 cm width and 15 cm depth. Crops are sown on the beds at
required intervals. It is suitable for heavy black soils and deep red soils. The furrows have a
gradient of 0.6%. Broad bed furrow has many advantages over other methods.
It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry i.e., close as well as wide row spacing.
It is suitable for both sole cropping and intercropping systems.
Furrows serve to safely guide runoff water in the early part of rainy season and store
rainwater in the later stages.
Sowing can be done with seed drills.
It can be formed by bullock drawn or tractor drawn implements. Bed former cum seed drill
enables BBF formation and sowing simultaneously, thus reducing the delay between
rainfall receipts and sowing.
(v) Dead furrow- At the time of sowing or immediately after sowing, deep furrows of 20 cm depth are
formed at intervals of 6–8 rows of crops. No crop is raised in the furrow. Sowing and furrowing are
done across slope. It can be done with wooden plough in both black and red soils.
3. Agrostological methods
The use of grasses to control soil erosion, reduce run off and improve soil moisture storage constitutes
the agrostological method. Grasses with their close canopy cover over soil surface and profuse root
system, which binds soil particles, provide excellent protection against runoff and erosion. The
follow-ing are the various agrostological methods of in situ moisture conservation.
(i) Pastures/grass lands: Raising perennial grasses to establish pastures or grass lands is recom-
mended for shallow gravelly, eroded, degraded soils. Grass canopy intercepts rainfall, reduces
splash erosion, checks runoff and improves soil moisture storage from rainfall.
(ii) Strip cropping with grasses: Alternate strips of grasses and annual field crops arranged across
slope check runoff and erosion and help in increasing moisture storage in soil.
 (iii) Ley farming: It is the practice of growing fodder grasses and legumes and annual crops in
rotation. Grasses and legumes like Cenchrus, stylo are grown for 3–5 years and followed by
annual crops like sorghum for 2 year. When the field is under grasses or legumes, soil moisture
conservation is improved.
(iv) Vegetative barriers: Vegetative barrier consists of one or two rows of perennial grasses estab-lished
at suitable interval across the slope and along the contour. It serves as a block to free runoff and soil
transport. Vetiver, Cenchrus etc., are suitable grasses. Vetiver can be planted in rows at intervals of
40 m in 0.5% slope. Plough furrows are opened with disc plough first before commencement of
monsoon. 5–8 cm deep holes are formed at 20 cm interval and two slips per hole are planted in the
beginning of rainy season. The soil around the roots is compacted. Vetiver barriers check runoff and
prevent soil erosion. While they retain the soil, they allow excess runoff to flow through their
canopy without soil loss. It is adapted to drought and requires less care for maintenance. It does
not exhibit any border effect on crops in adjacent rows. It allows uniform spread of water to
lower area in the field resulting in uniform plant stand thus increasing yield of a crop by 10–
15%. It facilitates better storage of soil moisture. If fodder grasses like Cenchrus glaucus or
marvel grass are used, fodder can also be harvested and given to the animal. Vegetative
barriers are best suited for black soil. Unlike contour bunding, which gives way due to
development of crack in summer in black soils, vegetative barriers do not allow such
phenomenon in black soil. Hence, the vegetative barriers can be effectively maintained in black
soil for 4–5 years. After 4–5 years, replanting material can also be had from the old barrier by
‘quartering’
IV. Recycling of rainwater
Runoff is that portion of precipitation, which makes its ways towards stream, channel, lake or ocean as
surface flow. Mostly runoff refers to surface flow only. Runoff from rainfall is inevitable and cannot
be completely arrested. In dry farming areas, rainfall often occurs at high intensity, which exceeds the
infiltration rate and causes runoff. Also, when quantity of rainfall exceeds the water holding capacity
of soils, runoff has to take place. In certain instances, surface characteristics of soils also cause runoff.
Usually, under unchecked conditions, about 40% of rainfall may be lost as runoff. Even if moisture
conservation practices are adopted, about 10–15% of rainfall in black soils and about 20% of rainfall
in red soils is lost as runoff.
The amount of such runoff varies with rainfall intensity, soil physical properties, soil surface
characters, slope, vegetation cover and cultural practices. Runoff water, if not checked, flows out and
is wasted, causing soil erosion. It can be guided, collected and recycled to augment water availability
to rainfed crops. The collection, storage and recycling of runoff water constitute the process of water
harvesting. Water harvesting can be viewed from two situations. First is a case of normal rainfall with
high intensity on a few rainy days causing runoff. This runoff can be guided and collected in storage
structures called farm ponds and reused for supplemental irrigation to crops suffering from moisture
stress. This is termed as macro watershed approach or macro catchment water harvesting. In the
second instance, total rainfall is less and soil storage is inadequate for supporting crop growth. Here
part of the land is left barren and uncultivated. This is known as donor area and is treated in such a
way as to increase runoff from rainfall. The runoff from the donor strip is directed towards the lower
adjacent strip to increase soil moisture storage there. This strip is used for raising crops. This is called
as micro watershed approach or micro catchment water harvesting.
(i) Water harvesting through farm ponds: The collection of rainwater and storing in big farm
ponds is not a new concept in India. It is in vogue since early days in the form of tanks. Farm ponds
are small storage structures constructed at the lowest point of a farm to collect and store runoff water.
Runoff from various parts of the catchment area is properly guided through grassed waterways into
the farm pond. The following points need to be considered while constructing farm ponds.
 Deep heavy soils with low permeability are better suited for farm pond technology than shallow
light soils with high permeability. But, ironically, the usefulness of farm pond is more felt in
light soils with low water storage capacity.
Farm pond has to be constructed at the lowest point of the farm to collect runoff water from the
entire farm area.
Size of farm pond depends on rainfall quantity, soil type, area of catchment (farm size) and
estimated runoff.
Provisions for arresting soil inflow into the pond at the inlet point and a weir, for draining excess
water when pond is full have to be made.
Runoff has to be guided to the farm pond through grassed waterways.
Water loss through seepage and, evaporation has to be checked. Seepage loss, can be reduced by
lining the sides and bottom with soil + sand + cement or soil + cow dung + straw, spraying
sodium chloride or sodium carbonate on the surface. Evaporation loss can be reduced by float-
ing materials to prevent direct exposure of water surface, changing the shape of the pond to
provide more depth rather than surface area (circular instead of rectangular).
Advantages - Harvested water can be used for protective irrigation to crops at critical stages. Since
runoff is properly guided through grassed waterways, erosion is checked. Earth excavated from ponds can
be used for bunding and leveling of fields. Stored water can be used as drinking water for humans and
animals, for spraying operations and for fish rearing. High value tree crops can be raised near farm ponds
with protective irrigation. A chain of farm ponds can recharge ground water in the region.
(ii) Water harvesting under deficit rainfall: The situation here is that the seasonal rainfall quan-
tity by itself is not sufficient to support a crop till maturity. Therefore, runoff of rainfall from a part of
the land left uncultivated is directed to an adjacent strip, which alone is used for cropping. In this strip
(run-on strip/recipient area), the rainfall falling on its surface is supplemented by runoff directed from
the other strip of land (donor area/runoff strip) and total water supply available is increased to
facilitate cropping. This can be accomplished by the following practices. A portion of the field in the
upper reach is left uncultivated. It is shaped or treated to increase runoff. This can be accomplished by
covering the surface with polythene films or by water proofing it by spraying sodium carbonate or
water repellant materials like silicone/asphalt or by shaping the land into a sloping, clear, smooth,
compact surface to increase runoff. Runoff from this donor strip is guided to a smaller, strip on the
lower reach to increase soil storage and to raise crops. The proportion of ‘donor area’ to cropped area
depends on rainfall quantity, duration of rainfall, soil properties and crop characters. In the cropped
area, land is shaped to conserve moisture. Acceptability of this method is however limited in regions
where pressure on land does not permit leaving a large area barren for runoff harvesting.
Creating micro relief in cultivated field between seed rows to direct rainwater to crop root zone is
another approach. Here, small alternate strips of land of suitable width are left without cropping.
These un-cropped strips are ridged up and compacted or shaped to slope towards seed rows to increase
runoff, which will flow towards cropped strip. The relative width of runoff strip and cropped strip
varies from 2:1 to 4:1 depending on rainfall. Land shaping through raised ridges between crop rows,
planting in shallow ditch or trench, formation of slopping beds towards tree trunk, saucer shaped
basins around trees, semicircular or crescent shaped basins on the downward slope around trees etc.,
come under this category. The micro watershed methods are also termed as inter-row water harvesting
or inter-plot water harvesting.
V. Reduction of loss of stored soil moisture
Rainfall infiltrates into the soil and permits downward and laterally and gets stored in soil profile. Part
of it percolates down to ground water. Stored water is absorbed by plants and weeds. It is lost from the
soil surface as evaporation and from crop and weed canopy as transpiration. The loss through evapo-
ration from soil and transpiration by weeds can be checked to reduce loss of stored moisture.
Excessive transpiration loss from crop plants can also be minimized. ET loss is by latent heat of
vapourisation and is governed by energy, vapour pressure gradient and conductivity of medium.
Evapotranspiration can be checked by:
Minimizing the evaporative surface area
Minimizing the energy need to the evaporative site
Minimizing the diffusivity/conductivity of water movement from soil
Minimizing the driving force or potential that is responsible for upward movement of water.
A. Reduction of evaporation loss
Evaporation happens to maintain soil thermal regime and is governed by soil moisture content, vegeta-
tive cover on surface, soil type, temperature gradient between soil and atmosphere and atmospheric
water demand. Higher soil moisture content, especially a wet surface soil increases evaporation rate.
As the surface soil dries up, continuity of capillary pores is disrupted and moisture movement upwards
from deeper layers is reduced. Soil surface that is exposed to radiation without any vegetative cover
offers more scope for evaporation due to over heating. Evaporation loss in a cropped field is more in
the early growth stage when canopy cover is less, especially in widely spaced crops and slow growing
species. Vegetative cover prevents direct exposure of soil surface to radiation, reduces heating of soil
layers and thus checks the necessity for evaporation. Black soils tend to absorb more heat and may
evaporate more water. When cracks are formed during drying, evaporation takes place from the sides
of the cracks also. With high temperature, low humidity and dry winds, atmospheric water demand
increases the rate of evaporation.
(a) Measures to reduce evaporation loss
(i) Shallow surface tillage: When surface soil is stirred by tillage, the continuity of capillary pores
is broken and the rise of water through capillary movement is obstructed. Shallow tillage after
summer showers is beneficial in this regard. This process is called dust mulching. Inter tillage
between crop rows during early dry spells has a similar effect.
(ii) Mulching: Mulching means covering the soil surface with any material such as organic wastes,
plastic, polythene sheets etc. The organic wastes used for mulching include crop stubbles,
−1
straw, coir pith, groundnut shell, husk etc. These wastes at 5–10 t ha are spread on the soil
surface to a thickness of 5-10 cm. Mulching provides the following benefits:
reduces direct impact of rain drops on soil particles and controls splash erosion.
increases infiltration.
reduces velocity of runoff water.
controls erosion.
improves soil moisture storage from rainfall.
controls evaporation loss.
suppresses weed growth.
influences thermal regime of soil by reducing soil temperature.
improves microbial activity.
controls salinity development.
can be incorporated as manures later.
Vertical mulching is a technique where in trenches of 40 cm wide, 15 cm deep are dug at 2–4 m
interval across slope and filled with stubbles or organic wastes to a height of 10 cm above soil surface.
Runoff is checked, collected in the shallow trenches and redistributed to adjoining soil layers. This
method can be considered as precursor method to broad bed furrow method.
Live mulching is the term used to describe the covering soil surface through the plant canopy in
intercropping system. e.g., sorghum + forage cowpea, sorghum + sword bean.
Dust mulching refers to the soil condition associated with tillage. When land is ploughed or
stirred, the surface soil is disturbed and this breaks the continuity of capillary pores from subsoil to
surface. As a result, evaporation is checked and soil moisture is conserved. Guntaka (Blade
harrow)/Danti/hand hoe are the implements used for dust mulching.
 Stover mulch or straw mulch refers to covering the soil surface with cumbu/sorghum straw,
sugarcane trash reduces the evaporation and increases soil moisture efficiency. Similarly mulching
with organic waste, crop residues, plastic material can be done.
Stubble mulch is referred to the stirring of the soil with implements that leave considerable part of the
vegetative material or crop residues or vegetative litter on the surface as a protection against erosion and for
conserving moisture by favouring infiltration and reducing evaporation. Stubble mulch is very effectively
done in western countries, where crop residue or by products like straw, stover or haulms are not given to
animals as fodder. Special farm implements are available to create minimum disturbance and leave large
surface area undisturbed. It also acts as minimum tillage and conservation tillage.
Pebble mulch where small pebbles like stone are placed on the soil surface. This mulching will be
successful in dry land horticulture (fruit tree culture). The pebbles placed on the basins of trees not
only reduce evaporation but also facilitate infiltration of rainwater into the basin.
Use of anti-evaporating chemicals: Chemicals like hexadecanol are used as anti-evaporants.
When sprayed and mixed with soil surface, hexadecanol is reported to reduce evaporation by 43%.
The treated surface layer dries up fast and creates a diffusional barrier for upward movement of water
vapour. It is resistant to microbial activity and degradation. It remains in soil for more than a year. It
also increased the soil aggregate stability. Evaporation from free water surface, farm ponds, lakes etc.,
can be reduced to 80% by wax emulsions, rubber/plastic boats or saw dust.
Shelter belt: In arid and semiarid regions, the hot winds dry the surface soil and create vapour
pressure gradient and continuous vapourisation takes place. This continuous vapourisation can be
arrested by raising shelterbelt. It is a practice of growing one or multi rows of trees/shrubs or crop
plants across the wind direction either in the field or field boundaries to reduce the wind effect and to
reduce the wind velocity. Shelterbelt reduces the evaporation and increases soil moisture content by
3–5% and this will be useful to alleviate the terminal moisture stress in crops grown in adjoining area.
The increase in soil moisture percentage is due to favourable microclimate created by shelterbelts. It
can be used as resting place of livestock in dry lands. Due to reduction in wind velocity, the pollen
drift in orchard crops is minimized, there by pollination percentage is increased and fruit setting is
improved. Many trees in shelterbelt are economically important. After long period of maintenance, the
trees can be disposed off as timber and raw material for industrial use. Fruit trees grown in shelterbelt
give fruits, which fetch higher economic returns. Windbreak is also a form of shelter belt, but only one
row of tall trees having good leaf canopy are grown in North-South direction in order to reduce wind
velocity and there by reduce soil erosion. Tall trees like eucalyptus, casuarinas, and wood apple are
grown as wind breaks. After years of maintenance, these trees can be disposed of economically.
(iii) Measures to reduce transpiration loss: Though transpiration is necessary and unavoidable evil,
excessive transpiration has to be controlled especially when soil moisture stress develops during critical
stages of crop growth. The rate of transpiration is governed by soil moisture potential, atmospheric water
demand and plant canopy characters such as leaf area, leaf orientation, stomatal resistance, etc.
Transpiration loss can be reduced by the use of antitranspirants and by some cultural methods also.
A. Antitranspirants
Antitranspirants are substances or chemicals applied on plant-foliage to control rate of transpiration.
The important points to be considered in using antitranspirants are:
(a) They should restrict water loss from leaf surface without restricting entry of carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, and
(b) Transpiration necessary for cooling of leaf surface should not be completely stopped by the
application of antitranspirants leading to rise in leaf temperature.
Based on their mechanism of action, antitranspirants are classified into various types.
Stomatal closing type: They cause partial or complete closure of stomata by inducing the guard
cells to close. But complete closure of stomata adversely affects gas exchange and photosynthesis.
These chemicals may also cause phyto-toxicity and are very expensive too. E.g., Phenyl mercuric
acetate (PMA) and alkanyl succinic acid (ASA).
 Film forming type: They cover the stomata by forming a thin film over leaf surface. These sub-
stances are nontoxic, non-degradable and very easy to apply but they adversely affect photosynthesis.
E.g., Paraffin and wax emulsions, folic 2%, and power oil 1%.
Reflectant type: When sprayed on leaf surface, the reflectant type antitranspirants increase the leaf
albedo or leaf reflectance of sunlight. As a result, heating is reduced, leaf temperature inside is low and
need for transpiration is reduced. E.g., Kaolin and lime solution. Spraying kaolin at 3–6% concentration
reduced leaf temperature by 3–4 °C and transpiration by 22–28%. These are less expensive, non phy-
totoxic and do not interfere with photosynthesis, since stomatal closure does not take place.
Growth retardant type: Chemicals like cycocel (ccc-chloro choline chloride, chlor mequat) when
sprayed on foliage, reduce leaf area and thereby reduce the transpiring area and transpiration.
B. Cultural methods
Weed control: Most weeds have a high transpiration coefficient i.e., amount of water transpired to
produce unit quantity of dry matter. Early weed control prevents unwanted transpiration loss
through weeds.
Shelterbelts: Rows of trees grown across the direction of wind reduce air movement, reduce temperature
of air and plant canopy, increase humidity in the protected strips and thereby reduce the
atmospheric water demand and control transpiration in the inter space between shelterbelts.
Alley cropping: This practice refers to raising perennial shrubs or tall crops as hedge rows up to 1-2
m height at 48 m intervals and raising short stature annual crops in the alleys (inter space
between hedge rows). A similar effect on reduction in atmospheric water demand and transpi-
ration as described under shelterbelts is caused in alley cropping. This method is also called as
hedgerow intercropping. e.g.,
Hedge row Intercrop

Leucaena/Desmanthus Black gram/cowpea/sunflower/groundnut

Agathi/castor/Perennial red gram/Casuarina Cotton/black gram
(trained as bush)/ glyricidia/cowpea

VI. Rainfall use efficiency (RUE)

The rainfall use efficiency is defined in many ways. The most common definition is WUE.
WUE = Dry weight produced/ET
WUE as the ratio of water used (ET) to the water potentially available (Rainfall + stored moisture).
Any soil moisture conservation technique, which increases the RUE, will be considered as the best
management technique for that area. RUE is the relationship between yield and rainfall.
RUE = Yield/Rainfall Kg/mm

A. Choice of crops
Traditional cropping pattern in the dry farming areas is dominated by food grains viz., millets and
pulses. In a predominantly subsistence type of farming system, such dominance of food crops is natu-
ral. The choice of crops for dry lands is affected by rainfall quantity and distribution, time of onset of
monsoon, duration of monsoon, soil characters including amount of rainwater stored in the soil and
farmer’s requirements. The criteria for choice of crops comprise the following
tolerance to drought
fast growth during initial period to withstand harsh environment
genetic potential for high yield
short or medium duration to escape terminal drought
adaptability to wide climatic variations
 response to fertilizers
B. Selection of suitable varieties
In dry farming regions, traditional local crop varieties still dominate. The preference for these local
varieties is based on their pronounced drought tolerance. But they are usually longer in duration sus-
ceptible to moisture stress at maturity. They have low yield potential even under favourable rainfall.
They do not respond significantly to improved management such as nutrient supply. The criteria now
adopted for selection of crop varieties for dry lands include drought tolerance, short or medium dura-
tion, high yield potential, response to nutrient supply, high water use efficiency, moderate resistance
to pest and diseases.
C. Choice of cropping system
Cropping system refers to the spatial and temporal association of crops in a farming system. Choice of
suitable cropping system must aim at maximum and sustainable use of resources especially water and
soil. Cropping systems depend on rainfall quantity, length of rainy reason and soil storage capacity.
The broad guidelines in choosing a cropping system for dry lands based on rainfall and soil characters
are

Rainfall Soil type Growing Season Profile storage Suggested cropping system
(mm) (weeks) capacity (mm)

350-600 Alfisols, shallow vertisols 20 100 Single rainy season cropping

sorghum/maize/soybean
350-600 Deep arid sols, Entisols 20 100 Single cropping sorghum/maize/
(alluvium) soybean in kharif/rabi
350-600 Deep vertisols 20 100 Single post rainy season cropping
sorghum

Rainfall Soil type Growing season Profile storage Suggested cropping system
(mm) (weeks) capacity (mm)

600-750 Alfisols, vertisols, entisols 20-30 150 Intercropping

1. Sorghum + Pigeon pea
2. Cotton + Black gram
750-900 Entisols, deep vertisols, 30 200 Double cropping with
deep alfisols, inceptisols monitoring
1. Maize–Safflower
2. Soybean–Chick peag
3. Groundnut–Horse gram
> 900 As above > 30 > 200 Assured double cropping
Maize–Chick pea,
Soybean - Safflower

D. Intercropping
Intercropping refers to growing two or more crops in the same field during the same season.
Intercropping is widely practiced in dry farming since it offers many advantages. Intercropping is a
risk minimization strategy and provides an insurance against complete crop failure due to rainfall
abnormalities. This is made possible through the duration difference between component crops. It
provides more yield and income per unit area per unit time than sole cropping. Stability in production
is achieved. Multiple products for home consumption as well as for marketing are made available.
When legumes are in-cluded in intercropping, soil fertility is enriched. Intercrop canopy suppresses
weed growth. Some intercrop combinations provide biological control of pests and diseases (e.g.,)
cotton + cluster bean cropping system. Intercrop cluster bean reduces jassid incidence in cotton.
Resource use efficiency is increased viz., light, water and nutrients are efficiently used. However, for
success in intercropping, the competition between component crops must be minimized and the
complimentary effects must be maximized. This can be accomplished by the following means;
Choice of suitable component crops differing in duration, rooting pattern, canopy architecture,
nutrient requirement and occurrence of critical stages
Selection of genotypes in each component crop
Optimum population of component crops
Suitable crop geometry to provide adequate space for intercrops
Preference for leguminous crops as intercrops
The important intercropping systems suitable for dry lands are given in Table 13.9.

Table 13.9. Important Intercropping Systems suitable for Dry Lands

Crops Geometry Base crop duration Intercrop duration

Sorghum + Lablab 6-8:2 100-120 150-180

Sorghum + Red gram 6-8:1 100-120 180
Sorghum + Cowpea 2:1 100-120 80

Crops Geometry Base crop duration Intercrop duration

Cotton + Black gram 2:1 150-185 65-75

Groundnut + Red gram 6-8:1 105 180
Groundnut + Castor 6-8:1 105 150-180
Bengal gram + Coriander 4:1 100 80
Maize + Cowpea 2:1 100-110 75-80
Ragi + Cowpea + Red gram 6:1:1 100 75 + 180

E. Double cropping in dry lands

Double cropping either by sequential cropping or relay cropping is possible in places with high
rainfall (> 900 mm) extended rainy season and high soil moisture storage capacity.
(a) Double cropping by relay cropping

Groundnut/Ragi + Red gram - Horse gram

(June–Sep) (June–January) (September–January)
 Groundnut or ragi is sown with red gram as intercrop in 6:1 proportion in June. After harvest of
groundnut in September, horse gram is relay sown in the space between red gram rows.
(b) Double cropping by sequential cropping
Pearl/ragi/samai (May–September) Horse gram (September–January)
Groundnut/sesamum (May–September) Horse gram (September–January)
Cowpea/green gram (June–September) Sorghum (October–January)
Sorghum (July–October) Chickpea (October–February)

(c) Efficient double cropping system for dry lands of India

Soil type Region Water availability (days) Double cropping system

Vertisols Madhya Pradesh 210-230 Maize–chickpea

Soybean–wheat
Maharashtra 190-210 Sorghum–safflower
Karnataka 130-150 Cowpea–sorghum
Green gram–safflower
Inceptisols Uttar Pradesh 200-230 Rice–Chickpea
180-200 Pearl millet–chickpea
Black gram–mustard
Oxisols Bihar 160-180 Maize–chickpea
Groundnut–barley
Alfisols Karnataka 190-220 Cowpea–ragi
Soybean–ragi
Alfisols and aridisols < 120 No double cropping

(d) Crop substitution

It refers to the replacement of an existing low yielding crop with another crop, which is better adapted
to the prevailing environment and is capable of giving higher yield under similar climatic conditions.
For many dry farming regions of India, more suitable crops than existing ones have been identified.
However, the acceptance and adoption of the practice of crop substitution by dry land farmers is poor,
since in most instances, the new crops replace food crops. In vertisols of Tamil Nadu, sunflower and
maize are substituting millets and senna substituting low value pulses.

13.6 CLIMATOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR CROP PLANNING

Crops and varieties selected should match the length of growing season during which they are not
subjected to soil moisture stress. Climatological analysis helps to identify cultivars suitable for
different regions. Feasibility for intercropping, sequence cropping and double cropping can also be
known from such analysis. For regions with cropping season less than 20 weeks, single crop during
kharif or rabi is recommended. Regions with more than 30 weeks and above have no problem for
double cropping. In regions with 20–30 weeks cropping season, double cropping may be risky. Such
areas are ideal for intercropping.
Water balance for different agroclimatic regions has been calculated and water availability periods
worked out. Regions with 350–600 mm rainfall having 20 weeks effective growing season are suitable
for single cropping in kharif (red and shallow black soils) or rabi (deep black soils). Intercropping is
possible in regions receiving 600–750 mm rainfall and having 20–30 weeks of effective growing
season. Areas with more than 750 mm rainfall or with more than 30 weeks are suitable for double
cropping.
Optimum population: Poor or suboptimal population is a major reason for low yields in rainfed
crops. Establishment of an optimum population depends on seed treatment, sowing at optimum soil
moisture, time of sowing, depth of sowing, method of sowing and crop geometry.
(a) Seed treatment: Seed treatment is done for many purposes such as protection against pests and
diseases, inoculation of bio-fertilizers and inducing drought tolerance. Seed treatment with insecticides and
fungicides is a low cost technology for protection against pests and diseases. In dry lands, spraying of
chemicals for pest control is difficult due to scarcity of water. Hence, a preventive measure through seed
treatment is very useful. Bio-fertilizers like azospirillum, rhizobium and phosphobacterium are applied
through seed inoculation as a low cost technology for nutrient supply.

Table 13.11. Suitable Cropping Systems based on Rainfall and Water Availability Period

Rainfall Soils Water Availability Potential cropping system

(mm) period (weeks)

350-600 Alfisols and Shallow vertisols 20 Single kharif cropping

350-600 Aridisols and Entisols 20 Single cropping either in kharif or rabi
350-600 Deep Vertisols 20 Single rabi cropping
600-750 Alfisols, Vertisols and Entisols 20-30 Intercropping
750-900 Entisols, Deep Vertisols, >30 Double cropping with monitoring
Alfisols and Inceptisols
>900 Entisols, Deep vertisols, >30 Assured double cropping
Alfisols and Inceptisols

(i) Seed hardening: It is done to induce drought tolerance in emerging seedlings. It is the process
of soaking seeds in chemical solution and drying to induce tolerance to drought. Soil moisture stress
immediately after sowing affects germination and establishment. Seed hardening enables seedlings to
survive this early moisture stress. During seed hardening, seeds are subjected to partial hydration
followed by dehydration before sowing. Seeds are soaked for specified time in chemical solutions of
prescribed concentration. Soaked seeds are then dried in shade back to original moisture content.
During soaking, seeds imbibe water and germination process is started but not completed. The hard-
ened seeds are thus in a ready state for germination. When sown in moist soils, seeds germinate
immediately. Such early germination helps in seedling emergence before surface soil dries up.
The seed hardening ensures early germination by 2–3 days compared to untreated seeds and induces
better root development, which enables absorption of more moisture. Germination and seedling emergence
are completed before surface soil dries out. It induces drought tolerance by increasing the resistance to
protoplasmic dehydration in young seedlings subjected to moisture stress. Hardened seeds can be sown
immediately or within 30 days of treatment. The seed hardening is considered as low cost technology and is
the most important requirement for pre-monsoon sowing. For success in seed hardening, attention must be
paid in selection of right chemical, its concentration, time of soaking, volume of solution and drying under
shade to original moisture content. The seed hardening for various crops is given in Table 13.12.
For pulses (black gram/green gram), 4 kg of wood ash is collected, powdered thoroughly to which 30%
Acacia gum is added and mixed thoroughly so that wood ash-gum paste is obtained. 8 kg of black gram or
green gram seed is spread over the Acacia-wood ash paste and mixed thoroughly so that all the seeds are
smeared with the paste. The treated seeds are shade dried for 5 hours and then can be sown.
(b) Sowing at optimum soil moisture: An effective rainfall of 20–25 mm, which can wet a depth
of 10–15 cm, is needed for sowing. Moisture stress at or immediately after sowing adversely affects
germination and establishment of seedlings. To ensure adequate soil moisture at sowing, sowing has
to be done as early as possible after soaking rainfall is received. Sowing methods and implements play
a crucial role in this regard.
(c) Time of sowing: Optimum time of sowing is indicated by adequate rainfall to wet seeding depth
and continuity of rainfall after sowing. The probable sowing time in a rainfed area is the week which has
a rainfall of not less than 20 mm with coefficient of variability less than 100% and the probability of a wet
week following wet week. Timely sowing ensures optimal yield besides it may also help pest avoidance.

Table 13.12. Seed Hardening for various Crops

Crop Chemical Concentration Soaking time Volume of solution

per kg seed

Rice Potassium chloride 1% Water-10 hrs 1 Litre

chemical-10 hrs
Sorghum Potassium di-hydrogen
phosphate 2% 6 hrs 350 ml
Potassium chloride 1% 5 hrs 1 Litre
Pearl millet Potassium chloride 2% 16 hrs 1 Litre
Sodium chloride 3%
Ragi Calcium chloride 0.5% Until visibility 1 Litre
of embryo growth
Sunflower Zinc sulphate 2% 12 hrs 1 Litre
Cotton CCC 1000 ppm 6 hrs 1 litre
KCl 2% 5 hrs 1.6 litre
DAP 2% 5 hrs 1.6 litre

Pre-monsoon dry seeding: In some regions, where heavy clay soils dominate, sowing after rains
is impossible due to high stickiness of soil. Here, sowing is done in dry soil, 2–3 weeks before the
onset of monsoon (pre-monsoon). Seeds will remain in soil and germinate only on receipt of optimum
rainfall. The advantages of pre-monsoon dry seeding are early sowing, uniform germination and good
establishment, utilization of first rainfall itself for germination instead of for land preparation in post
monsoon sowing and early maturity before closure of monsoon and avoidance of stress at maturity.
For sorghum in black soils, pre-monsoon dry seeding is recommended 1–2 weeks before onset of
monsoon with depth of sowing at 5 cm and seed hardening with 2% potassium di-hydrogen phosphate
or potas-sium chloride. For cotton in black soils, pre-monsoon dry seeding is recommended at 2–4
weeks before commencement of monsoon, with a sowing depth of 5 cm and seed hardening with CCC
(500 ppm) or potassium chloride or DAP at 2% level.
The success of pre-monsoon dry seeding depends on the following:
It is recommended for bold seeds like cotton and sorghum only and not for all crops.
Time of advance sowing must be fixed based on rainfall analysis for date of onset of monsoon
and continuity of rainfall after sowing.
Seeds must be hardened to ensure quick germination and drought tolerance.
Seeding depth must be such that seeds will germinate only after receipt of rainfall to wet that
depth is received. Surface sowing may lead to germination with less rainfall and death due to
subsequent soil drying.
Off season tillage is necessary to enable sowing in dry soil before monsoon.
Seed damage by soil insects has to be prevented.
(d) Optimum depth of sowing: When seeds are sown on surface or at very shallow depth, germi-
nation and seeding growth are affected when surface soil moisture dries up. Sowing at a depth where
soil moisture availability is adequate, ensure early and uniform germination and seedling establish-
ment. Optimum depth of sowing varies with crop, especially seed size and penetration power of
plumule. For e.g., it is 1–2 cm for sesamum, 2–3 cm for pearl millet and minor millets, 3–5 cm for
pulses, sorghum and sunflower, 5 cm for cotton and maize, and 7 cm for coriander.
(e) Method of sowing: Sowing method is an important determinant of population. In dry lands, it
is important to sow the seeds in moist soil layer to ensure proper germination and seedling emergence.
It is therefore necessary to sow immediately after rainfall to avoid sowing in dry soil. It is also
important to sow the seeds at correct depth, neither on the surface nor too deep. Establishment of an
optimum population also depends on proper spacing between plants. The density, geometry, and depth
of sowing are dependent on method of sowing. The sowing methods usually adopted in dry lands
include broad-casting, sowing behind plough and sowing by seed drills. Dibbling of seeds and
planting of seedlings are also adopted for some crops (Cotton, tobacco and chillies). Each method has
advantages as well as limitations. The choice of sowing method depends on seed size, soil condition
time available, cropping system, crop geometry, sowing depth, source of power, cost of sowing, etc.
The merits and limitations of sowing methods are given in Table 13.13.

Table 13.13. Merits and Limitations of Sowing Methods

Sowing method Merits Limitations

Broadcasting Quick coverage for small seeds like ragi, Spacing and depth not ensured high
sesamum, minor millets, medium sized seed seed rate-intercrop sown separately
like sorghum pulses can also be broadcasted
Sowing behind For medium and bold seeds cotton, sorghum, Low coverage spacing between plants
plough maize, groundnut, pulses, castor, sunflower and depth of sowing not ensured.
seeding requires wooden plough only. Easy Intercrop has to be sown separately.
operation-row spacing can be ensured Only monsoon sowing is possible
Local seed drill For medium and bold seeds wooden implement Spacing between plants is not uniform
(gorru) easy maintenance, less cost, row spacing is and depends on experience of seed
ensured, more coverage than broadcasting and dropper. Intercrop has to be sown
sowing behind plough. Sowing depth and row separately. Cannot be used for
spacing is uniform pre-monsoon sowing.
Mechanized seed Large coverage, row and plant spacing ensured Initial cost is high, needs skill for
drill (Bullock uniform depth of sowing. Base crop and operation and maintenance.
drawn/tractor intercrop sown simultaneously, enables early
drawn) sowing in large area, and saves cost and time.
Pre-monsoon sowing is possible.

(f) Crop geometry: It refers to the shape of land occupied by individual plants as decided by
spacing between rows and between plants. It depends on the root spread and the canopy size of the
crop and the cropping system.

Crop Crop geometry (cm)

Sole crop in solid row Intercropping

Sorghum 45×15 (60 + 30) × 15 in paired row

Pearl millet 30 × 15
Ragi 30×10
Small millets 30×10
Black gram, green gram,
Soybean, horse gram 30×10
Red gram 60×30
Cowpea 30×15
 Cotton 45×30 (60 + 30) × 15 in paired row
Cotton (Arboreum) 45×15
Groundnut 30×10
Sesamum 30×30
Sunflower 45×15
Sunflower hybrids 45×20
Sunflower varieties 30×15
Coriander 30×15
Senna 45×15
Maize 45×30

13.7 SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT UNDER DRY FARMING

“Dry land soils are not only thirsty, but also hungry.” Uncertainty of return from the investment on
fertilizer use and the poor resource base are the reasons for not using fertilizer by the dry land farmers.
The fertilizer use in dry land crops might vary between 5 and 40 kg/ha (N+P 2O5+K2O). Soils are low
in N and P, and Zn is the most limiting factor among micronutrient. The response for Ca, Mg and S
has also been recorded. The reasons for poor soil fertility are slow weathering of minerals, low
organic matter content, reduced microbial activity, erosion, very low addition of manures and
fertilizers, soil salinity and alkalinity, and reduced mobility of nutrients and nutrient fixation. The
following Tables 81 and 82 gives the quantity of nutrient removed by dry land crops and nutrient
requirement by dry land crops.

A. Beneficial Effect
The beneficial effects of nutrient supply in dry lands are given below:
Deficiency in soil supply of nutrients required by crops is corrected.
Nutrient supply promotes root development, which enables higher uptake of soil moisture and high
water use efficiency. This positive relationship between nutrients and moisture is mutual.
Increased vigour of a fertilized crop enables it to survive drought better than an unfertilized crop.

Farmers in dry lands however do not apply sufficient quantity of nutrients since nutrient sources
like manures and fertilizers are costly and risks to dependable crop production. The average consump-
tion of inorganic fertilizers is less than 10 kg per ha in dry lands. Even this is confined to a few
commercial crops like cotton, groundnut and chillies only. The reasons attributed by farmers for poor
adoption of nutrient supply to rainfed crops include:
High cost, inadequate availability of fertilizers and inadequate availability plus high cost of
transport of organic manures, fear of scorching due to inorganic fertilizer addition.
Low and uncertain yield, and income due to undependable rainfall behaviour.
Apprehension that a well fertilized crop growing vigorously would exhaust soil moisture supply
early and subject to moisture stress at later stages.
Adoption of fertilizer non responsive varieties in large.
Due to the above reasons, nutrient supply in dry lands is at a slow pace. In order to ensure
adequate nutrient supply, care must be taken to understand the factors that influence nutrient use
efficiency in dry crops and to evolve an integrated nutrient management system that will be efficient,
economical and environmentally sustainable.

B. Scope for Fertilizer Use

 Introduction of new high yielding varieties/hybrids in different crops which are fertilizer respon-
sive at a given adequate soil moisture storage level.
Development of new in situ soil moisture conservation methods enhances the duration time and
depth of soil moisture availability. This will increase the fertilizer use efficiency. Hence, there
is a good scope for fertilizer applications.
Use of integrated nutrient management in different crops, increases the fertilizer use efficiency
and increases the yield.
Short duration/early duration varieties of crops utilize the fertilizers very efficiently than long
duration varieties of the same crops.
Factors Influencing NUE
Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) refers to the yield per kg of nutrient applied. The response of rainfed
crops to nutrient application depends on crop and variety, rainfall and soil moisture availability, soil
properties, quantity, time and methods of nutrient application, cropping system adopted and manage-
ment practices such as moisture conservation, timely weed control etc. The following Table 83 gives
the response of rainfed crops to nutrients-nitrogen and phosphorus.

Table 13.16. Response Rainfed Crops to Nutrients

Crop kg grain/kg of Nutrient

Nitrogen Phosphorus

Sorghum 3.4–43.4 2.4–59.0

Pearl millet 2.1–24.8 1.7–14.3
Ragi 5.0–42.4 6.4–38.0
Maize 4.1–67.4 6.8–80.0
Thenai 5.9–17.9 –
Sunflower 1.5–22.6 1.2–2.0
Groundnut 1.3–6.0 1.2–15.0
Sesamum 1.3–5.0 1.1–3.1
Green gram – 1.5–11.6
Black gram – 1.8–6.7
Red gram – 3.1–8.3

(a) Rainfall and soil moisture availability: Water and nutrients interact positively and exhibit a
mutual complementary effect. Adequate and well-distributed rainfall enables higher nutrient uptake
and response. This is accomplished through greater mobility of nutrients in a moist soil, improved
microbial activity and better root growth. Under moisture stress, nutrient uptake suffers due to reduced
mobility of nutrients, restricted root growth high salt concentration of soil solution, nutrient fixation
and reduced microbial activity.
Nutrient supply improves water use efficiency through extensive root growth, reduced evaporation loss
through canopy coverage of soil and higher yield. Information about rainfall quantity, distribution and
probability, are very useful to make decisions on soil fertility management. If a region is defined as one
having a dependable onset of monsoon and hence adequate soil moisture for crop establishment, then
basal dressing of fertilizer would be safe. If continuity and assurance of rainfall in early growth stage
is present, then top dressing would be beneficial. Since, high intensity of rainfall is common in dry
lands, split application of N would be advantageous to prevent loss through leaching. Information on
rainfall probability could be used in scheduling fertilizer application to suit moisture storage capacity
of soil profile and progress of rainfall during cropping season.
 (b) Crop and variety: Crops and varieties vary in their ability to use applied nutrients. Hybrids and
high yielding varieties (HYV) respond better than local varieties because of their high yield potential at the
same level of resource supply. Among the crops, response to individual nutrients varies with species.
Cereals and millets respond more to N, legumes to P2O5 and oilseeds to N, P2O5 and K2O.
(c) Soil properties: Soil physical properties influence crop response mainly by affecting soil mois-
ture availability. Soil nutrient status also has a significant effect on crop response. Dry lands are
mostly deficient in N and so, there is universal response to N. Response to P 2O5 depends on fixation
in soil and to K on leaching loss.
(d) Management practices: Nutrient management aspects such as quantity, time and method of
application of nutrients, inclusion of legumes in cropping system, soil moisture conservation practices
etc. also influence crop response to nutrients.
D. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
The components of INM for rainfed crops are organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, biofertilizers and
inclusion of legumes
1. Organic manures
Organic matter content in dryland soils is low and its improvement is essential to promote soil moisture
storage and nutrient supply. This can be accomplished through addition of FYM/compost, green manure/
green leaf manures and crop residues. Addition of FYM/compost at 12.5 t/ha is recommended.
Incorporation of green manures/GLM before sowing or incorporation of intercropped legumes is useful. At
Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu, incorporation of sunn hemp not only reduced 50% N requirement but also
sustained yield in cotton, sunflower and improved physico-chemical properties of soil. In Tamil Nadu,
Kolinji and Aavarai (Cassia auriculata) are used as GLM in dry lands. Leaves of leguminous trees through
lopping and prunings can serve as GLM e.g., Subabul, Vagai, Neem, Sisoo, Aacha.
2. Inorganic fertilizers
Quantity: Great care is required in deciding on the quantity because of high cost. It depends on soil,
crop variety and moisture availability
−1
Recommended dose of fertilizer application (kg ha ) to dry land crops of Tamil Nadu

Crop N P2O5 K2O

Sorghum 40 20 070
Maize 135 62.5 50
Cumbu 70 35 35
Cotton 40 20 0
Sunflower 40 20 20
Pulses 12.5 2.5 0
Groundnut 17.5 35 53

Method of application must ensure application of nutrients in moist soil and prevention of loss. N
can be applied basally at last ploughing and incorporated. Foliar application of N is useful when crops
are reviving from stress. For P2O5 placement near root zone by basal incorporation or at 5–10 cm
from seed rows is effective to prevent fixation and to ensure easy availability. To avoid fixation of
applied P, application as enriched FYM is recommended. Deep placement is important for post rainy
season crops grown on stored moisture. K is applied basally at last ploughing and incorporated.
Micronutrients are applied after sowing but not incorporated. Use of seed cum fertilizer drill is very
useful for placement of fertilizers
Time of application should be such to suit crop requirement and moisture availability. Since
adequate moisture is always available at sowing, basal application is effective. N can be top-dressed at
25–30 DAS depending on rainfall. This enables skipping fertilizer if rainfall is not adequate and save
the cost. For millets and cotton ½ N and full P and K are applied basally and ½ N is top-dressed. For
other crops, full NPK is applied basally. For pre-monsoon sown crops like cotton and sorghum, entire
P can be applied basally as enriched FYM. In case of sorghum, entire N can be applied at 30-35 DAS
and for cotton, N can be applied in two equal splits at 20–25 and 40–45 DAS depending upon the
receipt of rainfall during the corresponding period.
3. Legumes in cropping system
Legume intercropping is very common in dry lands. When a short duration legume is intercropped with a
long duration non-legume, the legume haulms after picking pods can be incorporated to benefit the non-
legume by current transfer of legume fixed N. In Sequential cropping, short duration legumes grown for
grain/fodder as first crop, enrich the soil and the residual effect benefits the succeeding crop.
4. Biofertilisers
Seed inoculation of legumes with rhizobium, and seed inoculation and soil application with azospirillum
for cereals, millets, cotton, sunflower and sesamum is recommended. Besides N fixation, azospirillum
improves root growth through the exudation of growth promoting substances. Use of phosphobacteria as
seed inoculation and soil application for solubilising native P is also recommended. VA mycorrhizae is
found to play a crucial role in P nutrition of dry land crops especially soybean, sorghum and pearl millet.
Biofertilizers constitute a low cost technology in nutrient management.
Management practices such as moisture conservation techniques, raising responsive varieties,
timely weed control and emphasis on low cost and no cost technologies also play a vital role in
nutrient management for dry land crops.
5. Low cost technology and non-monetary inputs in soil fertility management
Fertilizer is a costly input, compared with other components of dry land technology package. Consid-
ering the uncertainty and low level of returns in dry lands during years of abnormal rainfall, low cost
technologies and non-monetary inputs relevant to soil fertility management must be given due impor-
tance. Seed inoculation and soil application of biofertilizers, use of enriched FYM, split application of
N fertilizer, suitable method of application, choice of responsive cultivars and inclusion of legumes in
intercropping are useful technologies in this regard.

13.8 CONTINGENCY CROP PLANNING FOR DIFFERENT ABERRANT

WEATHER SITUATIONS
Rainfall behaviour in dry farming areas is erratic and uncertain. The deviations in rainfall behaviour
include delayed onset, early withdrawal, intermediary dry spells during rainy season. The adverse effect of
these rainfall aberrations on crop growth vary with the degree of deviation and the crop growth stage
at which such deviations occur. Suitable manipulations in crop management practices are needed to
minimize such adverse effects of abnormal rainfall behaviour. These management decisions constitute
contingency planning. Such management practices done after crop establishment and in the middle of
growth are called midterm corrections.

Rainfall aberration Effect on crops

Delay in onset of rainfall Length of cropping season or cropping duration is

reduced - crop sowing is delayed
Early withdrawal or cessation of rainfall Moisture stress at maturity grain filling is affected
(terminal stress)
Intermediate dry spells
(a) Immediately after sowing Germination is affected and population is reduced
(b) At vegetative phase Affects stem elongation, leaf area expansion and
branching or tillering
(c) At flowering Affects anthesis and pollination, and grain/pod
 number is reduced
(d) At ripening Grain filling and size is reduced

Contingency plan and midterm corrections vary with the type and time of occurrence of rainfall
observation.

Rainfall abnormality Contingency plan and midterm correction

1. Delayed onset of rainfall

(a) Delay exceeding 3–4 weeks Alternate crops of short duration to be sown
Delay in Southwest monsoon
Normal–June Groundnut
Delay–July Ragi/pearl millet
Delay–August Samai/Cowpea
Delay in Southwest monsoon
Normal–October Cotton/Sorghum
Delay–Early November Sunflower/Pearl millet/Ragi
Delay–Late November Coriander/Senna
(b) Delay of 1–2 weeks Alternate varieties of short duration of same crop
e.g., Sorghum–for CO19 (150 days), CO 25 (110 days);
Red gram–for local (180 days), CO 5 (130 days)
2. Early withdrawal of rainfall Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder (millets) and
harvesting at physiological maturity
3. Intermediary dry spell
(a) Immediately after sowing Gap filling with subsequent rains if stand reduction is
less than 20%. Re-sowing if stand reduction is more than
20%, mulching between crop rows. Stirring soil surface
to create dust mulch to reduce evaporation

Rainfall abnormality Contingency plan and midterm correction

(b) At vegetative phase Mulching, antitranspirant spray, spraying potassium

chloride, thinning of 33–50% population
(c) At flowering Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder and rationing
with subsequent rains in millets (e.g.) sorghum
(d) At ripening Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder, harvesting
at physiological maturity

A contingent crop plan-model for dry lands of Aruppukottai and Kovilpatti of Tamil Nadu is
furnished below.

Rainfall period Aruppukottai Kovilpatti

Rain fall 810 mm 730 mm

On set of monsoon 37th standard week 41st standard week
(2nd week of September) (2nd week of October)
Soil Shallow vertisol Deep vertisol
Premonsoon 35th standard week 39th standard week
Sowing Last week of August Last week of September
Crops Cotton, Sorghum Hirsutum cotton, Sorghum (K8),
 Fodder sorghum (K3)
Monsoon sowing 37th standard week 41st standard week
Choice of Crops Cotton, Sorghum, Maize, Cotton (Hirsutum and, arboreum sp),
Red gram, Black gram maize, black gram, sorghum
2 Weeks delayed 39th standard week 43rd standard week (last week of
(last week of September) October) Sunflower, coriander
Maize, bajra
4 Weeks delayed 41st standard week 45th standard week (2nd week of
(2nd week of October) November) Coriander, gingelly, Senna
6 Weeks delayed 43rd standard week 47th standard week (last week of
(last week of October) Coriander November)Senna is possible if heavy
rainfall is received

13.9 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Soil and water are two naturally available resources need to be managed efficiently in dry land agricul-ture.
Under given ecological limitation, it is the rainfall variation that causes fluctuation in productivity from
year to year. The following technologies may be followed for resource management.
Effective utilization of stored soil moisture is important and hence crops and varieties having
high moisture use efficiency (MUE) need to be used.
Crop planning as per length of cropping season: Select the crop of proper duration to match the
length of growing season for stabilizing in crop production.

A. Dry Land Horticulture

Fruit trees with drought tolerance potential can substitute annual crops in many dry land tracts. The
criteria for selection of fruit trees for dry lands are drought tolerance, adaptability to varying soil
conditions, flowering and fruiting during period of adequate moisture availability, quick regeneration
after pruning and rapid recovery after stress is removed. The Table 13.17 gives an idea to go for fruit
trees under different rainfall and soil type conditions.
Successful dry land horticulture depends on many cultural requirements viz., selection of trees
3
suitable for rainfall and soil, planting during monsoon season in one m pits, pot watering during hot
months in the early establishment period of 2–3 years, pruning to reduce canopy during dry season
and moisture conservation through vegetative barriers, large basins sloping towards tree trunk,
crescent or saucer shape basins, mulching with dry leaves, straw or crop waste.

Table 13.17. Fruit Trees under different Rainfall and Soil Type Conditions

Rainfall (mm) Fruit trees suitable

560–700 Ber, pomegranate, cashew sapota, pomegranate, jamun, amla

700–900 Mango, cashew, custard apple, guava, fig.

Soil type

Black soils Ber, sapota, pomegranate, jamun, amla, wood apple

Red soils Mango, cashew, custard apple (Annona), pomegranate, sapota, amla.

Inclusion of fruit trees in dry land farming systems can be done through:
(a) Pure horticulture: Plantations of mango, cashew, guava etc.
 (b) Agri horticulture: Annual crops intercropped in between fruit trees. E.g.: Mango + Groundnut/
samai/horse gram, ber + cowpea/green gram.
(c) Hortipasture: Growing pasture grasses and legumes between fruit trees. E.g.: Ber/guava +
Cenchrus cilliaris + Stylosanthes.

B. Integrated Farming Systems (IFS)

Integrated farming system (IFS) refers to the adoption of allied agricultural enterprises along with crop
production in a mutually beneficial manner in the same farm holding. E.g., Crop + sheep/goat, crop/
sericulture, Crop + poultry, crop/tree + forage + livestock. IFS offers many advantages compared with
annual cropping alone by increased farm income, stability in farm income, increased employment
opportunities, balanced food to farm family, efficient use of resources and recycling of farm wastes.
Case studies in dry land IFS

(i) Black soils of Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu

IFS Crop + Live stock

(a) Crop (0.5 ha) Cotton, sun flower, sorghum

(b) Fodder crops (0.5 ha) Cenchrus cilaris, fodder cumbu, fodder sorghum
(c) Livestock 2 Jersey milch cows

System Net income (Rs./Year)

1. Crop 1636
2. Additional income from milch animal 2519
3. Organic matter recycled 1.2 t per year
(ii) Black soils of Aruppukottai, Tamil Nadu
IFS Crop + trees + goat
Crop Sorghum + cowpea, cotton + black gram
Fodder Cenchrus grass + desmanthus
Fruit trees Ber, custard apple, amla
Livestock Tellicherry goats (5 female + one male)

System Net income Per day income Employment Generation

(Rs/ha/Year) (Rs/day) (man days /year)
Crop alone 3228 9 35
IFS 10417 29 131

(iii) Black soils of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

System Crop + trees + goat in one ha
Crop Sorghum + cowpea for fodder 0.2 ha; Leucaena + Cenchrus 0.2 ha
Trees Acacia senegal 0.2 ha; Prosophis cineraria 0.2 ha
Livestock Goats in deep litter system (5 females + one male)

Crop alone IFS

 Net income (Rs/ha/ Year) 1919 5666
Additional income – 3749
Employment (man day/year) 40 153
Per day profit (Rs.) 2.26 15.52

(iv) Red soils of Paiyur, Tamil Nadu

System Crop + dairy
Crop Ragi/samai /pulses
Livestock 3 Cows
System Per day income (Rs/day)
Crop alone Rs. 2.38
Crop + Dairy Rs. 8.10
More details are given in the chapter cropping and farming system.

C. Integrated Dry Land Technology and its Components

A single technology in isolation will not give desired results. Adoption of all related technologies as
an integrated dry land technology package alone will provide a synergistic effect and improve the crop
productivity in dry regions. The various components of such an integrated dry land technology (IDLT)
are the following:
In situ soil moisture conservation
choice of suitable crops and crop substitution
selection of high yielding drought tolerant varieties
cropping system to suit rainfall quantity, duration of rainy season and soil moisture storage
tillage to conserve moisture
establishment of optimum population
soil fertility management
crop protection against weeds, pests and diseases.

13.10 ALTERNATE LAND USE SYSTEM

Uncertain rainfall, poor soil conditions and low level of management has made annual cropping of
field crops a non-remunerative enterprise in many pockets of dry lands. In some instances, cropping
has been given up altogether and lands remain fallow and become wastelands overgrown with
unwanted vegetation. To arrest this trend and to bring back the land under economically useful
vegetation, alternate land use systems such as grasslands/pastures, agroforestry and horticulture are
recommended. This has become necessary for the following reasons:
Annual field crop production is nonviable and uneconomical in many years.
Yield of field crops is low and fluctuates widely between years affecting stability and income.
Continued use of the eroded and degraded lands under the present system of annual cropping may
ecologically degrade the lands further affecting sustainability of the fragile eco-system in the
dry lands, leading to the creation of wastelands.
Alternate land use systems such as grasslands and tree culture are less risky, more productive and
remunerative in these marginal lands. They will provide stability and sustainability.
The choice of an alternate land use system depends on the land capability. Most of the lands under
dry farming tracts come under the land capability classes of III and above.

Land capability class Alternate land use recommended

Class II Dry land horticulture

 Class III and IV Agro-forestry/ley farming
Class V Pastures/silvipasture/tree farming
Class VI Range lands/wood lots

A. Pastures and Grasslands

Forage crops play an important role in dry land economy. They help to promote livestock husbandry
to improve and stabilize income. Forage grasses and legumes are best suited for marginal lands and
sub marginal lands, sloppy lands, eroded and degraded lands for soil and moisture conservation and
for reclamation of wastelands.
B. Forage Crops
Forage crops for dry lands include:

Annual cereals Sorghum, maize, pearl millet

Annual legumes Cowpea, cluster beans (guar)
Perennial grasses Cenchrus ciliaris (Anjan or Kolukkattai grass)
Cenchrus setigerus (black kolukkattai)
Cenchrus glaucus (blue buffel)
Dichanthium annulatum (marvel grass)
Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass)
Heteropogon contortus (spear grass)
Annual grass Pennisetum pedicellatum (Deenanath grass)
Perennial legumes Stylosanthes hamata, Stylosanthes scabra
(Stylo or muyal masal)
Macroptilium atropurpureum (siratro)
Clitoria ternatea (sangupuspham)
Desmanthus virgatus (Hedgelucerne/velimassal)
Leuceana leucocephala (subabul)

Forage crops can be introduced into the dry land farming system through any of the following
ways:
Grasslands or pasture with perennial grasses and legumes for grazing by livestock, cutting and
stall feeding (cut and carry system) and hay or silage making.
Strip cropping with alternate strips of grasses/legumes and annual crops.
Ley farming where in perennial forage crops are grown in rotation with annual crops in 4–5 year
cycle e.g., Stylosanthes hamata (3 years)–sorghum (1 year)–castor (1 year).

Ley Farming
Ley farming offers the following advantages:
Provision of fodder for cattle,
Low risk system,
Soil and moisture conservation,
Enrichment of soil fertility,
Prevention of soil compaction, and
Control of perennial weeds.

D. Silviculture
Silviculture refers to the raising of trees. When trees are introduced into farms along with field crops,
it is known agrisilviculture or agroforestry system. Tress provides many benefits to mankind. They
play protective role by making available a variety of products for human consumption, for livestock
and for industrial raw material needs. E.g., fruits, nuts, fuel, fodder, timber, wood, wax, resin, etc.
They also play a protective role through soil and moisture conservation, enrichment of soil fertility
through nutrient recycling and protection of environment.
(i) Methods of tree cultivation
Block culture: Large area is planted with selected species of tress suitable for fuel, timber, wood or
industrial use (multipurpose tree species). It is also known as wood lots or energy plantations when
planted for fuel. e.g., Eucalyptus, Acacia, Prosophis.
Staggered planting: Trees are grown scattered in the field with annual crops raised in the
interspaces. Multipurpose tree species suitable for fuel, fodder, wood and timber can be planted at 20–
50 trees per ha. E.g., Acacia + fodder sorghum, Neem + pulses/sorghum.
Border trees: Trees can be grown along farm boundaries and field borders for economic use as
well as boundary markers. E.g., Palmyrah, Neem, Tamarind, Eucalyptus.
Different systems of tree culture
Agrisilviculture (Agroforestry): Trees and annual crops are raised in an intercropping system in
the same field. Trees are planted at 5-8 m spacing and field crops are sown in the interspaces
during rainy reason. E.g., Leucaena + sorghum/pearl millet/castor/pulses, neem/vagai + fodder
sorghum/pulses.
Silvipasture: Leguminous fodder trees are raised with fodder grasses and legumes as intercrops.
E.g., acacia + cenchrus + stylosanthes, vagai/sisoo + cenchrus + stylosanthes.
Alley cropping or hedgerow intercropping: Annual field crops are grown in alleys formed by
hedgerows of trees and shrubs. The trees or shrubs in hedge rows are cut back to short height
(0.5–1.0 m) at sowing of annual crops with onset of rains and kept pruned during crop growing
season to reduce shade effect and competition with field crops. The width of alley (space
between hedges) is about 4–6 m. e.g., leucaena or desmanthus as hedge row with sorghum,
maize, pigeon pea and sunflower as intercrop. Alley cropping offers many benefits.
Green fodder from hedgerows during dry season, and food and dry fodder from annual crops
during rainy season.
Off season rainfall is utilized by hedgerow trees or shrubs.
Hedge rows check runoff and erosion when formed along contour or across slope.
Loppings and prunings from hedgerows can be used as fodder, fuel wood or for mulching.
Yield of crops raised in the alleys is improved due to better microclimate through reduction
in temperature and wind speed, increase in humidity and reduction in evapotranspiration
loss.
Success in alley cropping depends on alley width and height of hedgerows. Alley width of 5–6 m
has been found to be effective. Low height of 45–50 cm is desirable. Usually one cutting of hedgerow
shrubs at the time of sowing of annual crops and subsequent prunings at monthly interval during
cropping season are optimal. During dry season, cutting is done depending on fodder requirement.
Timber-Fibre system (TIMFIB system): It involves growing trees and perennial fibre crops
together. E.g., Leucaena + agave.
Choice of trees for dry lands
Trees suitable for dry lands must have the characters like multipurpose tree species (fodder, fuel,
timber, wood), adaptable to wide variations in soil and climate, rapid growth and withstanding against
severe pruning.

13.11 WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT

Watershed is defined as a natural hydrological unit that covers a specific land surface area from which
runoff passes through a common outlet. In simple terms, it implies a catchment or drainage basin from
which water drains towards a single channel. It may extend over a few acres only or may cover thousands
of acres. Watershed development approach aims at developing the entire area in the watershed

Soil Rainfall (mm) Trees suitable

Black soil 730–830 Euclayptus viridis, Acacia nilotica, Leucaena leucocephala

Black soil 510–760 Acacia nilotica, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia indica, Acacia planifrons,
Leucaena leucocephala, Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus excelsa
Red soil 570–830 Leucaena leucocephala, Eucalyptus cameldulensis, Acacia auriculiformis,
Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Acacia holoserecia, Acacia tortilis,
Albizzia lebbeck, Prosophis cineraria, Hardwickia binata, Dalbergia
sisoo, Azadirachta indica
Red soil 380–500 Prosophis cineraia, Albizzia lebbeck, Acacia nilotica
Red soil Less than 300 Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis, Zizijphus jujuba

including the cultivated and uncultivated area. It is therefore different from individual farm as unit for
development. Watershed management is the integration of technology within the natural boundaries of
a drainage area for optimum development of land water and plant resources to meet the basic
minimum needs of the people in a sustained manner. It is also defined as the development and
management of watershed resources in such a manner as to achieve optimum production without
deterioration of resources base or disturbing the ecological balance. It is termed as “Resource
centered technology” since it helps in assessment augmentation and optimal utilization of all the
natural resources of land water and vegetation, it prevents deterioration of resources and at the same
time, ensures sustained productivity of land to meet basic needs of people.
A. Need and Advantages
Watershed is an acceptable basic hydrological unit of planning for optimum use and conservation of
soil and water resources. Here, development is not confined to agricultural land alone but covers the
whole land area starting from the highest point of the watershed (ridge line) to the lower most point of
outlet into the natural drainage stream at the bottom of the slope. It means every part of land including
barren, sloppy and marginal lands being treated according to its capability. By adopting watershed as
unit for development, different measures are adopted and executed in each of the topo-sequence
accord-ing to its capability, providing an integrated treatment of arable and non-arable lands.
e.g.,
Ridge line Tree culture
Marginal land Agroforestry, pasture
Arable land Integrated soil and moisture conservation and cropping
 It aims at comprehensive development of all resources in the watershed i.e., holistic. It starts
from the most important resources viz., soil and water and extends to other resources like crops
trees, live-stock etc. Some of the resource conservation measures may have to be carried out
cutting across field boundaries E.g., Contour bunding, contour vegetative barriers, shelterbelts,
drainage channel. For this, watershed is more ideal unit. It is a multidisciplinary approach
involving scientists from all related disciplines of Agronomy, Engineering, Horticulture, Forestry,
Soil Science, Extension, Economics, etc. It provides for involvement of farmers in planning
execution and monitoring of the development.
B. Principles
The main principles of watershed management based on resource conservation, resource
generation and resource utilization, are:
Utilizing the land according to its capability;
Protecting productive top soil;
Reducing siltation hazards in storage tanks and reservoirs and lower fertile lands;
Maintaining adequate vegetation cover on soil surface throughout the year, in situ
conservation of rain water;
Safe diversion of excess water to storage points through vegetative waterways;
Stabilization of gullies by providing checks at specified intervals and thereby increasing
ground water recharge;
Increasing cropping intensity and land equivalent ratio through intercropping and sequence
cropping;
Safe utilization of marginal lands through alternate land use systems with agriculture,
horticul-ture, forestry, pasture systems with varied options and combinations;
Water harvesting for supplemental and off-season irrigation;
Maximizing agricultural productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit of water;
Ensuring sustainability of the ecosystem befitting the man, animal, plant, water complex;
Maximizing the combined income from the interrelated and dynamic crop, livestock, tree, la-
bour complex over years;
Stabilizing total income and to cut down risks during aberrant weather situations;
Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and marketing of the
agricultural produce;
Setting up of small scale agro industries; and
Improving the socioeconomic status of the farmers.
Objectives - Watershed management is enshrined with the concept of sustainability meeting
the needs of present population without compromising the interests of future generations. It is
multi-pronged approach for steady uplift of masses living in the area. The main objectives of this
multipur-pose programme can be described in symbolic form by the expression ‘POWER’. Here
the letters symbolize the following:
P— Production of food-fodder-fuel-fruit-fibre-fish-milk combine on a sustained basis; Pollution
con-trol; Prevention of floods
O— Over-exploitation of resources to be minimized by controlling excessive biotic interference
like overgrazing; Operational practicability of all on-farm operations and follow-up
programmes including easy approachability to different locations in watershed
W—Water storage at convenient locations for different purposes; Wild animal and indigenous
plant life conservation at selected places
E— Erosion control; Eco-system safety; Economic stability; Employment generation
R— Recharge of ground water; Reduction of drought hazards; Reduction of siltation in multi-
purpose reservoirs; Recreation
Components
 Water-resource improvement
Soil and moisture conservation in cultivated lands

Hardware Software
Permanent/Semi-permanent Temporary/Recurring
Contour builds Compartmental bunding
Bench terracing Ridging after crop establishment
Conservation ditches Contour cultivation
Land levelling Mulching
Runoff collection structures Vegetative barriers

Land treatment in non-arable lands

Improved cropping
Alternate land use system and integration of livestock in farming system.
Aims
Increased land productivity through improved technology
Sustaining the resource base thorough improved conservation measures
Augmentation of resource base viz., soil productivity and water availability
Action Plan (Steps in watershed development)

Step 1. Identification and selection of watershed

The boundary of the watershed has to be marked by field survey starting from the lowest point of
the water course and proceeding upwards to the ridge line. The area may vary as low as 100 ha to
as high as 10,000 ha.

Step 2. Description of watershed

Basic information has to be collected on—
Location
Area, shape and slope
Climate
Soil—geology, hydrology, physical, chemical and biological properties, erosion level
Vegetation—native and cultivated species
Land capability
Present land use pattern
Crop pattern, cropping system and management
Farming system adopted
Economics of
farming
Manpower
resource Socio
economic data
Infrastructural and institutional facilities
Step 3. Analysis of problems and identification of available solutions

Step 4. Designing the technology components

Soil and moisture conservation measures
Run off collection, storage and recycling
Optimal land use and cropping system
Alternate land use system and farming system
Other land treatment measures
Development of livestock and other allied activities
Ground water recharge and augmentation
Step 5
Preparation of base maps of watershed incorporating all features of geology, hydrology,
physiography, soil and proposed development measures for each part of watershed.
Step 6
Cost-benefit analysis to indicate estimated cost of each component activity, total cost of project
and expected benefit.
Step 7
Fixing the time frame to show time of start, duration of project, time frame for completion of each
component activity along with the department/agency to be involved in each component activity
Step 8
Monitoring and evaluation to assess the progress of the project and to suggest modification if any
Step 9
On-farm research to identify solutions for site-specific problems.
F. Organizational requirement
Water shed development agency with multidisciplinary staff
Training to personnel
Training to farmers
Credit institution
Farmers forum/village association
Non governmental organization (NGO)