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Instrumentation Notes Full

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Instrumentation Notes Full

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amosainamani6
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Module 1 Instrumentation 1.1. system ‘A system is defined as an arrangement of parts within some boundary which work together to provide some form of output from a specified input or inputs (see Fig. 1.1). A useful way of representing a system is asa block diagram. Environment Input Output Input ‘op Electric Motor [——" Electrical Mechanical energy energy ‘System boundary Electric motor system 1.2 Instrumentation system Instrumentation systems are used for making measurements i to give the user a numerical value corresponding to the variable being measured (see Fig. 1.2 ). An instrumentation system for making measurements has an input of the true value of the variable being measured and an output of the measured value. This output might be then used in a control system to control the variable to some set value. ‘The functional elements of an instrumentation system are: (see Fig. 1.3) 1. Sensor an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured. 2. Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to some physical change experience a related change. Signal processor this clement takes the output from the sensor and converts it into a form which is suitable for display or onward transmission in some control system. 4. Data presentation displays the measured value. Smart sensor — combine sensor, signal processor and display into one package Input: true Output: measured value of variable value of variable Measurement system |————+ Figure 1.2: Instrumentation system ci pen Sirti ine Yate Se ‘oauy font ote measur measured splay quantity Te] seer endler Dept a Figure 1.3: The Constituent Elements of an Instrumentation System 1.3 Sensor performance terminologies 1.3.1 Range and span ‘The range of a transducer/sensor defines the limits between which the input can vary. The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value. 1.3.2. Error Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the truevalue of the quantity being measured: reasured value - true value 13.3 Accuracy ‘Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by a measurementsystem might be wrong. 1.3.4 Sensitivity ‘The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output there is perunit input, i.e. output/input. 1.3.5. Hysteresis error ‘Transducers/sensors can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being measured according to whether that value has been reached by a continuously increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis. Figure 1.4 shows such an output with the hysteresis error as the maximum difference in output for increasing and decreasing values. Decreasing Output Increasing Value of measured quantity Figure 1.4: Hysteresis 6 13.6 Non-linearity error For many transducers/sensors a linear relationship PetWe! the input and output is assumed over the working range, i. a graph of output plotted against input is assumed (© give a straight line, Few transducers/sensors however have a truly linear relationship and thus ae yjcear asa resaltof the assumption of linearty-The error defined as the maximum { Photodetectors > Light i Coded disk Figure 1.12: Incremental encoders Moiré Fringe sensor ‘When two sections of optical gratings are superimposed with the lines at slight angle to cach other, a Moiré Fringe patter is generated (Fig. 1.13). The interference effect of the lines provides a sinusoidal distribution of intensity. When one grating is moved with respect to the other at right angles to its lines, the Moiré Fringe pattern travels at right angles to the direction of movement; the sense of movement depends on the sense of relative travel of the gratings. Figure 1.13: Moiré Fringe sensor Applications 1 Encoders are used for measurement of linear or angular position, velocity, and direction of movement. Used in computerized manufacturing machines, motion-control applications, and quality assurance of equipment. Used in tensile-test instruments to precisely measure the ball screw position. Used in automated test stands used when angular positions of windshield wiper drives and switch positions are tested, .. Incremental encoders commonly are used for counting applications. |. The moiré fringe transducers also are used to measure length, angle, straightness, and circularity of motion. 1.6.6 Pneumatic sensor Object locking escaping air increases Air dragged out of port and 0 pressure in system {drop in sytem pressure a 4 Jaye = ——__ & eT tcsing a =" es aoa { "= Figure 1.14: Pneumatic proximity sensor 1.6.7 Hall effect sensor Reading assignment 1.6.8 Ultrasonic distance sensor Reading assignment 1.6.9 Range sensor Reading assignment 16 1.7 Velocity and motion sensors The following are examples of sensors that used to monitor linear and angular velocities and detect motion. The application of motion detectors includes security systems used to detect intruders and interactive toys and appliances, [Link] cash machine screen which becomes active when you get near to it. 1.7.1 Incremental encoder The incremental encoder described in Section 1.65 are used for the measurement of angular velocity, the number of pulses produced per second being determined. 1.7.2. Tachogenerator The induced e.m-f. e in the N turns of the pick-up coil is —Nd@/dt and thus = Ena sinwt Where the maximum value of the induced e.m,. Emax is Ngnwand thus is a measure of the angular velocity. Pick-up coil Output ‘Toothed wheel Figure 1.15: Variable reluctance tachogenerator, 7 1.8 Force and pressure sensors A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force, @ weight, is applied to the scale pan and causes a displacement, i.e. the spring stretches. The displacement is then a measure of the force. Forces are commonly measured by the measurement of displacements. 1.8.1 Strain gauge load cell Avery commonly used form of force-measuring transducer is based on theuse of electrical resistance strain gauges to monitor the strain produced in some member when stretched, compressed or bent by the application of the forcs (see Fig. 1.16) The resistance, R, of a resistance wire depends on its area, length, and electrical resistivity. pl Roa oko where p resistivity (Q—m), Ro sample resistance ((), [length (m), and Ao cross-sectional area (m?) Sensitivity or gauge factor, Gy, is defined as the ratio of unit change in resistance to unit change in length. Force Figure 1.16: Strain gauge load cell 18 Bonded strain gauges , satin i allic or semiconductor m: e Bonded strain gauges (Figure 1.17) are made of met form ofa ae or thin metal foil. When the gauges ar bonded to the surface they undergo the same strain as that of the member surface. in . Strain gauges are very sensitive devices and are used with an electronic measuring unt ‘The resistance strain gauge is normally made part cof a Wheatstone nie) Waar ‘ Be se that the change in its resistance due to strain can either be measured or used t0 pt ‘output which can be displayed or recorded. Figure 1.17: Bonded wire strain gauge R (strain gauge) Figure 1.18: Bridge circuit arrangement 19 Features Strain gauges should have the following features: 1. Ahigh gauge factor increases its sensitivity and causes a larger change in resistance for a particular strain. 2. High resistance of the strain gauge minimizes the effect of resistance variation in the signal processing circuitry. Choose gauge characteristics such that resistance is a linear function of strain. 3. For dynamic measurements, the linearity should be maintained over the desired frequency range. 4, Low temperature coefficient and absence of the hysteresis effect add to the precision Applications 1, Strain-gauge transducers are used for measuring strain, force, torque, pressure, and vibration. 2. In some applications, strain gauges are used as a primary or secondary sensor in combination with other sensors. 1.8.2 Piezoelectric sensors Piezoelectric sensors depend upon the characteristics of certain materials that are capable of generating electric voltage when they deform. Piezoelectric materials, when subjected to mechanical force or stress along specific planes, generate electric charge. The property of generating an electric charge when deformed makes piezoelectric materials useful as primary sensors in instrumentation. Piezoelectric materials are used in a variety of applications where force, pressure, acceleration, and vibration measurements are taken. Used as the sensor in ceramic- or crystal-type pick ups where the needle causes distortion of the crystal and the voltages ‘generated are processed. Force Charge Loading force applicd as a consequence of acceleration PET EEEERET sepaaion Seed a material producing ren the potential ae difference oO c between the Voltage ee cup @ & Figure 1.19: Bridge circuit arrangement 20 1.8.3 Force-sensitive resistor / AA force-sensitive resistor (FSR) is a resistor which has a resistance that eccees Wil : increase in force/pressure applied to its surface and so gives it a use in human to control of electronic devices and in robotics. FSR consist of four layers (see Fig. 1.20): 1. The top layer is an electrically insulating plastic. 2. Then there is a flexible layer coated with a conductive film. 3. Then a plastic spacer which includes an opening aligned with the active layer so that air can escape when the conductive layer is pressed into this area, 4 Then the active resistive layer consisting of a pattern of conductors which is senmected to the connecting leads, this being mounted on a flexible, thick polymer substrate, conductive film, ~~ it Ourpar othe active area Fixed resistor eg. 10040 ‘The substrate w a Figure 1.20: Force-sensitive ic it conmeati ‘Wsistor: (@) the basic constituent elements, (b) circuit 21 1.8.4 Fluid Pressure Many of the devices used to monitor Fluid pressure in industrial processes involve the ‘monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes Diaphragm \ Strain gauge Pressure Figure 1.21: Diaphragm pressure gauge. Pressure Pressure | iv toon ————— i fa) (b) Figure 1.22: Diaphragms: (a) flat, (b) corrugated (a) (b) Figure 1.23: (a) Capsule, (b) bellows. 22 Iron rod /\ | Secondary coils a Primary coil Bellows Pressure Figure 1.24: LVDT with bellows ) Movement Tube cross-section @) © Figure 1.25: Tube pressure sensors (b) 23 1.9 Sensors for flow measurement Flow sensing for measurement and control is one of the most critical areas in the modern industrial process industry. Regardless of the state of the fluid, gas, or liquid, accurate flow measurements are critical. 1.9.1 Solid flow ‘The bulk materials solid flow measurement systems is shown in Fig. 1.26. Feeder \ J L { a Weighing Platform Figure 1.26: Soild flow measurement system Flow rate, = 4 where Q= flow (kg/min) -weight of material on section of length L R =conveyor speed (m/min) L=length of weighing platform (m) 1.9.2 Liquid flow Continuity equation Q=AV where V=flow velocity, @ = volume flow rate Bernoulli’s theorem 24 Sensors based on Differential Pressure Pressure sensing line Entrance cone wut UY Bs ’ 7 YW) ° Throat Figure 1.27: flow sensing “The conventional devices for flow sensing employ one ofthe following three arrangements, 1, Orifice plate 2. Nozzle 3. Venturi tube once plate oe Ventugtube ra Flow Es Flow =I ‘2p ap 4p (aloritce plate (b)Flownozle {Venta tube Figure 1.28: Rate of flow sensors ‘Types of DP sensors 1. Pitot tube "The standard pitot tube used for flow measurement is shown Fig. 1.29. Total static pressure pressure Flow « Pressure Py, Velocity Vy Pressure Py, Velocity ¥p=0 Figure 1.29: Standard pitot tube used for flow measurement 25 1), Cy = Correction factor 2. Rotameter ‘The rotameter is another device widely used in the process-control industry for flow measurement. It consists of a tapered glass tube and a float (see 1.30). Float (Wolume ¥;) Tapered transparent tube ) Where Cy=Discharge coefficient = Ultrasonic flow sensor for flow measurement Ultrasonic flow meters measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound waves through the fluid. they operate by measuring the transmission time difference of an ultrasonic beam passed through a homogeneous fluid contained in a pipe at both upstream and downstream locations. Figure 1.31 illustrates the principles of ultrasonic flow sensing. Control circuits Receivers ¢ D Flow ——> Transmitters Figure 1.31: Ultrasonic flow sensing 26 The transducer consists of transmitter and receiver pairs. One pair, A and B, act as [Link] the other pair, C and D, act as receivers. If a sound pulse is transmitted from transmitter B to receiver C, the transit time is calculated as sina(C—Vecosa) If the pulse is transmitted from transmitter A to receiver D, the transit time is da ‘8D = Sina(C+Veosa) where d =diameter of the tube (m) V = velocity of fluid flow (mm/s) the angle between the path of sound and the pipe wall und Velocity in the fluid (m/s)—assume V << C ‘The transit time difference, At, is the difference between equations above It is Proportional to flow velocity and fluid flow and can be used as an input to the computer. By measuring the transit times at both upstream and downstream locations, the fluid velocity can be expressed independently of the sound velocity in the fluid, Since the ‘measurement is independent of the velocity of sound through the fluid, the effects of Pressure and temperature are avoided. tac— tap _ 2Vsinacosa (tactas) qd Drag-force flow meter Reading assignment Rotor torque mass flow meter Reading assignment Fluid Measurement using laser doppler effect This principle is based on the Doppler shift phenomenon in which the frequency of the scattered light from the moving object differs from that of the incident beam by an amount proportional to the fluid velocity. The beam is focused at a point in the fluid where the velocity is to be measured. Signal processing of the photodetector output produces the magnitude of the Doppler frequency shift which is directly proportional to the instantaneous velocity of flow. 2Vcosé Frequency shift, Af = —-°°* ‘fo where V is the particle velocity, fais the frequency of the beam, theta is the angle between the laser beam, and the particle cis the speed of light. The output voltage of is proportional to the instantaneous velocities of the fluids. ‘These techniques have been used in the aerospace industry to measure vortex flow near the wing tips of aircraft, flow between the gas turbine compressor blades, investigation of boundary layers, combustion phenomenon in jet propulsion systems, and in biological areas for in vivo blood-flow measurement. High accuracy in the range of is possible 21 Electromagnetic flow meter theory Reading assignment Hot wire anemometers Reading assignment Turbine flow meter ‘The turbine flow meter (Fig. 1.32) consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported centrally in the pipe along which the flow occurs. The fluid flow results in rotation of the rotor, the angular velocity being approximately proportional to the flow rate. The rate of revolution of the rotor can be determined using a magnetic pick-up. The pulses are counted and so the number of revolutions of the rotor can be determined. The meter is expensive with an accuracy of typically about +0.3%. ‘The main advantage of the turbine flow meter is the linear relationship between the volume flow rate and the angular velocity of the rotor which is Q=kn where iis the volume flow rate kis a constant depending on the fluid property nis the rotor angular velocity (rad/s) ‘Turbine flow meters are not suited for fluids that contain abrasive particles. Any damage to the turbine blades must be followed by an immediate recalibration of the meter. ‘Turbine ‘Magnetic pick-up coil Figure 1.32: Turbine flow meter 28 1.10 Temperature sensors ing vari easurement “Temperature is one of the most familiar engineering variables ‘Temperature m: is based on one of the following principles. 1. Material expansion based on change in length, volume, or pressure. 2. Based on the change in electrical resistance. 3. Based on contact voltage between two dissimilar metals. 4, Based on changes in radiated energy. 1.10.1 Bimetallic strips This device consists of two different metal strips bonded together. The metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the temperature changes,the composite strip bends into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve. This deformation may be used as a temperature controlled switch, as in the simple thermostat which was commonly used with domestic heating systems (Figure 1.33). The small magnet enables the sensor to exhibit hysteresis. terial Elecuieal connections Low- expansivity —o material Set temp. adjustment Bimetallic / strip Figure 1.33: Bimetallic thermostat Soft iron ‘Small magnet 29 1.10.2 Resistance temperature detectors RTD is a length of wire whose resistance is a function of temperature, It consists of a wite that is wound in the shape of aco to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity, ‘The wire coils are made from metals such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys: Platinum is the most widely used. For a linear relationship. Ry =Ro(1+ar) Where R, is the resistance at a temperature # °C), Ro the resistance at 0°C and a a constant for the metal called the temperature coefficient of resistance. Figure 1.34: Variation of resistance with temperature for metals. 1.10.3. Thermistors A thermistor is a transducer whose operation relies on a change in semiconductor resistance with change in temperature. Increase in temperature decreases electrical resistance by improving conductance. A semiconductor becomes a better conductor of current as its temperature is increased, The resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor can be described by an equation of the for R=Kelt where R; is the resistance at temperature f, with K and f being constants. ‘Thermistors have many advantages when compared with other temperature sensors. They are rugged and can be very small, so enabling temperatures to be monitored at virtually a point, Because of their small size they respond very rapidly to changes in temperature. ‘They give very large changes in resistance per degree change in temperature. Their main disadvantage is their non-linearity. ‘Thermistors are used with the electronic systems for cars to monitor such variables as air ‘temperature and coolant air temperature several thousand ohms over a temperature change of a few degrees, these thermistors are used as thermal switches for motor protection when 30 they becomeover loaded. For a thermistor to provide an input to microcontroller its recistance change must be converted into a voltage change and this can be readily done by Creating a voltage divider circuit with the thermistor (see Fig, 35). Tomine Restane eeepc 0 “Tempore » Ey a a Mion me @ o Figure 1.35: Thermistors: (a)common forms, (b) typical variation of resistance with temperature, (c) circuit symbols, (d)input from a thermistor to amicrocontroller. 31 1.10.4 Thermocouples If two different metals are joined together, a potential difference occurs across the Junction. The potential difference depends on the metals used and the temperature of the Junction. A thermocouple is a complete circuit involving two such junctions (Fig. 1.36). If both junctions are at the same temperature there is no net e.m4f. If,however, there is a difference in temperature between the two junctions, there is an e.m.f. The value of this emf. E depends on the two metals concerned and the temperatures t of both junctions. Usually one junction is held at 0°C and then, to a reasonable extent, the following relationship holds: E=at+br where a and b are constants for the metals concerned. A thermocouple circuit can have other metals in the circuit end they will have no effect on the thermoelectric e.m,f. provided all their junctions are at the same temperature. This is known as the law of intermediate metals. A thermocouple is used with the reference junction at a temperature other than 0°C. The standard tables, however, assume a 0°C Junction and hence a correction has to be applied before the tables can be used. The correction is applied using what is known as the law of intermediate temperatures, namely Exo = Exot Eso z Meal A jen, —_Meal A Meat B « m0 400 SSO ot juneion Reference anton ‘enperatureO) ® » Figure 1.36: (a) A thermocouple, (b) thermoelectric ¢.[Link] graphs 32 Ref. Materials (mv) B Platinum 30% Oto 1800 3 rhodium/ platinum 6% rhodium E Chromel/constantan 00 to 1000 63 J Iron/constantan 200 10 900 33 K —— Chromel/alumel 2000 to 1300 4 N _ Nirosil/nisil 200 to 1300 28 R —Phatinum/platinum 13% rhodium Oto 1400 6 S —_Platinum/platinum 10% rhodium Oto 1400 6 T —_ Copper/constantan 200 to 400 Figure 1.37: Thermocouples 1.10.5 Radiative Temperature Sensing ‘The radiation emitted by an object is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature, WeoTt where W is the flux of energy radiated from an ideal surface, and s is the Stefan-Boltzman constant. The thermopile detector (Fignre 1 38) is subjected to radiation from a heat source whose temperature is to be detected. Pyrometers measure the temperature of ari object by measuring its radiated energy using an optical system. The radiation emitted by the object passes through the lens system and impacts the thermal sensor. Increase in temperature of the thermopile is a direct indication of the temperature of the radiation source. An optical pyrometer identifies the temperature of a surface by the color of the radiation emitted by the surface Optical component Optical mirror Thermopile detector Figure 1.38: Radiative thermometer 33

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