© [Link].

com
 HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
[Link]
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
• Reproduction is the production of
young ones by an organism.
• Humans are sexually reproducing and
viviparous.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

MALE FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM SYSTEM

[Link]
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Male reproductive system
Paired testes Rete testis

Vasa efferentia
Accessory
ducts Epididymis

Vas deferens

Prostate gland (1)

Accessory
Seminal vesicles (2)
glands
Cowper’s (bulbo-
External urethral) glands (2)
genitalia (Penis)
[Link]
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. PAIRED TESTES

• Primary sex organs that produce

sperms & testosterone.
• Testes are formed within abdomen.
• Soon after the birth or at the 8th
month of pregnancy, they descent
into the scrotal sac (scrotum)
through inguinal canal.
• The low temperature (2-2.50 C less
than the body temperature) of
scrotum helps for proper functioning
of testes and for spermatogenesis.

[Link]
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. PAIRED TESTES

• Each testis is oval in shape.

• Length 4-5 cm, width: 2-3 cm.
• Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules.
• Each lobule contains 1-3 coiled
seminiferous tubules.
• Seminiferous tubule is lined internally with
spermatogenic cells (spermatogonia or
male germ cells) & Sertoli cells (supporting
cells).
• Sertoli cells give shape and nourishment to
developing spermatogonia.

[Link]
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. PAIRED TESTES

• The regions outside the seminiferous

tubules (interstitial spaces) contain
 Small blood vessels.
 Interstitial cells or Leydig cells.
 Immunologically competent cells.
• Leydig cells secrete testicular
hormones (androgens).

[Link]
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS

Rete testis
Accessory ducts (Duct

(irregular cavities)

Vasa efferentia
system)

(series of fine tubules)

Epididymis
(stores sperms temporarily)

Vas deferens

Vas deferens joins with a duct of seminal vesicle to form common-ejaculatory duct.
[Link]
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS

Conduction of sperms through Accessory ducts

Seminiferous tubules

Rete testis

Vasa efferentia

Epididymis

Vas deferens

Common ejaculatory duct

Urethra
The urethra receives the ducts of prostate and Cowper’s glands
Urethral meatus and passes through the penis.

[Link]
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
3. ACCESSORY GLANDS

• They include
 A pair of seminal vesicles.
 A prostate gland.
 A pair of Cowper’s (bulbo-urethral) glands.
• Their collective secretion is called seminal
plasma. It is rich in fructose, Ca and enzymes.

Seminal plasma + Sperms → Semen

[Link]
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
3. ACCESSORY GLANDS

Functions of seminal plasma:

 Helps for transporting sperms.
 Supplies nutrients to sperms.
 Provides alkalinity to counteract acidity of uterus.
 Secretions of Cowper’s glands lubricate the penis.

Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens,

seminal vesicle & prostate help for
maturation and motility of sperms.

[Link]
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
4. PENIS (EXTERNAL GENITALIA)

• It is a copulatory organ.
• It is made up of special erectile spongy
tissues.
• When spongy tissue is filled with
blood, the penis erects. It facilitates
insemination.
• The cone-shaped tip of the penis is
called glans penis. It is covered by
prepuce (foreskin).

[Link]
[Link]
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Paired Oviducts (Fallopian

tube)-2
ovaries
Female reproductive

Uterus

Vagina
system

Accessory
ducts Mons pubis

Vestibule

Hymen
External
genitalia Clitoris

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. PAIRED OVARIES

• Primary sex organs which produce ova

(female gamete) & steroid ovarian hormones
(estrogen & progesterone).
• Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length.
• They are located on both side of the lower
abdomen and connected to the pelvic wall
Ligaments
and uterus by ligaments.

Ovary
[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1. PAIRED OVARIES

• Each ovary is covered by a thin

epithelium which encloses the ovarian
stroma.
• The stroma has outer cortex and inner
medulla.
• Ovary contains groups of cells (Ovarian
or Graafian follicles).
• Each follicle carries a centrally placed
ovum.

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS (DUCT SYSTEM)

2 OVIDUCTS
(FALLOPIAN TUBES)

ACCESSORY UTERUS (WOMB)

DUCTS

VAGINA

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS (DUCT SYSTEM)

A. Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)

• Each oviduct is 10-12 cm long.
• It has 3 parts: Infundibulum, Ampulla &
Isthmus.
 Infundibulum: Funnel-shaped opening with
many finger-like fimbriae. It helps to collect
the ovum.
 Ampulla: Wider part.
 Isthmus: Narrow part. It joins the uterus.
• The ciliated epithelium lined the lumen of
oviduct drives the ovum towards the uterus.

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS (DUCT SYSTEM)

B. Uterus (womb)
• It is inverted pear shaped.
• It is supported by ligaments attached to the
pelvic wall.
• Uterus has 3 parts: Upper fundus, middle body
and terminal cervix.
• Cervix opens to vagina.
• The uterine wall has 3 layers:
 Perimetrium: External thin membrane.
 Myometrium: Middle thick layer of smooth
muscle.
 Endometrium: Inner glandular & vascular.

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS (DUCT SYSTEM)

C. Vagina
• It opens to exterior between urethra and anus.
• The lumen of vagina is lined by a glycogen-rich mucous
membrane consisting of sensitive papillae and
Bartholin’s glands.
• The secretions of Bartholin’s glands lubricate penis
during sexual act.

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
3. EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA/PUDENDUM)
SYSTEM

• Consist of Mons pubis, vestibule, hymen &

clitoris.
A. Mons pubis
• A cushion of fatty tissue covered by pubic
hair.
B. Vestibule
• A median channel. It includes
 Labia majora: Large, fleshy, fatty and hairy
outer folds. Surrounds vaginal opening.
 Labia minora: Small, thin and hairless inner
folds.

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
3. EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA/PUDENDUM)
SYSTEM

C. Hymen (Maiden head)

• A membrane which partially cover the vaginal
opening. It is often torn during the first coitus.
• It may also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt,
Hymen
insertionmayof aalso be broken
vaginal tampon,byactive
a sudden fall or
participation
jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon, active
in some sports items etc. In some women, hymen
participation in some sports items etc. In some
persists hymen
women, even after [Link]
persists So the hymen
after is not
coitus. a
So the
reliableisindicator
hymen of virginity.
not a reliable indicator of virginity.
D. Clitoris
• A highly sensitive organ lying just in front of
the urethral opening.

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
MAMMARY GLANDS (BREASTS)

• A pair of mammary glands contains

glandular tissue & fat.
• Glandular tissue of each breast has 15-20
mammary lobes containing clusters of cells
(mammary alveoli).
• The cells of alveoli secrete milk. It is stored
in the cavities (lumen) of alveoli.

[Link]
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
MAMMARY GLANDS (BREASTS)

• The alveoli open into mammary tubules.

• The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary
duct.
• Several mammary ducts join to form a wider
mammary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous
duct through which milk is sucked out.

Sequence of milk conduction

Mammary Mammary Mammary Mammary Lactiferous

alveoli tubule duct ampulla duct
[Link]
[Link]
 GAMETOGENESIS

It is the formation of gametes in the gonads.

TYPES OF
GAMETOGENESIS

SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
(Formation of sperms) (Formation of ovum)

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

It is the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) in seminiferous tubules of

testis.

Spermatogonia (Sperm
Formation of
spermatids mother cells) produce
spermatids.
STAGES OF
SPERMATOGENESIS

Spermatids transform into

Spermiogenesis
sperm

[Link]
 GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS
2n
Spermatogonia (2n)
2n 2n

Mitosis
2n 2n 2n 2n

Primary spermatocytes (2n)

2n 2n
Meiosis I

n n Secondary spermatocytes (n)

Meiosis II
n n n n Spermatids (n)

Spermiogenesis

Spermatozoa (n)
Seminiferous tubule: Cross section
[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

A primary spermatocyte →
2 sec. spermatocytes (n).

A sec. spermatocyte →
2 spermatids (n).

Thus

A primary spermatocyte
↓
4 spermatids/4 sperms
A portion of Seminiferous tubule
[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

SPERMIATION

• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads are embedded in the Sertoli cells to get
nourishment. Then they are released to lumen of seminiferous tubules. It is called
spermiation.
[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS
Hypothalamus
↓
Secretes GnRH
Role of ↓
Hormones in Acts on Pituitary
↓
Spermatogenesis
Secretes of 2 gonadotropins

Luteinizing hormone (LH) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

↓ ↓
Acts on Leydig cells Acts on Sertoli cells
↓
↓
Secretes of Androgen
↓ Stimulates secretion of factors
Stimulates Spermatogenesis for spermiogenesis

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

 A mature sperm is about 60 µ (0.06 mm) long.

 Sperm is enveloped by a plasma membrane.
 A sperm has 3 regions:
 Head
 Middle piece
 Tail

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

Head
 Oval shaped.
 Formed of nucleus & acrosome.
 Acrosome is formed from Golgi complex. It contains lytic
enzymes.
 Behind the head is a neck.

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

Middle piece
 Composed of axial filament surrounded by mitochondria &
cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria produce energy for the sperm motility.

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

Tail
 Consists of a central axial filament.
 The sperm moves in fluid medium and female genital tract by
the undulating movement of the tail.

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS

 The human male ejaculates about 200-300 million

sperms during a coitus.
 For normal fertility, at least 60% sperms must have
normal shape and size. 40% of them must show
vigorous motility.

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 2. OOGENESIS

• It is the formation & maturation of ovum.

• It takes place in Graafian follicles.

• Oogenesis is initiated in embryonic stage

when millions of egg mother cells (oogonia)
are formed within ovary.

• No more oogonia are formed and added after

birth.

• Oogonia multiply to form primary oocytes.

They enter prophase-I of the meiosis and get
temporarily arrested at that stage.

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 2. OOGENESIS

• Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by

a layer of granulosa cells to form
primary follicle.

• Many primary follicles degenerate

during the phase from birth to puberty.
Therefore, at puberty, only 60,000-
80,000 primary follicles are left in each
ovary.

[Link]
 GAMETOGENESIS 2. OOGENESIS

Development of ovarian follicle

Primary Secondary Tertiary Graafian
follicle follicle follicle follicle

Granulosa cells

Primary oocyte

Fluid filled cavity

A layer of granulosa cells More layers of granulosa (antrum) develops. Theca
cells and a new theca layer forms inner theca
surrounding a primary surrounding a primary interna & outer theca
oocyte. oocyte. externa. Fully matured follicle

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 2. OOGENESIS

• The primary oocyte in tertiary follicle grows

and undergoes first unequal meiotic division
to form a large haploid secondary oocyte and
a tiny first polar body.

• So, secondary oocyte retains the nutrient rich

cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.

• It is unknown that whether the first polar

body divides further or degenerates.

[Link]
GAMETOGENESIS 2. OOGENESIS

• The tertiary follicle further changes into the

mature follicle (Graafian follicle).

• Secondary oocyte forms a new membrane

(zona pellucida).

• Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the

secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary. This
is called ovulation.

[Link]
 Oogenesis
GAMETOGENESIS 2. OOGENESIS: STEPS

2n Oogonia (2n) (Diploid, 46

chromosomes)
2n 2n Mitosis (embryonic stage)

2n 2n 2n 2n Primary oocyte (2n)

↓ Grow in size
2n Primary oocyte (2n)
Meiosis I ↓ (prior to ovulation)

Secondary oocytes (n)

n
& first polar body (n)
Meiosis II ↓ (During fertilization)
n Ootid (ovum-n) & second Ovum
polar body (n)
[Link]
 GAMETOGENESIS Structure of ovum (egg)

• Spherical and non-motile.

• Size: About 0.2 mm in diameter.
• Ovum has 3 membranes:
 Plasma membrane (Oolemma): Innermost
layer.
 Zona pellucida: Outer to the plasma
membrane.
 Corona radiata: Outer layer formed of
follicle cells.

[Link]
 GAMETOGENESIS Spermatogenesis v/s Oogenesis

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Occurs in testis. Occurs in ovary.

Limited growth phase. Elaborated growth phase.

Each primary spermatocyte gives Each primary oocyte gives only one
4 sperms. ovum.

No polar body formation. Polar bodies are formed.

Begins at embryonic stage but

Begins at puberty and extends up
suspends up to the puberty. It ceases
to senility.
around the age of 50.

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

It is the cyclic events starting

from one menstruation till the
next during reproductive period
(puberty to menopause) of a
woman’s life.

[Link]
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

Duration of Menstrual
cycle is

28 or 29 days.

[Link]
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

Menstrual cycle is also

seen in other primates.

[Link]
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

Events Ovarian cycle:

Changes in ovary
of
Menstr
ual Uterine cycle:
cycle Changes in uterus,
oviduct and vagina

[Link]
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)
Phases of Menstrual
Cycle
Menstrual phase:
1-5th day

Follicular (Proliferative) phase:

5-13th day

Ovulatory phase:
14th day

Secretory (Luteal) phase:

15-28th day
[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE I. Menstrual phase

1-5th
day

• The cycle starts with Ruptured

Endometrium
menstrual flow (bleeding).
• It lasts for 3-5 days. Bleeding

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE I. Menstrual phase

1-5th
day
• Menstruation occurs if the
released ovum is not fertilized. Ruptured
Endometrium
It results in breakdown of
endometrial lining and uterine
blood vessels that comes out Bleeding
through vagina.

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE I. Menstrual phase

1-5th
day

• Lack of menstruation
indicates pregnancy.

• It may also be caused due

to stress, poor health etc.

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE II. Follicular (proliferative) phase

5-13th
day
• It starts from 5th day after
menstruation and completed New
Endometrium
within 8-12 days.
• In this phase, action of
gonadotropins (FSH &LH) from
pituitary occurs.

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE II. Follicular (proliferative) phase

5-13th
day
FSH stimulates
 Development of primary follicles
into Graafian follicles.
 Secretion of oestrogens by
Graafian follicles.

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE II. Follicular (proliferative) phase

5-13th
day
Oestrogens stimulate
 Proliferation of ruptured uterine New
endometrium and mucus lining of Endometrium
oviduct & vagina.
 Development of secondary sexual
characters.
 Suppression of FSH secretion.
 Secretion of LH (Luteinizing hormone).
[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE III. Ovulatory phase

14th
day
• LH & FSH attain a peak level in
the middle of cycle.
• Rapid secretion of LH (LH surge)
induces rupture of Graafian
follicle and thereby ovulation (on
14th day).

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE III. Ovulatory phase

14th
day
• LH & FSH attain a peak level in
the middle of cycle.
• Rapid secretion of LH (LH surge)
induces rupture of Graafian
follicle and thereby ovulation (on
14th day).

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase

14-28th
day

• After ovulation, Graafian follicle

is transformed into a yellow
endocrine mass called Corpus
luteum.
• Corpus luteum secretes
progesterone.
[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase

14-28th
day

Functions of progesterone:
 Makes the endometrium maximum Thick
Endometrium
vascular, thick and soft. Thus the
uterus gets ready for implantation.
 Inhibits the FSH secretion to prevent
development of a second ovarian
follicle.
[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase

14-28th
day

• If fertilization does not occur,

corpus luteum degenerates.
• It causes disintegration of
endometrium. It leads to next
menstruation and new cycle.
[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase

14-28th
day

• If fertilization does not occur,

Ruptured
corpus luteum degenerates. Endometrium

• It causes disintegration of
endometrium. It leads to next Bleeding

menstruation and new cycle.

[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase

14-28th
day

• During pregnancy, all

events of menstrual cycle
stop and there is no
menstruation.
[Link]
MENSTRUAL CYCLE Overall changes

Change in Pituitary hormone

(FSH & LH) levels

Changes in Ovary (Ovarian events)

Change in Ovarian hormone

(Estrogen & Progesterone) levels

Changes in uterus (Uterine events)

Menstruation Follicular phase Luteal phase Next

cycle
[Link]
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menarche: The first

menstruation during puberty.

Menopause: Stopping of
menstrual cycle (at about 50
yrs of age).

[Link]
FERTILIZATION & IMPLANTATION
[Link]
 FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

During copulation, semen is released by the penis into the vagina. It is called
insemination.
[Link]
 FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

Cervical
• Fusion of sperm with Sperms Vagina Uterus Isthmus
canal
ovum is called fertilization.
• It occurs in ampullary
region of fallopian tube.

Ampullary
region

Ovum
Fimbriae Infundibulum Ampulla
(from ovary)

[Link]
 FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

• Fertilization happens only if ovum & sperms are

transported simultaneously. So all copulations do not
lead to fertilization & pregnancy.
• A sperm contacts with zona pellucida. It induces
changes in the membrane that block the entry of
additional sperms.
• The secretions of the acrosome help sperm to enter the
egg cytoplasm via zona pellucida and plasma
membrane. This causes second meiotic division of the
secondary oocyte to form an ovum (ootid) and second
polar body.
• The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum fuse
together to form a diploid zygote.

[Link]
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

• Zygote undergoes mitotic division

(cleavage) starts as it moves through
the isthmus towards the uterus and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called
blastomeres.
• The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is
called a morula.
• Morula continues to divide and
transforms into blastocyst.

[Link]
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

• In blastocyst, the blastomeres are arranged

into an outer layer (trophoblast) and an
inner cell mass attached to trophoblast.
• The trophoblast layer gives nourishment to
inner cell mass. Also it gets attached to
endometrium.
• The inner cell mass gets differentiated to 3
germ layers (outer ectoderm, middle
mesoderm & inner endoderm). This 3-
layered structure (gastrula) forms the
embryo.

[Link]
 FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

• After attachment, uterine cells divide rapidly and cover the blastocyst.
• As a result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium. This is called implantation.

[Link]
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION: AT A GLANCE

[Link]
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
[Link]
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

• After implantation, finger-like projections (chorionic villi) appear on trophoblast.

• They are surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood.
[Link]
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

• The chorionic villi & uterine tissue are interdigitated to form placenta.
• Placenta is a structural and functional unit b/w embryo (foetus) & maternal body.
[Link]
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

• Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord. It transports substances to and

from the embryo.
[Link]
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

Functions of placenta
1. Acts as barrier between the foetus & mother.
2. Supply O2, nutrients etc. from mother to foetus.
3. Remove CO2 & excretory wastes from foetus.
4. Acts as an endocrine gland. It secretes Human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental
lactogen (hPL), oestrogens, progesterone & relaxin.

Relaxin is also secreted by

ovary.

[Link]
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

• During pregnancy, estrogens,

progestogens, cortisol,
prolactin, thyroxine etc. are
also increased in maternal
blood.
• They support the fetal
growth, metabolic changes in
the mother and maintain
pregnancy.

[Link]
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

• The germ layers give rise

to all tissues (organs).
• The stem cells in inner cell
mass have the potency to
give rise to all the tissues
and organs.

[Link]
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

• Human pregnancy
(gestation period) lasts 9
months.
• For cats: 2 months. Dogs: 2
months. Elephants: 21
months.

[Link]
 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Changes in embryo during pregnancy

• After one month: Heart is formed.

• End of second month: Limbs and digits are
developed.
• End of 12 weeks (first trimester): Major organs
(limbs, external genital organs etc.) are well
developed.
• During 5th month: First movement of foetus and
appearance of hair on the head.
• End of 24 weeks (second trimester): Body is
covered with fine hair, eyelids separate and
eyelashes are formed.
• End of 9 months: Ready for delivery.
[Link]
PARTURITION & LACTATION
[Link]
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Parturition (labour)

• Process of giving birth to young ones.

• It is induced by neuroendocrine
mechanism.
• The signals from the foetus and placenta
induce mild uterine contractions (fetal
ejection reflex). This causes the release of
oxytocin from maternal pituitary.

[Link]
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Parturition (labour)

• Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle

contractions which in turn stimulate
further secretion of oxytocin.
• This process is continued leading to
expulsion of the baby out of the uterus
through the birth canal.

[Link]
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Cutting of Umbilical cord

• After parturition, the umbilical cord is cut off.

• The placenta & remnants of umbilical cord are
expelled from the maternal body after
parturition. It is called “after birth”.

[Link]
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

• The mammary glands produce milk

towards the end of pregnancy. It is
called lactation.
• The yellowish milk produced during
the initial few days of lactation is called
colostrum. It contains several
antibodies essential to develop
resistance for the new born babies.

[Link]
THANK YOU FOR WATCHING