EEE 1104

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS 1

LECTURE – 2
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Burak Özbey
Circuit Elements: Sources
• There are 5 ideal basic circuit elements: voltage sources, current sources,
resistors, inductors, and capacitors.

• An electrical source is a device that is capable of converting nonelectric

energy to electric energy and vice versa.
• A discharging battery converts chemical energy to electric energy, whereas
a battery being charged converts electric energy to chemical energy.
• A dynamo is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electric energy
and vice versa. If operating in the mechanical-to-electric mode, it is called a
generator. If transforming from electric to mechanical energy, it is referred to
as a motor.

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Ideal Voltage and Current Sources
• An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed
voltage across its terminals regardless of the current flowing in those
terminals.
• Similarly, an ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a
prescribed current through its terminals regardless of the voltage across those
terminals. These circuit elements do not exist as practical devices—they are
idealized models of actual voltage and current sources.
• The voltage-current characteristics of voltage and current sources cannot be
specified. They are just idealized as infinite suppliers of voltage, or, current,
respectively.

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Ideal Independent Voltage and Current Sources
• Ideal voltage and current sources can be further described as either
independent sources or dependent sources.
• An independent source establishes a voltage or current in a circuit without
relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit. The value of the
voltage or current supplied is specified by the value of the independent source
alone.

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Ideal Dependent Voltage and Current Sources
• In contrast, a dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value
depends on the value of a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit. You
cannot specify the value of a dependent source unless you know the value of
the voltage or current on which it depends.

The coefficients for controlled

sources: µ and β are dimensionless,
ρ has the unit of V/A and α and
have the units of A/V.
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Ideal Independent Voltage and Current Sources
• To completely specify an ideal independent voltage source in a circuit, you
must include the value of the supplied voltage and the reference polarity.
Similarly, to completely specify an ideal independent current source, you must
include the value of the supplied current and its reference direction.
• To completely specify an ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage source,
you must identify the controlling voltage, the equation that permits you to
compute the supplied voltage from the controlling voltage, and the reference
polarity for the supplied voltage.
• Ideal sources are active circuit elements. An active element is one that
models a device capable of generating electric energy.
• Passive elements model physical devices that cannot generate electric
energy. Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are examples of passive circuit
elements.
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Example # 1

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Example # 1:

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Example # 2

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Example # 2:

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Electrical Resistance
• Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow
of current or, more specifically, the flow of electric charge.
The circuit element used to model this behavior is the
resistor. Figure shows the circuit symbol for the resistor,
with R denoting the resistance value of the resistor.
• Moving electrons that make up electric current interact with each other. Also
they are resisted by the atomic structure of the material through which they
are moving. In the course of these interactions, some amount of electric
energy is converted to thermal energy and dissipated in the form of heat.
• This effect may be undesirable (generally it is considered loss of electrical
energy). However, many useful electrical devices take advantage of
resistance heating, including stoves, toasters, irons, and space heaters.
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Electrical Resistance
• Most materials exhibit measurable resistance to current. The amount of
resistance depends on the material.

• Metals such as copper and aluminum have small values of resistance, making
them good choices for wiring used to conduct electric current. In fact, when
represented in a circuit diagram, copper or aluminum wiring isn't usually
modeled as a resistor; the resistance of the wire is so small compared to the
resistance of other elements in the circuit that we can neglect the wiring
resistance to simplify the diagram.

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Ohm’s Law
• For purposes of circuit analysis, we must reference the current in the resistor
to the terminal voltage. We can do so in two ways: either in the direction of the
voltage drop across the resistor or in the direction of the voltage rise across
the resistor, as shown in below figure. If we choose the first way, the
relationship between the voltage and current is
• 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 where

• For the second case, we must write 𝑣 = −𝑖𝑅.

• These equatons are known as Ohm's law after Georg Simon Ohm, a German
physicist who established its validity early in the nineteenth century. Ohm's law
is the algebraic relationship between voltage and current for a resistor.
• In SI units, resistance is measured in ohms. The Greek letter omega (Ω) is the
standard symbol for an ohm.
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Conductance
• The reciprocal of the resistance is referred to as conductance, is symbolized
by the letter G, and is measured in Siemens (S). Thus,

• An 8 Ω resistor has a conductance value of 0.125 S. In much of the

professional literature, the unit used for conductance is the mho (ohm spelled
backward), which is symbolized by an inverted omega (Ʊ). Therefore we may
also describe an 8 Ω resistor as having a conductance of 0.125 mho (Ʊ).
• We use ideal resistors in circuit analysis to model the behavior of physical
devices. For ideal resistors, there are several simplifying assumptions. For
example, the resistance of the ideal resistor is constant and its value does not
vary over time. Most actual resistive devices do not have constant resistance,
and their resistance does vary over time.
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Power at the Resistor
• We may calculate the power at the terminals of a resistor in several ways. For
the first convention (𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅),
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖.
• A second method of expressing the power at the terminals of a resistor
expresses power in terms of the current and the resistance. Substituting
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 into the equation above, we get
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅.
• Even if we use the second convention (𝑣 = −𝑖𝑅), we get
𝑝 = −𝑣𝑖 = − −𝑖𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅.
• So, both conventions yield the same results, as expected. Thus, regardless of
voltage polarity and current direction, the power at the terminals of a
resistor is positive. Therefore, a resistor absorbs power from the circuit.
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Power at the Resistor
• A third method of expressing the power at the terminals of a resistor is in terms
of the voltage and resistance. The expression is independent of the polarity
references, so
𝑣2
𝑝= .
𝑅
• Sometimes a resistor's value will be expressed as a conductance rather than
as a resistance. Using the relationship between resistance and conductance,
we get
𝑖2
𝑝= .
𝐺
• Or,
𝑝 = 𝑣 2 𝐺.

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Example # 3:

Solution:

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Example # 3:
Constructing a Circuit Model
• Basic circuit elements can be used to construct circuit models of practical
systems.
• Example: Constructing a Circuit Model of a Flashlight
• As an electrical system, the components of primary interest are the batteries,
the lamp, the connector, the case, and the switch.
• Battery: A dry-cell battery maintains a reasonably constant terminal voltage.
Thus if the dry-cell battery is operating within its intended limits, we can model
it with a constant ideal voltage source.
• Lamp: The output of the lamp is light energy, which is achieved by heating the
filament in the lamp to a temperature high enough to cause radiation in the
visible range. We can model the lamp with an ideal resistor. The resistor used
to represent the lamp does predict the steady current drain on the batteries, a
characteristic of the system that also is of interest. In this model, RL symbolizes
the lamp resistance. 19
Constructing a Circuit Model
• The Connector: Mechanically, it is a springy coil to apply pressure to the
contact between the batteries and the lamp. Electrically, we can model the
connector with an ideal resistor, labeled R1.
• The Case: The case also serves both a mechanical and an electrical purpose.
Mechanically, it contains all the other components and provides a grip for the
person using it. It can be metal or plastic. If it is metal, the case itself conducts
current between the batteries and the lamp. If it is plastic, there is a metal strip
inside the case that transmits the current. Either way, it is modeled with a resistor
RC.
• The Switch: Electrically, the switch is a two-state device. It is either ON or OFF.
An ideal switch offers no resistance to the current when it is in the ON state, but it
offers infinite resistance to current when it is in the OFF state. Therefore, the ON
state corresponds to a resistor with a numerical value of zero (short circuit), and
the OFF state corresponds to a resistor with a numerical value of infinity (open
circuit). 20
Constructing a Circuit Model
• Therefore the circuit model is as shown below:

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Example # 4:

Solution:

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Kirchhoff’s Laws:
• A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across every element and the
current through every element are known. For solving most of the electrical
circuits, in addition to Ohm’s Law, we need to use two more important
algebraic relationships, known as Kirchhoff's laws.

• The circuit for the flashlight is redrawn as:

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Kirchhoff’s Laws:
• Here, switch is in the ON state. Note that we have also labeled the current and
voltage variables associated with each resistor and the current associated with
the voltage source. Labeling includes reference polarities, as always.
• Also in the figure, we have inserted nodes. A node is a point where two or
more circuit elements meet. It is necessary to identify nodes in order to use
Kirchhoff's current law. In the figure, the nodes are labeled a, b, c, and d.
• Node d connects the battery and the lamp and in essence stretches all the way
across the top of the diagram, though we label a single point for convenience.
The dots on either side of the switch indicate its terminals, but only one is
needed to represent a node, so only one is labeled node c.
• For the circuit shown in the figure, we can identify seven unknowns:
𝑖𝑠 , 𝑖𝑐 , 𝑖1 , 𝑖𝑙 , 𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑐 , 𝑣𝑙 . Recall that 𝑣𝑠 is a known voltage, as it represents the sum
of the terminal voltages of the two dry cells, a constant voltage of 3 V. The
problem is to find the seven unknown variables. 24
Kirchhoff’s Laws: KCL
• From algebra, you know that to find n unknown quantities you must solve n
simultaneous independent equations. From our discussion of Ohm's law, you
know that three of the necessary equations are

• Then, we need 4 more equations for solution. Here, we use the Kirchhoff
Current Law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law, formulized by Gustav Kirchhoff in
1848.
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): The algebraic sum of all the currents at
any node in a circuit equals zero.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws: KCL
• To use Kirchhoff's current law, an algebraic sign corresponding to a reference
direction must be assigned to every current at the node. Assigning a positive
sign to a current leaving a node requires assigning a negative sign to a current
entering a node. Conversely, giving a negative sign to a current leaving a node
requires giving a positive sign to a current entering a node.
• Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the four nodes in the circuit shown in the
figure, using the convention that currents leaving a node are considered
positive, yields four equations:

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Kirchhoff’s Laws: KCL
• Eqs. 2.16-2.19 are not an independent set, because any one of the four can
be derived from the other three. In any circuit with n nodes, n — 1 independent
current equations can be derived from Kirchhoff’s current law. Let's disregard
Eq. 2.19 so that we have six independent equations, namely, Eqs. 2.13-2.18.
We need one more, which we can derive from Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
• Before we can state Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we must define a closed path or
loop. Starting at an arbitrarily selected node, we trace a closed path in a circuit
through selected basic circuit elements and return to the original node without
passing through any intermediate node more than once.
• Our circuit has only one closed path or loop. For example, choosing node a as
the starting point and tracing the circuit clockwise, we form the closed path by
moving through nodes d, c, b, and back to node a.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws: KVL
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of all the voltages
around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.
• To use Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we must assign an algebraic sign (reference
direction) to each voltage in the loop. As we trace a closed path, a voltage will
appear either as a rise or a drop in the tracing direction. Assigning a positive
sign to a voltage rise requires assigning a negative sign to a voltage drop.
Conversely, giving a negative sign to a voltage rise requires giving a positive
sign to a voltage drop.
• We now apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit shown in the figure. We
elect to trace the closed path clockwise, assigning a positive algebraic sign to
voltage drops. Starting at node d leads to the expression
𝑣𝑙 − 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑠 = 0.

• This is the seventh independent equation that we need.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws
• We need to make several observations about the detailed analysis of this
circuit.
• First, note that if you know the current in a resistor, you also know the voltage
across the resistor, because current and voltage are directly related through
Ohm's law. Thus you can associate one unknown variable with each
resistor, either the current or the voltage.
• In general, if you know the current in a passive element, you can find the
voltage across it, greatly reducing the number of simultaneous equations to be
solved.
• For example, in the flashlight circuit, we eliminate the voltages 𝑣𝑐 , 𝑣𝑙 , and 𝑣1 as
unknowns. Thus at the outset we reduce the analytical task to solving four
simultaneous equations rather than seven.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws
• The second general observation relates to the consequences of connecting
only two elements to form a node. According to Kirchhoff’s current law, when
only two elements connect to a node, if you know the current in one of the
elements, you also know it in the second element.
• In other words, you need to define only one unknown current for the two
elements. When just two elements connect at a single node, the elements are
said to be in series. The importance of this second observation is obvious
when you note that each node in the circuit shown in the circuit involves only
two elements. Thus you need to define only one unknown current.
• Then, we have
𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖1 = −𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖𝑙 .

• This means that choosing to 𝑖𝑐 as the unknown eliminates 𝑖1 , 𝑖𝑐 and 𝑖𝑙 . The

problem is reduced to determining one unknown, namely, 𝑖𝑠 .
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Example # 5:

Solution:

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Example # 6:

Solution:

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Example # 7:

Solution:

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Example # 7:

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Example # 7:

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Example # 8:

Solution:

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Example # 8:

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Example # 8:

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Solution of a Circuit with Kirchhoff’s Laws
• We want to use Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law to find 𝑣𝑜 in this circuit.

• By looking at the circuit, we can observe that:

1. Once we know 𝑖𝑜 , we can calculate 𝑣𝑜 using Ohm's law.
2. Once we know 𝑖Δ , we also know the current supplied by the dependent
source 5𝑖Δ .
3. The current in the 500 V source is 𝑖Δ .
• There are thus two unknown currents, 𝑖Δ and 𝑖o . We need to construct and
solve two independent equations involving these two currents to produce a
value for 𝑣𝑜 . 39
Solution of a Circuit with Kirchhoff’s Laws
• From the circuit, notice the closed path containing the voltage source, the 5 Ω
resistor, and the 20 Ω resistor. We can apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law
around this closed path. The resulting equation contains the two unknown
currents:.
500 = 5𝑖Δ + 20𝑖𝑜 (*)

• For the second equation containing these two currents, consider the closed
path formed by the 20 Ω resistor and the dependent current source.
• If we attempt to apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to this loop, we fail to
develop a useful equation, because we don't know the value of the voltage
across the dependent current source.
• In fact, the voltage across the dependent source is 𝑣𝑜 , which is the voltage we
are trying to compute. So, we cannot use this loop to write a KVL.
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Solution of a Circuit with Kirchhoff’s Laws
• So we turn to Kirchhoff’s current law to generate the second equation.
There are three nodes in the circuit. The current is the same for node a.
• Either node b or node c can be used to construct the second equation from
Kirchhoff’s current law. We select node b and produce the following equation:
𝑖𝑜 = 𝑖Δ + 5𝑖Δ .

• Solving with (*), we get 𝑖Δ = 4 A and 𝑖𝑜 = 24 A. Then, 𝑣𝑜 = 20𝑖𝑜 = 480V.

• This example shows that not every closed path provides an opportunity to
write a useful equation based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Also, not every
node provides for a useful application of Kirchhoff’s current law. Some
preliminary thinking about the problem can help in selecting the most fruitful
approach and the most useful analysis tools for a particular problem.

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Example # 9:

Solution:

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Example # 9:

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