INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
1. INSTRUMENT SYSTEM MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
Aircraft instruments can, on initial observation,
AEROPLANE
appear a bewildering mass of dials or 'TV '
type screens. The different types of instrumentation
AERODYNAMICS, required fall into one of the following
types: STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.1 Pressure
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31)
instruments.
Aircraft instruments can, on initial observation, appear a bewildering mass of dials
[Link] Compasses.
'TV ' type screens. The different types of instrumentation required fall into one
of the following types:
3. Gyroscopic instruments
1. Pressure instruments. 2. Gyroscopic instruments
4. Mechanical indicators
3. Compasses. 4. Mechanical indicators

5. Electronic instruments 5. Electronic instruments

1.1 1.1THETHE
ATMOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERE

A relatively thin layer of air called the atmosphere surrounds the earth. This
A relatively thin layer of air called the atmosphere surrounds the earth. This extends
extends upwards from the surface for a distance of about 250 miles and is
upwards from the
composed surface
mainly for a distance
of nitrogen of about21%
78%, oxygen 250plus
miles1%and
of is composed
other mainly of
gases which
nitrogen 78%, amongst
includes oxygen 21% plusargon,
others, 1% of carbon
other gases which
dioxide andincludes
helium. amongst
Under theothers, argon,
carbon dioxide andeffect
gravitational helium.
of theUnder the
earth, thegravitational
atmosphereeffect
exertsofathe earth,upon
pressure the atmosphere
the
exertssurface
a pressure
of theupon theThis
earth. surface of theifearth.
pressure, This pressure,
measured if measured
at sea level, at sea level, it is
it is approximately
2
1.013bar (14.7lbf/in ), and reduces with height.
approximately 1.013bar (14.7lbf/in2 ), and reduces with height.
The pressure reduction, is not linear, the rate of pressure reduction decreases
The pressure reduction,
with a rise in altitudeis to
not linear,
form the rate of pressure
an exponential reduction decreases
curve. Temperature and waterwith a rise in
altitude to form
vapour an the
within exponential [Link]
air also affects Temperature
pressure ofand
the water vapour
air, and within
therefore thethe air also
height
affects
at the pressure
which of thepressure
a particular air, and therefore the heightFigure
can be measured. at which a particular
1 shows a pressure can
Height/pressure
be measured. Figure 1graph.
shows a Height/pressure graph.
65

60

55 AT 8,000ft
240mb
50

45
HEIGHT X 1000ft

40

35

30
AT 8,000ft
750mb
25
AT SEA
20 LEVEL
1013mb
15

10

0
0 .100 .200 .300 .400 .500 .600 .700 .800 .900 1.000
AIR PRESSURE IN BARS

Height/PressureGraph
Height/Pressure Graph
Figure11
Figure

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-1

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Temperature change within the atmosphere can be divided into 3 bands,

corresponding to the 3 layers or regions of the atmosphere:

1. The Troposphere.

2. The Stratosphere.

3. The Chemosphere.

Figure 2 shows three bands of the atmosphere.

+22.473°
135 140,000ft
CHEMOSPHERE -
125 TEMPERATURE INCREASES AT
APPROXIMATELY 2.256°C FOR
AN INCREASE IN HEIGHT OF
115 1000ft

STRATOPAUSE 104,987ft
105
-56.5°
95
85
ALTITUDE FEET X 1000

75
STRATOPHERE - TEMPERATURE
UPPER LIMIT OF ICAO ISA 65,800ftt AT -56.5°C
65
55
45
TROPOPAUSE 36,090ft
35
-56.5°
25
TROPOSPHERE - TEMPERATURE
15 DECREASES 1.98°C FOR AN
INCREASE IN HEIGHT OF 1000ft

5
+15°
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
TEMPERATURE (DEGREES C)

Atmosphere Bands
Atmosphere
Figure 2
Bands
Figure 2

Page 1-2 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

The height of these layers varies considerably with latitude and the season. It is assumed
that the troposphere extends to a height of 36,090ft and has a temperature gradient falling
at a linear rate to –56.5ºC at 36,090ft. The stratosphere is assumed to range from 36,090ft
to 104,987ft and to have a constant temperature of –56.5ºC. Above this is the
Chemosphere, extending to the limits of the atmosphere and which is assumed to have a
temperature gradient, which initially rises approximately 2ºC for each 1000ft of altitude. For
the purpose of aircraft pressure instruments, these higher levels are not important.

1.1.1 STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

To be able to produce an instrument capable of accurately measuring aircraft height (and

speed) using only the prevailing atmospheric pressure, requires that the instrument be
calibrated and tested against a set of standard conditions. Standard atmospheres have been
in use since 1800‟s. the early ones being based on very simple temperature laws. During
WW1, these were found to be inadequate, this led to the development and the
international acceptance in 1924 of the International Committee on Air Navigation (ICAN)
standard. This standard was adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
in 1952.

Advances in aircraft performance and the introduction of missiles highlighted the need for
an increase in the altitude range of the standard atmosphere, the ICAO limit being 65,000ft.
This introduced two further standards to supplement the ICAO standard, these being the
Wright Air Development Centre (WADC) and the Air Research Development Command
(ARDC). Table 1 shows the comparison of the standard atmospheres.
 need for an increase in the altitude range of the standard atmosphere, the ICAO
limit being 65,000ft. This introduced two further standards to supplement the
ICAO standard, these being the Wright Air Development Centre (WADC) and the
Air Research Development Command (ARDC). Table 1 shows the comparison of
the standard atmospheres.

Height in feet Air Pressure in Millibars

x 1000 ICAN ICAO WADC ARDC
0 1013.25 1013.25 1013.25 1013.25
10 696.91 696.81 696.81 696.91
20 465.63 465.63 465.63 465.63
30 301.89 300.01 300.89 300.89
40 187.61 187.54 187.54 188.23
50 115.81 115.97 115.97 115.97
60 71.79 71.72 71.72 71.716
70 44.36 - 44.35 44.438
80 - - 27.43 27.425
90 - - 16.96 17.067
100 - - 10.49 10.820
110 - - 6.53 6.981
120 - - 4.22 4.5779
130 - - 2.84 3.0476
140 - - 1.97 2.0575
150 - - - 1.4650
160 - - - 0.9727
Table
Table 11

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-3

1.2 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

1.2.1 AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS

An Air Data system of an aircraft is one which the total pressure created by the forward
motion of an aircraft, and the static pressure of the atmosphere surrounding it, are sensed
and measured in terms of speed, altitude and rate of change of altitude. The measurement
and indication of these three parameters may be achieved by connecting the appropriate
sensors, either directly to mechanical-type instruments, or to a remotely-located Air Data
Computer (ADC), which then transmits the data in electrical signal format to electro-
mechanical or servo-type instruments.

The basic Air Data Instruments display airspeed, altitude, Mach number and vertical speed.
All are calculated from air pressure received from a Pitot/Static source.

1. Static air pressure, which is simply the outside air pressure at the instant of
measuring.

2. Pitot pressure is the dynamic pressure of the air due to the forward motion of the
aircraft and is measured using a tube, which faces the direction of travel.
 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 3 shows a Pressure head as fitted to aircraft to allow Pitot and Static
Figure 3 shows
pressures a Pressure
to the head
relevant as fitted to aircraft to allow Pitot and Static pressures to the
indicators.
relevant indicators.

STATIC LINE
PITOT LINE

HEATER
CONNECTION

FORWARD

PITOT PROBE STATIC VENTS

Aircraft Pressure Head Figure 3

Aircraft Pressure Head

Indicated Airspeed (IAS), Mach No, Barometric Height (Height above sea level), and Vertical
Figure 3
speed (Rate of climb/dive) are derived from the Pitot/Static inputs.
Indicated Airspeed (IAS), Mach No, Barometric Height (Height above sea level),
[Link]
IAS = Pitot minus
speed Static
(Rate of -climb/dive)
(In knots). are derived from the Pitot/Static inputs.

2. Mach No1.= Pitot

IAS =- Static
Pitot divided by Static.
minus Static - (In knots).

3. Baro Ht =[Link]
Mach - (In
Nofeet).
= Pitot - Static divided by Static.

4. Vertical 3. Baro
Speed Ht = Static
= Change - (Inpressure
in Static feet). - (X 1000ft/min).

4. Vertical Speed = Change in Static pressure - (X 1000ft/min).

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-5

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 4 shows typical aircraft static vent:

Figure 4 shows typical aircraft static vent:

FUSELAGE

STATIC
VENT

STATIC
PIPE

Aircraft Static Vent

Figure 4

Aircraft Static Vent

Figure 4

Page 1-6 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.2.2 LOCATION OF PROBES AND STATIC VENTS

1.2.2 LOCATION OF PROBES AND STATIC VENTS
The choice of probe/vent locations is largely dependent on the type of aircraft,
speed range and aerodynamic characteristics, and as result there is no common
The choice of probe/vent locations is largely dependent on the type of aircraft, speed range
standard for all aircraft. On larger aircraft it is normal to have standby probes and
and aerodynamic characteristics, and as result there is no common standard for all aircraft.
static vents. These are always located one on each side of the fuselage and are
On larger aircraft
interconnected soitas
is to
normal to have
balance out standby
dynamicprobes and static
pressure effectsvents. Thesefrom
resulting are always
any
located one on each side of the fuselage
Yawing or side-slip motion of the aircraft. and are interconnected so as to balance out
dynamic pressure effects resulting from any Yawing or side-slip motion of the aircraft.
Figure 5 shows the location of probes and vents on a Boeing 737.
Figure 5 shows the location of probes and vents on a Boeing 737.

Boeing 737 Air Data Probe and Vent Location

Boeing 737 Air Data Probe
Figureand
5 Vent Location
Figure 5
Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and corrosion resistant metal
Pitot
(lightand static
alloy) pressures
pipelines. arepipelines
Flexible transmitted through
are also usedseamless and corrosion-
when connections to components
resistant metal (light alloy) pipelines. Flexible pipelines are also used when
mounted on anti-vibration mountings is required. In order for an Air Data System to operate
connections to components mounted on anti-vibration mountings is required. In
effectively under all flight conditions, provision must also be made for the elimination of
order for an Air Data System to operate effectively under all flight conditions,
water that
provision mayalso
must enter
bethe system
made for as
thea result of condensation,
elimination of water thatrain, snow,
may [Link]
enter This will
reduceas
system theaprobability of “Slugs” of water
result of condensation, rain,blocking the lines.
snow, etc. This This provision
will reduce takes the form of
the
drain holes in the probes, drain taps and valves in the system’s pipelines. The drain holes
within
drain the probes
holes are of diameter
in the probes, so asand
drain taps notvalves
to introduce
i errors into the system.
drain holes within the probes are of diameter so as not to introduce errors into the
system.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-7

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Methods of draining the pipelines varies between aircraft types and are designed to have a
Methods of draining the pipelines varies between aircraft types and are designed
capacity sufficient to allow for the accumulation of the maximum amount of water that
to have a capacity sufficient to allow for the accumulation of the maximum
could enter the system between maintenance periods. Figure 6 shows a typical water drain
amount of water that could enter the system between maintenance periods.
valve. 6 shows a typical water drain valve.
Figure

ORANGE
TRANSPARENT FLOAT
PLASTIC PIPE INDICATOR

DRAIN
BAYONET
VALVE
FITTING
(SELF SEALING) CAP

Water Drain Valve

Figure 6

Water
The three primary instruments in the Air Drain Valve are:
Data System
Figure 6
1. Altimeter (Baro Ht).
The three primary instruments in the Air Data System are:
2. Indicated Air Speed (IAS) Indicator.
1. Altimeter (Baro Ht).
3. Vertical Speed Indicator. Air Speed (IAS) Indicator.
2. Indicated
The IAS is often combined to display
3. Vertical SpeedMach No as well as indicated airspeed and is referred
Indicator.
to as the “Combined Speed Indicator”.
The IAS is often combined to display Mach No as well as indicated airspeed and

Page 1-8 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 7 shows the connection and equations for the primary Air Data
instruments.

Figure 7 shows the connection and equations for the primary Air Data instruments.

Air Data Instrumentation

Figure 7

Air Data Instrumentation

Figure 7

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-9

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.3 ALTIMETERS
1.3 ALTIMETERS
1.3.1 ANEROID BAROMETER
Inits
In its simplest
simplest form,
form,ififaamembrane
membrane oror
pressure
pressuresensitive
sensitivecapsule is to be
capsule used
is to beto measure
used to
pressure, it usually forms part of a sealed capsule. If the capsule
measure pressure, it usually forms part of a sealed capsule. If the capsule is is evacuated, the
atmosphericthe
evacuated, pressure on the outside
atmospheric pressureof the capsule
on the will force
outside of thethe capsulewill
capsule intoforce
the chamber
the
until its resistance is sufficient to support the atmospheric pressure.
capsule into the chamber until its resistance is sufficient to support the The greater the
atmospheric pressure
atmospheric pressure. theThe
greater the movement
greater of the capsule,
the atmospheric pressure before a balance
the greater theis
attained, and
movement of vice versa.
the capsule, before a balance is attained, and vice versa.

IfIfaa linkage mechanismis is

linkage mechanism attached
attached to the
to the membrane,
membrane, this this movement
movement can
can be be
transmitted to
transmitted to a pointer to reflect the movement of the capsule. This then is the
a pointer to reflect the movement of the capsule. This then is the principle upon which the
principle upon which
aneroid barometer the aneroid
is based for the barometer is based
measurement for the measurement
of atmospheric of8 shows a
pressure. Figure
atmospheric pressure.
simplified aneroid Figure 8 shows a simplified aneroid barometer.
barometer.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

PIVOT

CAPSULE STACK

Simplified Aneroid Barometer

Figure 8
Simplified Aneroid Barometer
Figure 8

Page 1-10 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Altitude measurements require little change in the basic instrument configuration to enable
barometric
Altitude pressure (atmospheric
measurements requirepressure) to bein
little change translated
the basicinto aircraft altitude.
instrument Figure 9
configuration
shows a simplified
to enable mechanism
barometric of a directly
pressure operated
(atmospheric capsule to
pressure) altimeter.
be translated into
aircraft altitude. Figure 9 shows a simplified mechanism of a directly operated
capsule altimeter.

AIRTIGHT POINTER
INSTRUMENT
CASE

EXTERNAL STILL
AIR PRESSURE
(STATIC)

CAPSULE STACK

Simplified Altimeter
FigureAltimeter
Simplified 9
Figure 9

It consists of anofairtight
It consists instrument
an airtight instrumentcase case
containing an evacuated
containing capsulecapsule
an evacuated stack. The capsule
stack.
stack
Theis connected
capsule stack by a is
system of levers
connected by and gears to
a system of alevers
pointer
and which,
gearsmoves over a scale
to a pointer
which, in
calibrated moves over a scale
feet. External calibrated
still air in feet. isExternal
(static) pressure fed in tostill
theair (static) pressure
instrument is as
case so that
fed in to the instrument case so that as the aircraft climbs the pressure
the aircraft climbs the pressure in the case falls, allowing the capsule to expand. This motion in the
caseused
is then falls,
byallowing
the systemtheof
capsule to expand.
levers and This motion
gears to drive is then
the pointer overused by the
the dial. When the
system of levers and gears to drive
aircraft loses altitude, the reverse happens. the pointer over the dial. When the aircraft
loses altitude, the reverse happens.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-11

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 10 shows the face of a barometric altimeter .
Figure 10 shows the face of a barometric altimeter .

3 - POINTER ALTIMETER

SINGLEPOINTER ALTIMETER

Barometric Altimeter
Barometric
FigureAltimeter
10
Figure 10

Page 1-12 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.3.2 FRICTION COMPENSATION

1.3.2 FRICTION COMPENSATION
Friction in the gearing of a simple altimeter cannot truly be compensated for,
Friction in theitgearing
however, of a simple
is reduced as muchaltimeter cannot by
as possible truly be compensated
careful design andfor, however, it is
meticulous
reduced
attention to cleanliness and finish during manufacture. The rate of responseand
as much as possible by careful design and meticulous attention to cleanliness of
finish
the instrument to capsule movement can be further improved, when consideredcan
during manufacture. The rate of response of the instrument to capsule movement
be necessary,
further improved,
by thewhen
use considered necessary,
of a vibrator. by thehelps
This simply use ofprevent
a vibrator.
theThis simply helps
mechanism
prevent
from the mechanism from sticking.
sticking.

1.3.3
1.3.3 TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
COMPENSATION

Temperature
Temperature affects
affects the strength
the strength of theofmaterials
the materials
used inused in the manufacture
the manufacture of the
of the capsules
andcapsules and springs,
springs, causing them tocausing
becomethem to become
stronger stronger
as temperature as temperature
decreases. The overall effect
decreases. The overall effect of this is that with a drop
of this is that with a drop in temperature the capsule stack will tend in temperature the the
to extend, with
capsule
result stack
that the will tendwill
instrument to over-read.
extend, with the result
Conversely, thatinthe
a rise instrumentcauses
temperature will over-read.
the
Conversely, a rise in temperature causes the capsule stack to contract and the
capsule stack to contract and the instrument under-read. There are two main methods
instrument under-read. There are two main methods employed to compensate
employed to compensate for this temperature-induced variations in readings, both of which
for this temperature-induced variations in readings, both of which use a bi-
usemetallic
a bimetallic element
element as the
as the compensatingmechanism.
compensating mechanism.

The first method used is to mount the capsule stack within a “U” shaped bimetallic bracket, -
themetallic
open end of which is connected to the top of the capsule stack by
bracket, the open end of which is connected to the top of the capsulepins. The composition
of the b-metallic
stack by [Link] is arranged so
The composition of that with a dropbrackets
the b-metallic in temperature the limbs
is arranged tendwith
so that to
move inwards, exerting a compressive force onto the capsule stack, in
a drop in temperature the limbs tend to move inwards, exerting a compressive opposition to the
tendency of thethe
force onto capsule
capsulestack to expand
stack, with a falltointhe
in opposition temperature.
tendency of Figure 11 showsstack
the capsule the “U”to
bracket method of temperature compensation. ket method of
temperature compensation.

DROP IN TEMPERATURE
LIMBS MOVE INWARDS
EXERTING A COMPRESSIVE
FORCE ONTO THE CASULE STACK

CASULE
STACK

BIMETAL

Temperature
Temperature Compensation
Compensation – “U” Bracket Figure 11
Figure 11

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-13

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
The second method employed to compensateAEROPLANE for changes in temperature of the capsule
stack is to introduce a bi-metallic link into the system of levers used to transmit capsule
AERODYNAMICS,
movement to the instrument’s pointers. In this instance,
STRUCTURES a “U” shaped bi-metallic link has
& SYSTEMS
been introduced. This effectively alters the length of the linkage to compensate for the
Theof
tendency second method
the capsule employed
stack to expandtoorcompensate
contract withfor changes
changes in temperature
in temperature. of the
Figure 12
capsule stack is to introduce a bi-metallic
shows the bi-metallic compensating link method. link into the system of levers used to
transmit
shaped bi-metallic link has been introduced. This effectively alters the length of
the linkage to compensate for the tendency of the capsule stack to expand or
contract with changes in temperature. Figure 12 shows the bi-metallic
compensating link method.

CAPSULE

BIMETAL
COMPENSATING
LINK

Bi-metallic Compensating Link

Figure
Bi-metallic 12
Compensating Link
Figure 12

Page 1-14 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.3.4
1.3.4PRESSURE COMPENSATION
PRESSURE COMPENSATION
All
Allaircraft
aircraftpressure
pressure operated
operatedaltimeters,
altimeters,are calibrated to onetoofone
are calibrated theof
standard atmospheres,
the standard
and will provide an accurate altitude indication providing that
atmospheres, and will provide an accurate altitude indication providing that the atmospheric pressure
the
prevailing conforms to the standard atmosphere. Anyone who
atmospheric pressure prevailing conforms to the standard atmosphere. Anyone is familiar with the weather
forecast
who is on TV willwith
familiar realise
the that the atmospheric
weather forecast onpressure is alwaysthat
TV will realise changing at any given
the atmospheric
point, as well
pressure is as varying
always from area
changing attoanyarea. We point,
given are notasconcerned with thefrom
well as varying reasons
areawhy
to this
happens,
area. We only thenot
are effect this has on
concerned the
with thealtimeter.
reasons why this happens, only the effect
this has on the altimeter.
Under standard conditions, at sea level with an ambient atmospheric pressure of 1013.25
Under standard
millibars, conditions,
an altimeter calibrated attosea
thelevel
ICAOwith an ambient
standard atmospheric
atmosphere pressure
would indicate zerooffeet.
If1013.25 millibars,
the sea level pressurean remains
altimeterconstant
calibrated to the ICAO
at 1013.15 standard
millibars, atmosphere
the altimeter would
indications
indicate zero feet. If the sea level
would correspond to the ICAO pressure standards. pressure remains constant at 1013.15
millibars, the altimeter indications would correspond to the ICAO pressure
standards.
However, standard atmospheric conditions rarely prevail and variations in sea-level pressure
will result in variations in the indicated altitude. For example, if the sea-level pressure falls
However, standard atmospheric conditions rarely prevail and variations in sea-
tolevel
1010pressure
millibars,will
then the capsule
result stack would
in variations in thesense this decrease
indicated [Link] and expand,
example, if the
showing an error of +100ft. A corresponding change in sea-level
sea-level pressure falls to 1010 millibars, then the capsule stack would sense this pressure to 1016.55
millibars
decrease would cause an and
in pressure errorexpand,
reading of –100ft. an
showing At this
errorheight, one-millibar
of +100ft. change in
A corresponding
pressure
changecorresponds
in sea-leveltopressure
a 30ft change in altitude,
to 1016.55 but aswould
millibars altitude
causeincreases so does
an error the of
reading
error. ThisAt
100ft. is shown in figure
this height, 13.
one-millibar change in pressure corresponds to a 30ft
change in altitude, but as altitude increases so does the error. This is shown in
figure 13.

ICAO PRESSURE PRESSURE

STANDARD DROP RISE

+100ft
ERROR

Ht 5,000ft

843.21

-100ft
ERROR

SEA LEVEL SEA LEVEL SEA LEVEL

1013.25 1010.00 1016.55

A1 A2 A3
PressureCompensation
Pressure Compensation
Figure
Figure 13
13

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-15

The ICAO standard atmosphere also assumes a temperature of 15°C at sea level and a
temperature drop (lapse rate)of 1.98°C per 1000ft up to 36,090ft, it then remains at a
constant temperature of –56.5°C. If the lapse rate differs from this assumption then even a
correctly set altimeter will indicate an error when an aircraft flies into an area where air
temperature is higher or lower than that expected.

Assuming the same sea-level pressures, the pressure at a certain height over a column of
cold air is less than the pressure over a column of warm air at the same height. This is
because cold air is denser than warm air. Therefore, in these conditions, an altimeter will
over-read in air colder than standard conditions and under-read in air warmer than standard
conditions.

To help overcome these problems, the altimeter is fitted with a mechanism which enables
the instrument datum can be adjusted to the prevailing barometric pressure. This
mechanism consists of a system of gears within the instrument, which is controlled by a
knob on the face of the instrument. This knob, called the “Ground Pressure Setting Knob”,
allows the instrument datum and therefore the indicator pointers be repositioned without
affecting the capsule stack. At the same time, an indicator, usually calibrated in millibars,
will rotate to display the instrument datum setting. This indicator, known as the
“Baroscale”, can be displayed as a linear scale but more commonly displayed using a Veeder
counter viewed through an aperture in the indicator face.

The altimeter may be adjusted by the ground engineers to the prevailing atmospheric
pressure before take-off, but is more commonly adjusted by the flight crew, who will obtain
information regarding the prevailing atmospheric pressure from flight maps and from the
local Air Traffic Control (ATC) via the aircraft’s VHF communication system. The information
obtained in this way is given in the form of radio “Q” codes, the most important of which
are:

QFE – Airfield barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set to this will read zero
feet when landing or taking-off at the airport for which the QFE was given.

QNH – Actual sea-level barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set to this will
indicate height above mean sea-level (MSL).

QNE – Standard sea-level barometric pressure (1013.25). Altimeters with the baroscale set
to 1013.25 will indicate “Standard Pressure Altitude”.

QFE is normally set into the altimeter before take-off and on approach before landing at any
particular airport. QNH is normally set into the altimeter when the aircraft is below 3,000.
QNE set into the altimeter when the aircraft is above 3,000ft.
 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 14 shows the Radio “Q” Codes for atmospheric pressure.

pressure.

STANDARD SETTING
FLIGHT LEVEL

1013.25 MILLIBARS
QNE

SEA LEVEL
HEIGHT ABOVE
SEA LEVEL
QNH

HEIGHT ABOVE
AIRFIELD
QFE

Radio “Q” Codes

Figure14
Figure 14

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-17

1.4 SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETERS

Despite the use of a vibrator mechanism to enhance its response, the basic altimeter
becomes increasingly inaccurate with height. This results directly from the non-linear
changes in atmospheric pressure, with changes in altitude. For example, the pressure drop
from sea level to 1000ft is 36.08mb, whereas from 50,000ft to 51,000ft the pressure drop is
only 5.44mb.

In addition to the errors caused by friction, the reduced pressure changes as height
increases also exaggerates the errors which result from capsule hysteresis and creepage.
Hysteresis occurs when the capsule movement lags behind the pressure change causing the
motion. Creepage is the tendency for the capsule to readjust itself without a pressure
change occurring.

1.4.1 GENERAL

The errors within the basic altimeter can be reduced to acceptable levels by minimising the
work done by the capsule. This is achieved by interposing a servo-assistance mechanism
between the capsule stack and the gearing mechanism. The other main difference between
the servo assisted altimeter and the basic altimeter is the dial presentation. This consists of
a single pointer moving over a scale calibrated from 0-1000ft in 50ft divisions and a veeder
digital counter, which records height up to 99,950ft which again is displayed in 50ft
increments.

Two main methods are used to provide servo-assistance for the basic altimeter.

1. Direct Servo-Control.

2. Pressure Reverting Servo-Control.

Direct Servo-Control: The servomechanism is operated directly from the capsule stack, with
no mechanical link between the capsule stack and the gearing. Consequently, there is no
back-up mechanical operation of the instrument in the event of a failure.

Pressure reverting Servo-Control: The servomechanism is controlled from a remote

pressure sensor, and a mechanical connection between the capsule and the gearing is
retained to allow reversion to mechanical operation (pressure reverting) in the event of a
power failure.
 STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.5 DIRECT SERVO ALTIMETER

1.5 DIRECT SERVO ALTIMETER

ition
-motor, is wound as a transformer,
Referring to figure
with the 15, coil
primary the “I”
on bar
theof the transducer
centre limb and isthe
connected
secondaryto the capsule
coils wound stack and
in series
pivoted so that “I” bar position will change as the capsule expand and contract
opposition onto the outer limbs. The primary is supplied via a transformer from in response
to a change
the of altitude. The “E” core, whose position relative to the “I” bar is controlled by
the servo-motor,
Altimeter. is wound as a transformer, with the primary coil on the centre limb and
the secondary coils wound in series opposition onto the outer limbs. The primary is supplied
via a transformer from the aircraft’s 115V 400Hz supply. Figure 15 shows the face of a direct
reading Altimeter.

Direct Reading Altimeter

Figure 15

Direct Reading Altimeter

Figure 15

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-19

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 16 shows a schematic diagram of a direct reading servo-controlled altimeter.
Figure 16 shows a schematic diagram of a direct reading servo-controlled
altimeter.
400Hz
115V

CAPSULES
TRANSFORMER

SERVO
AMP

FOLLOWER

LEVER
CAM

ADJUSTING BAR
WORM GEAR

MILLIBAR
SHAFT
MOTOR

OVERRUN
SWITCH

COUNTERS
MILLIBAR
COUNTERS
HEIGHT

SETTING KNOB
SOLENOID

PRESSURE
GROUND
WARNING

POINTER
FLAG

Direct Reading Servo-Controlled Altimeter – Schematic

Figure 16
Direct Reading Servo-Controlled Altimeter Schematic
Figure 16

Page 1-20 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Providing the “I” bar is equidistant from the “E” bar limbs, the resultant output from the
secondary
fromcoils
the will be [Link]
secondary However, when However,
will be zero. a change of altitude
when occurs,
a change the “I” bar will
of altitude
pivot to follow the capsule movement and consequently the air gaps between the ntlyouter
the
limbs of the “E” bar and the “I” bar will become unequal. The magnetic flux in the outer limb
with theunequal. Thewill
smaller gap magnetic
increasefluxand
in the
theouter limbvoltage
induced with theon
smaller gap will
that limb willincrease
also increase.
and the induced voltage on that limb will also increase. The opposite effect
The opposite effect occurs in the other outer limb. This results in an output voltage, the
occurs in the other outer limb. This results in an output voltage, the magnitude
magnitude
and and
phasephase of which
of which dependsdepends
uponupon the amount
the amount and direction
and direction of the movement
of the movement of of
the “I” bar. This output voltage is fed via an amplifier to the control winding of a two-phase
AC servo-motor.
two-phaseFigure 17 shows the operation of the “E” & “I” transducer for increases and
AC servo-motor
decrease of [Link] increases and decrease of height.
transducer

A LT I TU D E A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT R IS IN G
(L O W L E V E L ) (L O W L E V E L )

A .C . A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y SU PP L Y

R E S U LT AN T R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM W A V E FO RM

A LT I TU D E A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT F A L L IN G
(H IG H L E V E L) (H IG H L E V E L)

A .C . A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y SU PP L Y

R E S U LT AN T R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM W A V E FO RM

“E” & “I” Bar Operation

Figure 17

Figure 17

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-21

The two-phase AC motor has its main winding supplied with a constant reference voltage
from the transformer. When the “I” bar is displaced by the movement of the capsules, the
resultant voltage output to the servo-motor control winding either lags or leads the
reference voltage. This sets up a rotating field in the motor, which causes it to rotate in a
direction such that the pointer and digital counter moves in the correct sense to indicate the
increase or decrease in altitude. At the same time the servo-motor drives the cam and cam
follower which re-positions the “E” bar to equalise the air gaps between the “E” bar cores
and the “I” bar, thus reducing the transducer output to zero when the aircraft’s height
stabilises.

As the motor only drives the indicator, any power failure will result in the indication
remaining at the height shown when the power failed. For this reason a “Power Failure
Warning Indicator” (PFWI) is fitted to the instrument. The PFWI takes the form of a spring-
loaded flag, which is held out of view by solenoid action while the power is connected. Any
power failure removes the supply from the solenoid, allowing the flag to be returned into
view by the spring action.

To prevent the servomotor overrunning and damaging the altimeter mechanism, an overrun
limit switch is incorporated. When the cam reaches a predetermined position, a stud on the
side of the cam makes contact with the limit switch, opens its contacts and disconnects the
electrical supply from the altimeter. The servomotor stops and the PFWI comes into view.

1.5.1 DATUM PRESSURE SETTING

As with the basic altimeter, a “Ground Pressure Setting Knob” (GPSK) is provided to allow
the various “Q” codes to be set into the instrument. When this knob is rotated, the veeder
counter is turned by the associated gear train to show the millibars set. Rotation of the knob
also alters the setting of the millibar adjustment rod; this moves the millibar lever about its
pivot causing the worm gear to move laterally. Movement of the worm gear shaft in this
way rotates the differential gear, cam and cam follower, displacing the “E” bar relative to
the “I” bar. An error signal is therefore generated and fed via the amplifier to the
servomotor, driving the indicator gear train, the worm gear cam and cam follower and the
“E” bar back to the zero output position. The altimeter now shows aircraft altitude with
respect to the ground pressure set onto the baroscale.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.6 PRESSURE REVERTING SERVO ALTIMETER

1.6 PRESSURE REVERTING SERVO ALTIMETER
This type of altimeter is servo assisted with automatic reversion to mechanical
This type of altimeter
operation is servo assisted
from the capsule stack inwith
the automatic reversion
event of power to mechanical
or other [Link]
The
servo-assistance
from takes
the capsule stack theevent
in the formofofpower
a control transformer
or other (synchro),
failures. The amplifier takes
servo-assistance and
a two
the formphase drag cup
of a control motor connected
transformer (synchro), to the gearing
amplifier mechanism
and a two phase dragbetween the
cup motor
capsule stack and the indicator pointer and counter. Figure 18 shows
connected to the gearing mechanism between the capsule stack and the indicator pointer the face
of acounter.
and pressure reverting
Figure 18 shows altimeter.
the face of a pressure reverting altimeter.

Pressure Reverting Altimeter

Figure 18

In the servo mode of operation, the altimeter is connected to a master altimeter or Air data
Computer (ADC), which provides a signalReverting
Pressure so that theAltimeter
altimeter gives a corrected indication of
the aircraft’s altitude. When the standbyFigure
mode is18selected, or in the event of a failure, the
altimeter will operate as an unassisted basic precision altimeter. A vibrator mechanism is
In the
also servo mode
incorporated of operation,
within thetoaltimeter
the altimeter is connected
help reduce the effects to
of afriction
master altimeter
when or
operating
Air data Computer
in the standby mode. (ADC), which provides a signal so that the altimeter gives a
corrected indication of the aircraf
or in the event of a failure, the altimeter will operate as an unassisted basic
precision altimeter. A vibrator mechanism is also incorporated within the
altimeter to help reduce the effects of friction when operating in the standby
mode.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-23

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 1919
Figure shows a schematic
shows of the
a schematic ofpressure reverting
the pressure altimeter.
reverting altimeter.

MILLIBAR
SETTING
POINTER

KNOB
COUNTER
MILLIBAR
COUNTERS
HEIGHT

BACKLASH
GEAR
ANTI
MOTOR
DRAG
CUP

TRANSFORMER
CONTROL
SERVO
AMP

SYNCHRO
SIGNAL
ALTITUDE SIGNAL
FROM ADC
CX

MECHANISM
CAPSULE

Pressure Reverting Altimeter

Figure 19
Pressure Reverting Altimeter
Figure 19

Page 1-24 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

1.6.1 SERVO MODE –OPERATION

With power on, the altimeter functions in the standby mode until the altimeter is switched
to servo motor by momentarily turning the mode selector switch to the “RESET” position.
This via a self-maintaining relay circuit (nor shown), connects the power to the amplifier and
drag cup motor circuits, and retracts the standby flag from view. A corrected altitude signal
generated by a synchro transmitter in the master altimeter or ADC, is fed to the stator of
the control transformer (CT). This gives an error signal related to the difference between the
position of the stator’s magnetic field and the position of the rotor coil. Provided these are
aligned at 90º to each other a null error signal is produced. The rotor position is initially
determined by capsule displacement.

Provided the rotor position and the CT stator input signal position remain at 90º, no error
signal is produced, however, when the rotor position is out of alignment with respect to the
input signal position an error signal is produced. This error signal is fed to the amplifier and
then fed to the control phase of the two-phase drag cup motor. The motor, which is
connected to the altimeter’s gearing mechanism now assists the capsules to drive the
indicator to the correct reading and also to align the CT rotor to the nil error position
stopping the motor. Thus as the CT rotor is always driven to the nil error position, the
indications produced by the instrument reflect the input signal position generated by the
master altimeter or ADC.

1.6.2 STANDBY MODE – OPERATION

The altimeter is fitted with a failsafe detection circuit, which automatically returns the
altimeter to the standby mode under any one of the following conditions:

1. AC power failure.

2. Servo Motor failure.

3. Amplifier failure.

4. Detection circuit failure.

Difference at sea-level between the input signal and standby altimeter of more than 4,000ft
(difference increases with an increase of altitude).

Under these conditions, the main AC supply is isolated, the standby flag drops into view and
the vibrator is energised.

In addition to the circumstances listed above, the standby mode can be selected by
momentarily setting the mode selector switch to “STANDBY”. This interrupts the supply and
allows the self-maintaining relay to de-energise thus isolating the main supply. This action
completes the DC supply circuit for the vibrator and returns the standby flag into view.
A change in static pressure resulting from a change in altitude causes the capsule to expand
or contract. This motion is then used to drive the indicator pointer and drum counter to
indicate barometric altitude. Although the motor and control transformer are permanently
connected to the gearing, because of their small size and low friction, they impose negligible
additional friction upon the system.

1.6.3 DATUM PRESSURE SETTING

The “Q” codes can be set into the altimeter using the millibar setting knob. The knob when
turned adjusts the millibar scale, the capsule position and, via bevel gear and worm drive
the stator of the CT. Thus the rotation of the setting knob causes simultaneous adjustment
of the millibar scale, the capsule mechanism, the pointer and counter and the CT stator. It is
necessary to simultaneously adjust the CT stator with the CT rotor (via capsule mechanism)
to ensure that inputs from the master altimeter or ADC are not affected.

1.7 CABIN ALTIMETERS

In addition to the aircraft altimeters, most passenger aircraft also carry a cabin altimeter.
This is to enable the flight crew to monitor the pressurisation of the cabin environment
control system. This type of instrument is a single pointer instrument with a range of zero
feet to 20,000ft. The instrument’s case is unsealed (vented to cabin pressure) and is
normally only proved with compensation for temperature fluctuation. As a consequence, it
suffers from errors due to changes in atmospheric conditions from the standard atmosphere
to which it is calibrated. In spite of this, the accuracy of the instrument is better than ±500ft,
which is sufficient for its normal application.
 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 20 shows
Figure a Cabin
20 shows Altimeter
a Cabin and sectioned
Altimeter view. view.
and sectioned

EN D
P L A TE
T E M P E R A TU R E
C OM PEN SA TOR

F IL T E R
C IR C L IP

M E C H AN IS M
P L A TE
H A N D S T A FF &
P I N IO N A S S E M B L Y

R O C K IN G S H A F T
P O IN T E R & S E C TO R A S S E M B L Y

Cabin
CabinAltimeter
Altimeter
Figure
Figure2020

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-27

1.8 AIRSPEED INDICATORS

Airspeed is displayed in two ways, in nautical miles per hour, knots (1 nautical mile =
6,080ft, 1.5 miles), or as a factor of the speed of sound, Mach (Mach 1 = speed of sound).
This information can be displayed separately, using an Airspeed Indicator (ASI) displaying
airspeed in knots and a Mach meter (MM) displaying airspeed relative to the speed of
sound, or both displays can be combined into a single instrument.

1.8.1 SIMPLIFIED AIRSPEED INDICATOR

When an aircraft is stationary (on the ground) all external surfaces are subjected equally to
the prevailing atmospheric pressure. When the aircraft is in motion, there are changes in
the pressures felt on its external surfaces and the aircraft experiences a build-up of an
additional pressure on its leading edges resulting from its passage through the air. For any
given height, the build-up of this pressure (known as dynamic pressure) is proportional to
the speed of the aircraft. This pressure when sensed by a Pitot tube, and ducted to an
instrument, can be used to measure aircraft speed.

Pitot pressure alone cannot be used to accurately measure speed, since no allowances is
made for the thinning of the air at altitude. This would if left uncorrected lead to an
apparent (indicated) loss of airspeed as altitude is increased. Measuring the difference in
pressure between the dynamic pitot pressure, and the static pressure used to measure
altitude compensates for this apparent loss of speed.
 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

A IRS P E E D

PI VOT

A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E

PI T OT
C A PSU L E S T AC K
PR ES SU R E

A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E

S T AT IC
P R E S S U RE G E A R ING

P IT O T
P R E S S U RE

P O IN T E R

C AP S UL E

Simplified Airspeed
Simplified Indicator
Airspeed Indicator
Figure
Figure 21 21

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-29

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Airspeed Indicator in its most simple form consists of a sealed instrument case with a
The Airspeed Indicator in its most simple form consists of a sealed instrument
capsule which has pitot pressure applied to its inside while static pressure is fed to the case.
case with a capsule which has pitot pressure applied to its inside while static
The movement of the capsule is due only to the effects of the dynamic pressure, which
pressure is fed to the case. The movement of the capsule is due only to the
results directly
effects from the aircraft’s speed through the air. Figure 22 shows two types of
of the
simple airspeed
through the indicators.
air. Figure 22 shows two types of simple airspeed indicators.

DOUBLE POINTER AIRSPEED INDICATOR

SINGLE POINTER AIRSPEED INDICATOR

Airspeed Indicators
Airspeed
FigureIndicators
22
Figure 22

Page 1-30 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY
PART 1 JAR 66B1
CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2 11 BOOK 2
MODULE
PART 1
AEROPLANE PART 1
AERODYNAMICS,
AEROPLANE
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.8.2 PITOT PRESSURE AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURESSTRUCTURES
& SYSTEMS & SYSTEMS
1.8.2 PITOT PRESSURE
The 1.8.2
Pitot pressure PasRESSURE
sensed by the Pitot tube, is the sum of the dynamic pressure and the
static PitotPpressure
Thepressure ITOT 1.8.2
and canas
PITOT PRESSURE
besensed by the
represented byPitot tube, is the sum of the dynamic
the formula:
pressure and the static pressure and can be represented by the formula:
The Pitot pressure as sensed
The Pitot pressurebyasthe Pitot tube,
sensed by theisPitot
the sum
tube,ofisthe
thedynamic
sum of the dynamic
pressure andpressure
the staticand
pressure and can be
the static pressure represented
and can be by the formula:
represented by the formula:
2
P = ½ V 2+ S
2
Where
Where -
P =
P = Pitot Pressure.
½ PV= +
½ SV +S
Where - - Where
=P air
= Pitot
- Pressure.
density.P = Pitot Pressure.

- - V== air density.

= air density.
- velocity.
aircraft

- - SV = aircraft
= Static velocity.
V = aircraft velocity.
- Pressure.

It can be seen S the

- from = Static
- Pressure.
above S = Static
formula Pressure.
that the actual dynamic pressure build-up

of Itthe
can be seen
capsule It
has from
can a bethe above
seen
linear from
response formula that formula
thetoabove
pressure the change.
actual dynamic
that the pressure
actual
If therefore, as isbuild-up
dynamic pressure build-up
It normally
can be seen required,
from thethe instrument
above formula scalethat theis to be linear
actual dynamic with respectbuild-up
pressure to speed, and
increases
notofcompressed
the capsule has
of or a linear at
thecramped
capsule response
haslow to pressure
a speeds,
linear response
the change.
squareto pressure
law If therefore,
change.
pressure rise as is be
If therefore,
must as is
as the square of
normally the aircraft’s
required, the speed increases
instrument scale whereas
is to be the movement
linear with of theto
respect capsule
speed, has a
and
compensated for normally
within required,
the indicator. the instrument scale is
This is normally to be linear
achieved usingwith respect to speed, and
a ranging
linearnot response to pressure
compressed orshown [Link]
cramped If therefore, as isthe
normally required, the instrument
spring assembly notascompressed or low
in figure speeds,
cramped
23. at low square
speeds,law thepressure
square law risepressure
must be rise must be
scalecompensated
is to be linear with respect
for within
compensated theto speed,
withinand
indicator.
for the not
This compressed
is normally
indicator. Thisoriscramped
achieved
normally atachieved
usinglowa speeds,
ranging
using a ranging
the square law
spring assemblypressure
spring rise must
asassembly
shown in as be compensated
figure for within
23. in figure 23.
shown the indicator. This is normally
achieved using a ranging spring assembly as shown in figure 23.

RANGING
SCREWS
RANGING
PLATE

RANGING
SPRING

CASULE

Ranging
RangingAssembly
Assembly (Square LawCompensation)
(Square Law Compensation)
Figure 23
Figure 23
Ranging
Ranging Assembly Assembly
(Square Law(Square Law Compensation)
Compensation)
Figure 23 Figure 23

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-31

MOD 11
MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART BOOK62 -PART
1 ISSUE 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
01/02/11 Page 1-31 Page 1-31
 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
MODULE 11 BOOK PART
2 1
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.8.3 SPEED
1.8.3 OF SOUND
SPEED OF SOUND
1.8.3 SPEED OF SOUND
WhenWhen anan aircraft fliesflies
aircraft at oratnear the speed
or near of sound,
the speed shockwaves
of sound, shockwavesbuild upbuild
around
upthearound
When an aircraft
aircraft fliestoatdue
due
the aircraft or near
the to thethe
increased speed ofresistance
resistance
increased sound, shockwaves
of the air to the
of the air tobuild
passage up
thearound
theofpassageaircraft. The effect of
of the
the aircraftthese
due to theThe
aircraft.
shockwaves
increased
effect ofresistance
are such these of the air are
shockwaves
that the aerodynamic
to the suchpassage
stability that the
of the
ofaircraft
the is affected,
aerodynamic stability
aircraft. Theofeffect
the of these
aircraft is shockwaves
affected, are
resulting such
in that
buffeting,the aerodynamic
loss of stability
directional control andeffects
loss
resulting in buffeting, loss of directional control and loss of lift. The severity of these
of the aircraft is affected,
of lift. resulting
Theat,severity in buffeting, loss of directional control and loss
when flying near or of thesethe
through effects
speedwhen flying
of sound at, near
(sound or through
barrier), the speed
is different oftype
for each
of lift. The severity
sound of these
(sound effectsiswhen
barrier), flying
different for at, neartype
each or through
of aircraft thebutspeed
is of
always severe
of aircraft
sound (sound barrier),but is
is always
different severe
for enough
each type forofthe pilot to
aircraft butbeisforewarned
always via instrumentation
severe
enough for the pilot to be forewarned via instrumentation that he is approaching
enough forthatthe he is approaching
the pilot
speeds to beat forewarned
the speeds instrumentation
which thesevia
at which these effects
effects can be expected. that hecanisbeapproaching
expected.
the speeds at which these effects can be expected.
The problems associated with the speed of sound are aggravated by the fact that the speed
The problems associated with the speed of sound are aggravated by the fact that
of sound
The problems varies withwithairthe density (altitude & temperature), as altitude increases the speed of
theassociated
speed of sound speed
varies withofair
sound
densityare(altitude
aggravated by the fact
& temperature), that
as altitude
sound
the speed ofincreases decreases.
sound varies Hence
with air
the speed the need
ofdensity for a Machmeter,
(altitude & temperature),
sound decreases. which
Hence the need indicates the
as altitude aircraft’s
for a Machmeter, speed in
increases relation
the speed to the speed of
of sound sound. This Hence
decreases. is indicated as a Mach
the need for anumber,
Machmeter, Mach 1 = speed of
sound at theas
indicated altitude
a Mach at which
number, the Mach
aircraft1 is=flying.
speedMach number
of sound can altitude
at the be represented
at which by the
indicated as a
formula: Mach number, Mach 1 = speed of sound at
the aircraft is flying. Mach number can be represented by the formula: the altitude at which
the aircraft is flying. Mach number can be represented by the formula:

TRUE AIRSPEED
Mach Number =
Mach Number = LOCAL SPEED OF SOUND

This
This cancan be derived
be derived from:
from:
This can be derived from:

TRUE AIRSPEED (P - S)
ALTITUDE (S)
When referring to aircraft flying speeds with respect to the speed of sound, there
When referring to aircraft
are three flying
distinct speeds
speed with respect to the speed of sound, there
bands:
are three distinct speed bands:
When referring to aircraft flying speeds with respect to the speed of sound, there are three
1. Subsonic Speeds up to 0.75 Mach.
distinct
1. speed bands:
Subsonic Speeds up to 0.75 Mach.
2. Transonic Speeds from 0.75 to 1.20 Mach.
2. 1. Transonic
Subsonic – Speeds up from
Speeds to 0.75 Mach.
0.75 to 1.20 Mach.
3. Supersonic Speeds in excess of 1.20 Mach.
3. 2. Supersonic
Transonic – Speeds fromin0.75
Speeds to 1.20
excess Mach.
of 1.20 Mach.

3. Supersonic – Speeds in excess of 1.20 Mach.

Page 1-32 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

Page 1-32 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.8.4 MACHMETER
1.8.4 MACHMETER
Figure 24 shows a typical Machmeter.
Figure 24 shows a typical Machmeter.

Machmeter
Figure 24
Machmeter
To enable the Machmeter to indicate aircraft speed as a factor of local or ambient speed of
Figure 24
sound, the airspeed as measured by the instrument is modified by altitude. This is
accomplished by using
To enable the a different
Machmeter airspeed aircraft
to indicate capsule speed
operatingas in conjunction
a factor with
of local oran aneroid
ambient
altitude
speedcapsule. These
of sound, thetwo being housed
airspeed within aby
as measured single
the instrument
instrumentand coupled together
is modified by in
such a way that the Mach number indicated is increased with an increase
altitude. This is accomplished by using a different airspeed capsule operating inin the aircraft’s
airspeed and further
conjunction with anincreased
aneroidwith an increase
altitude capsule. in the aircraft’s
These two altitude.
being housed within a
single instrument and coupled together in such a way that the Mach number

e.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-33

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure Figure
25 shows
25 ashows
schematic of the Machmeter.
a schematic of the Machmeter.

ALTITUDE
RETAINING
CAPSULE
SPRING

PUSH
ROD

SECTOR
ROCKING
POINTER ARM

VERTICAL
HIGH LINK PITOT
ENTRY

PIVOT

LOW
AIRSPEED
CAPSULE

Machmeter Schematic
Figure 25
Machmeter Schematic
Figure 25

As canAsbe can
seenbe seen
from from
the the diagram
diagram in figurein25,
figure 25, an increase
an increase of speed
of aircraft aircraftcauses
speedthe
causes the dynamic pressure P-S to increase and the airspeed
dynamic pressure P-S to increase and the airspeed capsule to expand. This motion capsule to is then
expand.
transmitted Thisvertical
via the motionlink,
is then transmitted
rocking arm andvia the vertical
sector arm to link, rocking causing
the pointer; arm andit to
sector arm to the pointer; causing it to move up the Mach number scale. A rise in
move up the Mach number scale. A rise in altitude causes the altitude capsule to expand,
altitude causes the altitude capsule to expand, this motion is transmitted to the
this motion
rockingis transmitted
arm, via theto the rocking
rocking arm, moving
arm pivot, via the rocking arm arm
the rocking pivot,towards
movingthe thecentre
rocking
arm towards the sector
line of the centre arm
line of the sector
pivot. arm pivot.
The rocking The rocking
arm therefore arm therefore
moves moves
closer to the closer
pivot
to the of
pivot
the of the sector
sector arm. arm. This action
This action modifies
modifies and increases
and increases the effect
the effect of airspeed
of the the airspeed
capsulecapsule
causingcausing
the indicated Mach speed
the indicated Machto be increased.
speed to be increased.

Page 1-34 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.8.5 COMBINED SPEED INDICATOR

1.8.5 COMBINED SPEED INDICATOR
As aircraft become more and more complex the demand for instrumentation is
continually rising. This has resulted, where practical, in two or more instruments
As aircraft become more and more complex the demand for instrumentation is continually
being combined into one. This practice has been particularly successful with
rising. This has resulted, where practical, in two or more instruments being combined into
respect to airspeed and Mach speed indications. Two different examples of this
one. This practiceinhas
are shown been26.
figure particularly successful with respect to airspeed and Mach speed
indications. Two different examples of this are shown in figure 26.

PRESSURE OPERATED CSI

SERVO OPERATED CSI

Combined
CombinedSpeed Indicators
Speed Indicators
Figure 26 26
Figure

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-35

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.8.6 PRESSURE
1.8.6 PRESSURE OPERATEDOPERATED
CSI CSI

Figure 27 shows the schematic layout for the pressure operated Machmeter.
Figure 27 shows the schematic layout for the pressure operated Machmeter.

AIRSPEED ROCKING SHAFT

AIRSPEED
DIAL HAIRSPRING
TUNING BLOCK BI-METALIC LINK

STATIC
SECTOR

POINTER AIRSPEED
PITOT
CAPSULE

MACH ALTITUDE
DISC CAPSULE
HAIRSPRING

SECTOR

AIRSPEED HAIRSPRING
DIAL
BI-METALIC LINK

ALTITUDE ROCKING SHAFT

Pressure Operated Machmeter – Schematic

Figure 27

Pressure Operated Machmeter Schematic

Figure 27
The construction of the pressure operated combined speed indicator is very similar to the
The construction of the pressure operated combined speed indicator is very
Machmeter discussed earlier. The main difference is that the altitude capsule mechanism is
similar to the Machmeter discussed earlier. The main difference is that the
not connected
altitudeto the airspeed
capsule mechanismcapsule
is notmechanism.
connected toThetheairspeed
airspeed capsule
capsule and pointer
operate mechanism.
as a conventional ASI indicating
The airspeed capsuletheandactual
pointerairspeed
operate of
as the aircraft by ASI
a conventional pointer against
the outer airspeed dial.
indicating the actual airspeed of the aircraft by pointer against the outer airspeed
dial.

Page 1-36 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

The altitude capsule is connected to a disc located behind the ASI pointer and inside the ASI
scale. The Mach scale is printed on this disc. An increase in altitude, causes the altitude
capsule to expand driving the Mach scale disc counter clockwise, whilst an increase in
airspeed causes the pointer to move clockwise. The result of this is that an increase of
airspeed and/or altitude produces an increase in the Mach number reading on the inner
scale against the ASI pointer.

1.8.7 SERVO OPERATED CSI

This instrument has a conventional ASI mechanism combined with a servocontrolled digital
Mach speed counter providing the dual display. The servomechanism usually receives its
control signals from the ADC. Because the Machmeter part of the instrument is power
operated the instrument is provided with a power failure warning indicator. This normally
takes the form of a power failure warning flag, or shutters which obscure the Mach digital
counters in the failed mode.

There is also a second pointer on this type of CSI and is known as the “Velocity Maximum
Operating” (Vmo ) pointer. This is provided for the purpose of indicating the maximum safe
speed of an aircraft over its operating altitude range; in other words, it is an indication of
the critical Mach number.

This instrument also has a command bug and associated setting know in the bottom left
hand corner of the instrument. This is used to set a required airspeed value, which can be
used as the datum for an auto throttle control system, or as a fast/slow speed indicator.
There are also five external index pointers around the bezel, which are manually set to any
desired reference speed, i.e. take off speeds V1 and V2.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.9 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

1.9 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS
The vertical speed indicator, commonly known as the rate of climb indicator,
The vertical
providesspeed indicator,
the flight crewcommonly known asindication
with an accurate the rate ofofclimb indicator,
the rate provides
at which the
the aircraft
flightiscrew with anheight.
changing accurate indication
This of the
indication rate at
is very which the when
necessary aircraftflying
is changing height.
on instruments
This only, at night
indication or necessary
is very in poor visibility.
when flying on instruments only, at night or in poor
visibility.
1.9.1 BASIC OPERATION
1.9.1 BASIC OPERATION
altitude
The rate change,
of climb bothSpeed
(Vertical climbing and descending.
Indication) is a measure The
of aninstrument used
aircraft’s rate is a further
of altitude
adaptation of the differential pressure instrument (Cabin Pressure), however, this
change, both climbing and descending. The instrument used is a further adaptation of the
time the pressure fed into the instrument case and into the capsule is static
differential pressure instrument (Cabin Pressure), however, this time the pressure fed into
pressure (atmospheric pressure). The difference being that pressure to the case
the instrument case aand
is fed through into the capsule
restrictor. This hasis static pressure
the effect (atmospheric
of greatly reducingpressure).
the rateTheat
difference
whichbeing that pressure
the pressure in thetocase
the case
canischange,
fed through a restrictor.
whilst Thiscapsule
allowing the has the effect
to of
greatly reducing
respond the rate
rapidly at which
to any changethe in
pressure
[Link] theFigure
case can
28change,
shows a whilst allowing
simplified the
Vertical
capsule to respond rapidly
Airspeed Indicator. to any change in pressure. Figure 28 shows a simplified Vertical
Airspeed Indicator.

CALIBRATED
CHOKE
STATIC
PRESSURE

STATIC
TUBE

CAPSULE

Simplified Vertical Airspeed Indicator

Figure 28
Simplified Vertical Airspeed Indicator
Figure 28

Page 1-38 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Referring to figure 28, the pressure flow into and out of the case is restricted by a
Referring to figure 28, the pressure flow into and out of the case is restricted by a calibrated
calibrated choke, when the aircraft climbs, the pressure in the capsule falls,
choke, when the
maintaining aircraft climbs,
a balance the pressure
with external in the
(to the capsule
aircraft) airfalls, maintaining
pressure. a balance with
The pressure
external (to the
within the aircraft) air
instrument pressure.
case The but
also falls, pressure withintothe
is unable instrument
escape at thecase also
same falls,
rate asbut
is that
unable to escape at the same rate as that from the capsule, causing
from the capsule, causing a pressure differential to occur. The pressure a pressure differential
towithin
[Link]
Theinstrument
pressure within
casethe instrument
being case when
the greater being the greater when
compared to thecompared
capsule. to the
This
capsule.
causesThisthecauses
capsulethetocapsule to contract,
contract, and by aand by a of
series series of linkages
linkages the indicator
the indicator pointer
pointer to
toindicate
indicate the
the rate of climb.
climb.

The
Thefaster thethe
faster change
changeof altitude the greater
of altitude the differential
the greater pressure,
the differential which results
pressure, which in a
resultscontraction
greater in a greater contraction
of the of the
capsule and capsule
a further and a further
deflection deflection pointer
of the instrument of the to
instrument
indicate pointer
a greater rateto
ofindicate a greater
climb. Upon descent,rate
theofcapsule
climb. pressure
Upon descent,
becomesthe capsule
greater than
pressure becomes greater than that of the instrument case and the
that of the instrument case and the capsule expands, causing the pointer to indicate a capsule
expands,
descent. causing
In level flightthe
thepointer to indicate
two pressures are ina balance
descent. andInthe
level flightindicates
pointer the two zero
pressures are in balance and the pointer indicates zero
Figure 29 shows a typical vertical speed indicator.
Figure 29 shows a typical vertical speed indicator.

Vertical Speed Indicator

Figure 29
Vertical Speed Indicator
Figure 29

The
The rate
rate of climb/descent
of climb/descent is indicated
is indicated by a single
by a single pointerpointer
movingmoving overface,
over a dial a dial face,
which is
which is graduated in feet per minute. The dial face, which can have either
graduated in feet per minute. The dial face, which can have either linear or logarithmic linear
or logarithmic
graduations, graduations,
conventionally hasconventionally has aatzero
a zero point situated the point situated
9-oclock at the
position. The 9-o-
indicator
clock moves
pointer position. The indicator
clockwise over thepointer moves clockwise
face to indicate ascent andover the face to
anti-clockwise to indicate
indicate
ascent and anti-clockwise to indicate descent.
descent.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-39

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.9.2 CALIBRATION
1.9.2 CALIBRATION
Calibration is set during manufacture and cannot be adjusted during servicing and testing.
Calibration
Calibration is set
of the during manufacture
instrument and
is achieved by cannot
two be adjusted
calibration springs,during servicing
which act on the centre
and testing. Calibration of the instrument is achieved by two calibration springs,
of the capsule via a calibration stem. The forces exerted by the calibration springs are
which act on the centre of the capsule via a calibration stem. The forces exerted
modified during calibration by two rows of screws, one row bearing onto the top spring and
by the calibration springs are modified during calibration by two rows of screws,
the other the bottom spring.
one row bearing onto the top spring and the other the bottom spring.
Adjustment
Adjustment of the screws
of the varies
screws the effective
varies length
the effective of theofspring,
length whichwhich
the spring, dependent upon
capsule position will control the capsules response to pressure
dependant upon capsule position will control the capsules response to change and will therefore
pressure
modify the and
change indications produced.
will therefore The the
modify upper spring controls
indications the expansion
produced. The upper of spring
the capsule
(rate of descent)
controls and lowerof
the expansion spring controls (rate
the capsule the compression
of descent) of thelower
and capsule (ratecontrols
spring of ascent).
the compression
Figure of the of
30 shows the inside capsule (rate
a vertical of ascent).
speed indicatorFigure
showing 30the
shows the inside
calibration of a
springs.
vertical speed indicator showing the calibration springs.

CALIBRATION CALIBRATION
SPRINGS SCREWS

ROCKING BALANCE
SHAFT WEIGHT
MECHANISM

LINK

CALIBRATION
SCREWS

METERING
UNIT

CALIBRATION
BRACKET

STATIC
CAPSULE CAPILIARY
TUBE

Vertical Speed Indicator – Calibration Spring

Figure 30
Vertical Speed Indicator Calibration Spring
Figure 30

Page 1-40 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.9.3
1.9.3 ALTITUDE
ALTITUDE & TEMPERATURE
& TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
COMPENSATION

TheThe
wayway in which
in which air passes
air passes throughthrough a metering
a metering device
device varies varies
with with airand
air density density
with and
with temperature. Since the metering unit is required to give a given pressure
temperature. Since the metering unit is required to give a given pressure difference for any
difference
given for anychange,
rate of altitude given rate of altitude
it must compensatechange, it must in
for changes compensate for changes
air temperature and the
in air temperature and the change
change in air density at different altitudes. in air density at different altitudes.

Altitude Compensation
§ Altitude Compensation
Compensation for altitude changes is obtained by a combination of two basic
Compensation for altitude
metering devices, changes
an orifice is obtained
and by tube.
a capillary a combination of two basic
The pressure metering
difference across
devices, an orifice
an orifice for aand a capillary
given tube. Thechange
rate of altitude pressure differenceas
decreases across an orifice
altitude for a given
increases and
ratetherefore
of altitude change decreases as altitude increases and therefore produces
produces a negative error. Whereas, the pressure difference across a a negative
error. Whereas,
capillary tubethe
forpressure
a givendifference acrosschange
rate of altitude a capillary tube for aasgiven
increases rate increases,
altitude of altitude
change increases as
and therefore altitude increases,
produces a positiveand therefore
error. Thus,produces a positive
the two effects tenderror. Thus, the
to cancel
twoeach
effects tend to cancel each other.
other.

Temperature Compensation
§ Temperature Compensation

TheThe viscosity
viscosity ofair
of the theis air is proportional
proportional to temperature;
to temperature; viscosity
viscosity falling
falling with withina drop
a drop
in temperature. The effects of this is that the pressure difference
temperature. The effects of this is that the pressure difference across an orifice for across ana orifice
given
for a given rate of altitude change increases with a decrease in temperature.
rate of altitude change increases with a decrease in temperature. Conversely, the pressure
Conversely,
differential the
across pressuretube
a capillary differential across
for a given rate ofa altitude
capillarychange
tube for a givenasrate of
decreases
altitude change
temperature decreases
decreases. as temperature
Thus, during decreases.
design, a correct Thus,
combination of during design,
orifice and a
capillary
correct combination of orifice and capillary tubes can be chosen which will
tubes can be chosen which will provide a stable pressure differential over a wide range of
provide a stable pressure differential over a wide range of altitude and
altitude and temperature changes. Figure 31 shows the internal working of a metering unit.
temperature changes. Figure 31 shows the internal working of a metering unit.

GASKETS

AIR
FILTER
CAPILLARY

STATIC
INPUT

ORIFICE

CONNECTING TUBE
TO CAPSULE

Metering Unit
Metering
FigureUnit
31
Figure 31

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-41

1.10 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

A number of instruments depend on the use of gyroscopes for their correct operation. It is
useful to know the basic principles of how they work, before describing, in some depth,
what they do.

1.10.1 GYROSCOPIC PROPERTIES

As mechanical device a gyroscope may be defined as a system containing a heavy metal

wheel (rotor), universally mounted so that it has three degrees of freedom:

Spinning freedom: About an axis perpendicular through its centre (axis of spin XX).

Tilting Freedom: About a horizontal axis at right angles to the spin axis (axis of tilt YY).

Veering Freedom: About a vertical axis perpendicular to both the other two axes (axis of
veer ZZ).

The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two concentrically
pivoted rings, called inner and outer rings. The whole assembly is known as the gimbal
system of a free or space gyroscope. The gimbal system is mounted in a frame so that in its
normal operating position, all the axes are mutually at right angles to one another and
intersect at the centre of gravity of the rotor.

The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the rotor is spinning. When the
rotor is spinning at high speed the device becomes a true gyroscope possessing two
important fundamental properties:

1. Gyroscopic Inertia (Rigidity).

2. Precession.

1.10.2 RIGIDITY

The property, which resists any, force tending to change the plane of rotor rotation. It is
dependent on:

1. The mass of the rotor.

2. The speed of rotation.

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.10.3 PRECESSION
1.10.3 PRECESSION
The angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under the influence of an
applied force. The change in direction takes place, not in line with the force, but
Thealways
angularatchange in 90º
a point direction
awayofinthe
theplane of rotation
direction under the
of rotation. Theinfluence of an applied
rate of precession
force. The change in
also depends on: direction takes place, not in line with the force, but always at a point
90º away in the direction of rotation. The rate of precession also depends on:
1. The strength and direction of the applied force.
1. The strength and direction of the applied force.
2. The angular velocity of the rotor.
2. The angular velocity of the rotor.
Figure 32 shows a gyroscope.
Figure 32 shows a gyroscope.

Z
FRAME

Y
X

ROTOR

OUTER
RING

Y
INNER
RING

Gyroscope.
Figure 32

Gyroscope.
Figure 32

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-43

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 33 shows the characteristics of gyro rigidity.

Figure 33 shows the characteristics of gyro rigidity.

Gyro Rigidity
Figure 33

Gyro A has its spin axes parallel with Gyro Rigidity

the Earth's spin axes, located at the North Pole. It could
Figure 33
hold this position indefinitely.
Gyro A has its spin axes parallel with the Earth's spin axes, located at the North
Gyro BIthas
Pole. its spin
could holdaxes
thisparallel
positionto indefinitely.
the Earth's spin axes, but located at the Equator. As the
Earth rotates, it would appear to continually point North.
Gyro B has its spin axes parallel to the Earth's spin axes, but located at the
Gyro C is also
Equator. situated
As the Earthatrotates,
the Equator. As the
it would Earth to
appear rotates, it appears
continually pointtoNorth.
rotate about its
axes, however it is the Earth that is rotating and not the gyro.
Gyro C is also situated at the Equator. As the Earth rotates, it appears to rotate
This rigidity
about can however
its axes, be used initaisnumber of gyro
the Earth thatinstruments including
is rotating and thegyro.
not the directional gyro.

This rigidity can be used in a number of gyro instruments including the directional
gyro.

Page 1-44 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.10.4 PRECESSION
1.10.4 PRECESSION
If an external force is applied to a spinning gyro, its effect will be felt at 90 0 from
Ifthe
anpoint
external force is applied
of application, to adirection
in the spinning ofgyro, its rotation.
gyro effect will be
Thisfeltisatknown
90 0 from
as the point
of application, in the direction of gyro rotation. This is known as precession.
precession. It can be seen in Figure 34, that if a force is applied to the bottom It can be seen
of in
Figure 34, that
the rotating if a force
wheel, is applied
it will to the its
rotate about bottom of the axis.
horizontal rotating wheel, it will rotate about
its horizontal axis.
This property is not wanted in some instruments, such as directional gyros. The
This
use property is not wanted
of precession is usedininsome instruments,which
turn indicators, such aswilldirectional
be covered gyros. The use of
later.
precession is used in turn indicators, which will be covered later.

DIRECTION PRECESSION RATE

OF = APPLIED FORCE
ROTATION 90º IN THE
DIRECTION OF SPIN

SPIN AXIS

90º

APPLIED DIRECTION
FORCE OF
PRECESSION

Gyro Precession
Figure 34

Gyro Precession
Figure 34

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-45

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.10.5 VERTICAL GYRO

1.10.5 VERTICAL GYRO
Figure 35 shows the effects on a free gyro in an aircraft circling the earth. As can
be seen,
Figure it would
35 shows the only be on
effects perpendicular toan
a free gyro in theaircraft
earth'scircling
surface at earth.
the two points.
As can be seen, it
would only be perpendicular to the earth's surface at two points.

Behaviour of a Vertical Gyro

Figure 35

Behaviour of a Vertical Gyro

Figure 35

Page 1-46 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

In order for the gyro to be used to indicate the aircraft's attitude, it has to be
corrected to continually be aligned to the vertical. These corrections are very
slow and gentle, since the amount of correction needed, for example, in a ten-
minute
in orderperiod
for theisgyro
small.
to beFigure 36indicate
used to shows the
a vertical gyro
aircraft's corrected
attitude, it hasto
tothe local
be corrected to
vertical.
continually be aligned to the vertical. These corrections are very slow and gentle, since the
amount of correction needed, for example, in a ten-minute period is small. Figure 36 shows
a vertical gyro corrected to the local vertical.

Corrected Vertical Gyro

Figure 36

Corrected Vertical Gyro

Figure 36

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-47

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
Instruments that use either the rigidity or the precession of gyros are:
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. Gyro Horizon Unit.
Instruments that use either the rigidity or the precession of gyros are:

2. Attitude Director Indicator.

1. Gyro Horizon Unit.

3. Standby Horizon Unit. 2. Attitude Director Indicator.

3. Standby Horizon Unit.
4. Direction Indicator.
4. Direction Indicator.
5. Turn and Slip Indicator.
5. Turn and Slip Indicator.
6. Turn Co-ordinator.
6. Turn Co-ordinator.
1.11 GYRO HORIZON UNIT
1.11 GYRO HORIZON UNIT

The Gyro Horizon Unit gives a representation of the aircraft’s pitch and roll attitudes relative
to its vertical
attitudesaxis. For this
relative it vertical
to its uses a displacement
axis. For thisgyroscope whose spin axis
it uses a displacement is vertical.
gyroscope
Figurewhose
37 showsspinaaxis
displacement
is [Link] and37
Figure the two axis
shows of displacement.
a displacement gyro and the two
axis of displacement.

ROLL PITCH

Displacement Gyro
Figure 37
Displacement Gyro
Figure 37

Page 1-48 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Indications of attitude are presented by the relative positions of two elements, one
symbolising the aircraft itself, the other in the form of a bar stabilized by the
Indications
gyroscopeofand
attitude are presented
symbolising by thehorizon.
the natural relative positions
Figure 38of shows
two elements, one
a typical Gyro
symbolising the aircraft itself, the other in the form of a bar stabilized by the gyroscope and
Horizon Unit.
symbolising the natural horizon. Figure 38 shows a typical Gyro Horizon Unit.

SPERRY

6
6

3 3

Gyro Horizon Unit

Figure 38

The gimbal system is so arranged soGyro that Horizon

the innerUnitring forms the rotor casing and is pivoted
parallel to an aircraft’s lateral axis (YY1 );Figure
the outer
38 ring is pivoted at the front and rear ends
of the instrument case, parallel to the longitudinal axis (ZZ1 ). The element symbolizing the
aircraft may either
The gimbal system beisrigidly fixed to the
so arranged so case, or itinner
that the may beringexternally adjustable
forms the for setting a
rotor casing
particular pitch trim reference. 1); the outer ring is pivoted at
the front and rear ends of the instrument case, parallel to the longitudinal axis
(ZZ1). The element symbolizing the aircraft may either be rigidly fixed to the
case, or it may be externally adjustable for setting a particular pitch trim
reference.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-49

 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 39 shows the construction of the Gyro Horizon unit.

Figure 39 shows the construction of the Gyro Horizon unit.

OUTER
RING ROTOR
Y Z1

SYMBOLIC BALANCE
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT

PIVOT
Z POINT

Y1
X1 HORIZON
ROLL BAR
POINTER
& SCALE

Construction of a Gyro Horizon Unit

Figure 39

In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight the three axes are mutually
at right angles. When there is Construction
a change in the
of aaircraft’s attitude,
Gyro Horizon Unitexample climbing, the
Figure 39
instrument case and outer ring will move about the YY1 of the stabilized inner ring.
In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight the three axes

example climbing, the instrument case and outer ring will move about the YY1 of
the stabilized inner ring.

Page 1-50 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

The The horizon

horizon bar isbar is pivoted
pivoted at the at the
side andside andrear
to the to the rear
of the of the
outer ringouter ring andan
and engages
engages
actuating an actuating
pin fixed pinring,
to the inner fixedthus
to the inneraring,
forming thus forming
magnifying a magnifying
lever system. lever
The pin passes
system. The pin passes through a curved slit in the outer ring. In a
through a curved slit in the outer ring. In a climb attitude the pivot carries the rear end ofclimb attitude
the pivot carries the rear end of the bar upwards so that it pivots about the
the bar upwards so that it pivots about the stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar
stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar is therefore moved downwards
is therefore moved downwards through a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and
through a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and since the movement is
sincerelative
the movement is relativeaircraft
to the symbolic to the symbolic
element,aircraft
the barelement, the bar
will indicate will indicate
a climb a climb
attitude.
attitude.
Figure 40 shows climb attitude operation.
Figure 40 shows climb attitude operation.

Z
1

X
HORIZON BAR 1

Climb Attitude operation.

Figure 40

Climb Attitude operation.

Figure 40

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-51

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Changes in the lateral attitude of an aircraft, i.e. rolling, displaces the instrument
Changes in the the
case about lateral
axisattitude
(ZZ1), of
andanthe
aircraft,
whole [Link]
rolling, displaces
gimbal the instrument
system. caselateral
Hence, about
theattitude
axis (ZZchanges
1 ), and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral attitude changes are
are indicated by movement of the symbolic aircraft element
indicated by movement
relative to the horizon of bar,
the symbolic
and alsoaircraft element
by relative relative to
movement the horizon
between bar,angle
the roll and also
byscale
relative movement between the roll angle scale and
and pointer. Figure 41 shows roll attitude operation. pointer. Figure 41 shows roll
attitude operation.

Y Y
1

BANK TO
PORT

DATUM
X
1

Roll attitude operation

Figure 41

Freedom of gimbal system movement is 360º for roll axis and 85º for the and pitch axis. The
pitch scale is restricted by means ofRoll attitude
a resilient operation
stop. This will prevent gimbal lock.
Figure 41

Freedom of gimbal system movement is 360º for roll axis and 85º for the and
pitch axis. The pitch scale is restricted by means of a resilient stop. This will
prevent gimbal lock.

Page 1-52 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Changes
Changes in the
in the lateral
lateral attitude
attitude ofaircraft,
of an an aircraft, i.e. rolling,
i.e. rolling, displaces
displaces the instrument
the instrument case about
case about the axis (ZZ 1), and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral
the axis (ZZ1), and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral attitude changes are
attitude changes are indicated by movement of the symbolic aircraft element
indicated by movement of the symbolic aircraft element relative to the horizon bar, and also
relative to the horizon bar, and also by relative movement between the roll angle
by relative movement between the roll angle scale and pointer. Figure 41 shows roll
scale and pointer. Figure 41 shows roll attitude operation.
attitude operation.

Y Y
1

BANK TO
PORT

DATUM
X
1

Roll attitude operation

Figure 41

Freedom of gimbal system movement is 360º for roll axis and 85º for the and pitch axis. The
pitch scale is restricted by means of a resilient
Roll attitudestop. This will prevent gimbal lock.
operation
Figure 41

Freedom of gimbal system movement is 360º for roll axis and 85º for the and
pitch axis. The pitch scale is restricted by means of a resilient stop. This will
prevent gimbal lock.

Page 1-52 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.12 VERTICAL REFERENCE UNIT (VRU)
1.12 VERTICAL REFERENCE UNIT (VRU)
The VRU The consists of an electrically-driven
VRU consists gyroscope
of an electrically-driven spinning spinning
gyroscope about a vertical
about aaxis. The gyro
vertical
has fullaxis.
freedom
The gyro has full freedom of movement in roll, and plus 85 degrees, minus in
of movement in roll, and plus 85 degrees, minus 85 degrees of freedom
pitch. It85also has anoferection
degrees freedom system for It
in pitch. maintaining
also has anthe rotor spin
erection axis vertical.
system The VRU
for maintaining the
contains twospin
rotor synchro’s for detecting
axis vertical. The VRUmovement
containsabout the roll (aileron)
two synchros and pitch
for detecting (elevator)
movement
axes ofabout the rolland
the aircraft, (aileron) and pitch
also contains (elevator)
circuitry axes of the aircraft,
for maintaining and also
the functional containsof its
operation
circuitry for maintaining the functional operation of
internal components. Figure 42 shows the Vertical Reference Unit (RU).its internal components.
Figure 42 shows the Vertical Reference Unit (RU).

PITCH ERECTION
VIBRATION CUTOFF SWITCHES
ISOLATION
MOUNTS

FRAME
DEHYDRATION
PLUG

GYRO
CASE

ROLL ERECTION
CUTOFF SWITCHES

ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION

BONDING
GIMBAL
STRAP
RING

Vertical Reference Unit (VRU)

Vertical Reference Unit (VRU)
Figure 4242
Figure

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-53

1.13 ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI)

The ADI presents a symbolic three-dimensional display of the aircraft’s attitude, combined
with lateral and vertical steering commands. The aircraft’s attitude is displayed by the
relationship of a stationary airplane symbol with respect to a moveable horizon line. The
horizon line is carried on a sphere, which is servo driven in pitch and roll. The sphere is
marked off in increments of 5 degrees, and is coloured blue to represent sky above the
horizon line, and black or brown/orange to represent ground below the horizon line. The
sphere is unbalanced in the roll axis so that on loss of power it rotates to approximately 90
degree left bank indication. Cross pointer bars are used to indicate flight director commands
and are brought into view by operation of the flight director switches (FD BARS). The
horizontal (pitch) bar indicates below the miniature airplane symbol to command pitch up
attitude. The vertical (roll) bar indicates to the right centre display to command right roll,
and to the left of centre of display to command left roll. Both bars are biased out of view
when the FD BARS are off, but the FD flag will not appear unless a power loss is
experienced.

Aircraft position relating to a glideslope is given by a pointer moving over a vertical display.
Aircraft position above the glideslope beam is indicated by the pointer being positioned
below the glideslope scale index, and aircraft position below the glideslope beam is
indicated by the pointer being positioned above the glideslope beam. The loss of the
glideslope valid signal will cause the glideslope warning flag (GS) to come into view. The
glideslope indicator and warning flag are mounted on the right hand side of the ADI
presentation.

Localiser deviation is indicated by lateral movement of the localiser pointer, and is a read on
a fixed horizontal scale. The pointer indicates to the right of the fixed scale index if the
aircraft is to the left of the localiser beam and to the left of the index if aircraft is to the right
of the localiser beam. The loss of either the localiser valid input or tuned to localiser input
will bias the localiser pointer from view. Loss of the localiser valid signal causes the localiser
(LOC) flag to move into view. The localiser indicator is positioned at the bottom of the ADI
display, above the inclinometer.

Slip information is conventionally displayed on the ball type inclinometer mounted on the
indicator at the bottom of the ADI display. Instantaneous testing of the sphere and flight
director is accomplished by pressing the TEST switch.

The sphere should indicate:

(a) 10° ± 5° Pitch Nose up.

(b) 20° ± 5° Roll to the Right.

(c) ATT and FD flag in view.

(d) FD Bars Indicate Nose Up and Roll to the Right.

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 43 shows an Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)

Figure 43 shows an Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)

FD GSL
2
F
1

S 2
RW
A TT Y

TEST

Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)

Figure 43

Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)

Figure 43

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-55

1.13.1 WARNINGS

1. ATT Flag

Indicates an internal failure of the ADI or a Gyro Attitude (VRU) failure.

2. FD Flag

Indicates an internal failure of the command bars for any axis or flight director failure.

3. LOC Flag

Indicates a loss of the localiser valid signal, or insufficient signal with index off scale.

4. Glideslope Flag

Indicates loss of the localiser valid (G/S) signal with index off scale.

1.13.2 ATTITUDE DISTRIBUTION

Figure 44 shows a block schematic of the attitude transfer switching circuit and shows the
distribution of the attitude information. The transfer switching is drawn in the „NORMAL‟
position fed from 28V ESS DC.

Switching allows either gyro to supply both ADI attitude displays and the autopilot. The
flight data recorder and weather radar are hard wired to No 1 gyro. Primary outputs are
used exclusively for the ADI attitude displays. Buffered secondary 3 wire outputs are used
for the autopilot, FDR and ADI cross switching. The latter arrangement prevents a faulty ADI
being paralleled with the other ADI thus causing the loss of both.

The instrument comparator monitor (ICM) provides comparison of the ADI attitude displays.
A two wire roll signal is also fed to the ICM to increase the heading warning threshold in
turns.
 26V AC
ESS
26V AC
VERT GYRO 1 NO 2
PRIMARY 3 WIRE & VALID
P/R
115V
AC ESS ADI
SECONDARY No 1
3 WIRE & VALID
RESOLVER
COMPARARATOR

ALL ON
2
P/R
AUTOPILOT

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

P/R WX INSTRUMENT
(ARINC 708) COMPARATOR
P/R MONITOR

Attitude
FDR (ICM)
P

Figure
APDU
ROLL THRESHOLD

Figure 44
44
P/R MONITOR
AERODYNAMICS,

WX RADAR

Distribution
Attitude Distribution
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

115V
AC No 2 ALL ON AUTOPILOT (RACO)
1
R
ERROR
SECONDARY
3 WIRE & VALID
ADI
P/R
No 2
PRIMARY 3 WIRE & VALID
RESOLVER
COMPARARATOR

VERT GYRO 2 26V AC

Page 1-57
ESS
26V AC
NO 2
 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.13.3 ATTITUDE TRANSFER SWITCHING
1.13.3 ATTITUDE TRANSFER SWITCHING
The attitude transfer switching comprises of two banks of relays operated by a three
position
Theguarded switch
attitude on the
transfer left handcomprises
switching instrumentofpanel, such, that
two banks ‘ALLON-1’
of relays or ‘ALL-ON-
operated by a
2’ operation can be achieved. Operation of the switch to ‘ALL ON-2’ energise the LH bank of -
relaysON-
and Vice-Versa.-ON-
Figure 45 shows a schematic of the Attitude Switching. -
ON- -Versa. Figure 45 shows a
schematic of the Attitude Switching.

CUTOUT
(RACO)
ANGLE
ROLL
FIRST OFFICER

115V AC (No 2)
VERT GYRO
2

No 2
N
COMPASS (RH)

1
FROM HSI
INST. COMP.
MONITOR

COMPASS (LH)
FROM HSI

VERT GYRO
2

115V AC (ESS)
No 1
N
CAPTAIN

1
AUTOPILOT

A.I.D.S.

WX RX

Attitude Switching
Attitude Switching
Figure 45 45
Figure

Page 1-58 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.141.14
STANDBY ATTITUDE
STANDBY INDICATORS
ATTITUDE INDICATORS

The standby attitude

The standby indicator
attitude provides
indicator a continuous
provides visual indication
a continuous of the aircraft
visual indication attitude
of the
in the pitch and roll axes.
aircraft attitude in the pitch and roll axes.

1.14.1 DESCRIPTION
1.14.1 AND OPERATION
DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION

The standby
The standby attitude
attitude indicatorindicator
displaydisplay comprises
comprises a two-coloured
a two-coloured drum supported
drum supported in an
outer gimbal, a roll marker mounted on the outer gimbal shroud and a roll scale and a roll
in an outer gimbal, a roll marker mounted on the outer gimbal shroud and
scale index
aeroplane and aeroplane
mounted on index mounted
the front coveron the front
behind cover
the dial behind
glass. theline
A white dialdividing
glass. the
A
white line dividing the two colours on the drum, blue representing
two colours on the drum, blue representing the sky and dark orange representing the earth, the sky and
dark orange
represents representing
the horizon. Attitude the earth, represents
is indicated the horizon.
by the position Attitude
of the drum relativeis to
indicated
the
aircraft symbol. A graduated scale on the drum, which can indicate 60 degrees ofscale
by the position of the drum relative to the aircraft symbol. A graduated dive oron80
the drum, which can indicate 60 degrees of dive or 80 degrees of climb, indicates
degrees of climb, indicates pitch angle. Roll angle is indicated by a white marker relative to
pitch angle. Roll angle is indicated by a white marker relative to the roll scale
the roll scale which is graduated at zero degrees and 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 degrees left
which is graduated at zero degrees and 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 degrees left
and right of zero.
and right A fast A
of zero. erection knob isknob
fast erection provided on the bottom
is provided on theright-hand side of theside
bottom right-hand
instrument face and is aface
of the instrument purelyandmechanical
is a purelycaging device. Figure
mechanical caging46device.
shows aFigure
Standby 46
Attitude Indicator and its location.
shows a Standby Attitude Indicator and its location.

Standby Attitude Indicator H 301

Figure 46

Standby Attitude Indicator H 301

Figure 46

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-59

1.14.2 RUNNING UP

28V DC is applied to the indicator, which produces a three, phase 19 V, 400 Hz supply to the
stator winding of the gyro. The stator becomes energised and the gyro rotor begins to run
up. When it has reached 18,000 rpm a sensor operates the gyro flag on the upper right part
of the display causing it to disappear from view. This indicates that the gyro has attained a
usable airspeed and there is a power supply to the unit.

1.14.3 ERECTION CONTROL

Erection control is achieved through a single-pendulum mechanical erector device, which

basically slaves the gyro erector assembly to the local vertical. Should the gyro axis deviate
from the vertical axis, it will be acted upon by the erector device to cancel out this deviation
and return the gyro to the vertical axis.

The erection control consists of a reduction gear, erector bob-weight and a moving
pendulum. Energy from the gyro is taken through a reduction gear to drive a gearwheel
integral with the erector bob-weight. An assembly consisting of the erector bob-weight and
moving pendulum is driven about the same shaft. The erector bob-weight is also driven
about the reduction gear shaft and rotates at a speed of approximately 40-rpm. The moving
pendulum is driven between two limits called the stop and driving plates. When the shaft is
aligned with vertical axis the pendulum and bob-weight are in the horizontal plane. The
pendulum is then forced against its driving plate by the function torque of its bearings,
which counteracts the driving effect of the bob-weight.

If the shaft deviates from the vertical axis, the pendulum is no longer in the horizontal
plane. It will move erratically, the effect of which will be to bring the shaft into alignment
with the vertical axis.

1.14.4 CAGING

As the gyro runs up to speed, the gyroscopic assembly may occupy any random position
inside its casing. Caging to case datum may be rapidly achieved and without abruptness, by
pulling the fast erection knob approximately thirty seconds after energising the gyro. This
brings the gyroscopic assembly to the vicinity of the vertical axis and when the knob is
released it is free to move and aligns itself precisely with the vertical axis.

1.14.5 ATTITUDE INDICATION

When the gyro is erected and running at full speed and the aircraft is in a level flight
attitude, then the horizontal line on the datum and the roll pointer (which are both attached
to the gyro mechanism) are aligned with the aeroplane index and the roll scale datum
respectively. Because the gyro axis remains at the local vertical due to the gravity sensitive
erection control system, movement of the aircraft (and therefore the instrument dial
carrying the pitch datum and roll datum) from the vertical is relative to the gyro. Aircraft
movement in the pitch axis causes
 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

a vertical
a vertical displacement
displacement between between the horizon
the horizon line andline
theand the aeroplane
aeroplane index; about
index; movement
movement about the roll axis causes a rotational displacement between
the roll axis causes a rotational displacement between the horizon line and the aeroplane the
indexhorizon
and alsoline and the
between theaeroplane index
roll pointer and and also
the roll between
scale [Link] roll pointer
Figure 47 showsanda the
roll scale datum. Figure 47 shows a simplified
simplified circuit for the Standby Attitude Indicator. circuit for the Standby Attitude
Indicator.

0.3 A
1A STATIC
28V DC INVERTER
EMERG/BATT GYRO
19V AC
400 Hz

ROTOR
SPEED
SENSOR

5V AC
INSTRUMENT
LIGHTING

Standby Attitude Indicator – Circuit

Standby Attitude
FigureIndicator
47 Circuit
Figure 47

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-61

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.15 STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATOR H 341

1.15 STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATOR H 341
The attitude indicator type H341 is an electrically operated gyroscopic horizon
The attitude indicator type H341 is an electrically operated gyroscopic horizon assembly
that
pitchprovides
and rolla visual
axes. presentation
It is fitted withof crossed
the aircraft’s flight that
pointers attitude in the
display pitch
ILS and roll axes. It
deviations,
isand
fitted with
with ancrossed pointers
inclinometer forthat display ILS
providing slipdeviations,
[Link] with an inclinometer for
providing slip indication.
The instrument operates from the aircraft 28 V DC supply; the 400 Hz 3-phase
ACinstrument
The supply for operates
the gyroscope
from the is aircraft
provided 28VbyDC a supply;
built-in the
static
400inverter.
Hz 3-phaseFigure 48 for
AC supply
shows the Standby Attitude Indicator and its location.
the gyroscope is provided by a built-in static inverter. Figure 48 shows the Standby Attitude
Indicator and its location.

Standby Attitude Indicator H 341

Figure 48

Standby Attitude Indicator H 341

Figure 48

Page 1-62 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

1.15.1 DESCRIPTION

The attitude display comprises a two-coloured spherical drum mounted on pivots, a roll
pointer registering against a roll scale, and an aircraft symbol, the horizon is represented by
the intersection of the two colours of the sphere; these are blue and brown, denoting sky
and earth respectively. Attitude is indicated by the position of the sphere relative to the
aircraft symbol. Pitch angle is indicated by a graduated scale on the sphere, the indication is
limited to 65 degrees in dive and 105 degrees in climb. Roll freedom is unlimited and roll
angle is indicated by the position of the roll pointer relative to the roll scale. Power failure or
insufficient gyro rotational speed is indicated by the appearance of a flag in the upper
righthand portion of the dial presentation. The flag is coloured fluorescent red, with four
superimposed diagonal black stripes.

After the gyro commences to run up, a fast erection mechanism is used to bring it to the
vertical position. This is brought into operation by pulling the knob on the front of the
instrument and waiting for a few seconds until the horizon line stabilises at its datum
position and the roll index reads zero.

Localiser and glideslope pointers indicate ILS deviation and are driven from No. 1 VHF
navigation system. LOC and G/S failure warning flags are driven out of view by external 28 V
DC validity signals also emanating from NAV 1 receiver; the flags are in view when the
validity signals are missing or do not conform. When power is applied to the NAV 1 receiver
but it is not tuned to a localiser frequency, external bias voltages remove the LOC and G/S
pointers and flags from view. Figure 49 shows the Standby Attitude Indicator internal circuit.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1A

28V DC
EMERG/BATT
STATIC GYRO
INVERTER

G/S LOC
SIGNAL SIGNAL

G/S
VALIDITY

5V AC LOC
INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
LIGHTING

Standby Attitude
Standby Attitude Indicator
Indicator – Internal
InternalCircuit
Circuit
Figure 49
Figure 49

Page 1-64 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.16 DIRECTION INDICATORS

1.16 DIRECTION INDICATORS

This
Ind indicator was the first gyroscopic instrument to be introduced as a “Heading Indicator”
and although for
superseded most aircraft currently
by remote-indicating in service
compass it has been
systems (seesuperseded
later). Theby remote-
instrument
indicating compass systems
uses a horizontal (see later).
axis gyroscope and,Thebeing
instrument uses a horizontal
non-magnetic, is usedaxis gyroscope and,
in conjunction
being
with anon-magnetic, is used in conjunction with a magnetic compass.
magnetic compass.

In its
In itsbasic
basicform,
form, the
the outer
outer ring
ring of the
of the gyro
gyro carries
carries a circular
a circular card, card, graduated
graduated in and
in degrees,
referenced against a lubber line fixed to the gyro frame. When the rotor is spinning, the
degrees, and referenced against a lubber line fixed to the gyro frame. When the
rotor issystem
gimbal spinning,
and the
cardgimbal systemsoand
are stabilized that,card are stabilized
by turning so the
the frame, that, by turning
number the
of degrees
frame, the number of degrees through which it is turning may be read on the
through which it is turning may be read on the card. Figure 50 shows a Directional Indicator.
card. Figure 50 shows a Directional Indicator.

180 170

Directional
DirectionalIndicator
Indicator
Figure
Figure50
50

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-65

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

In the directional gyro, the rotor is enclosed in a case, or shroud, and supported
In the in an inner gyro,
directional gimbal
thewhich isenclosed
rotor is mountedinina an outer
case, gimbal,and
or shroud, thesupported
bearingsinofanwhich
innerare
gimballocated
which istop and bottom
mounted on the
in an outer indicator
gimbal, case. The
the bearings front of
of which arethe casetop
located contains
and a
cut-out through which the card is visible, and also a lubber line reference.
bottom on the indicator case. The front of the case contains a cut-out through which the
card is visible, and also a lubber line reference.
The caging/setting knob is provided at the front of the case to set the indicator
onto the correct heading (magnetic). When the setting the heading, the inner
The caging/setting
gimbal has to knob
be is provided
caged at the front
to prevent of the
it from case to set
precessing asthe
theindicator onto the
outer gimbal is
correctrotated.
headingFigure
(magnetic). When the setting the heading, the inner
51 shows the construction of a directional gyro. gimbal has to be caged
to prevent it from precessing as the outer gimbal is rotated. Figure 51 shows the
construction of a directional gyro.

Directional Gyro
Directional
Figure 51 Gyro
Figure 51

Page 1-66 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.17 TURN & SLIP INDICATOR

1.17This
TURNindicator contains two independent mechanisms:
& SLIP INDICATOR

1. A gyroscopically
This indicator contains two independentcontrolled pointer mechanism for the detection and
mechanisms:
indication of the rate at which an aircraft turns.
1. A gyroscopically controlled pointer mechanism for the detection and indication of
2. A mechanism for the detection and indication of slip/slide.
the rate at which an aircraft turns.
A gimbal ring and magnifying system, which moves the pointer in the correct
2. A mechanism for the detection and indication of slip/slide.
rate of turn pointer. Although they are not always marked on a scale, they are
A gimbal ring and
classified as magnifying
follows: system, which moves the pointer in the correct sense over a
scale calibrated in what is termed “Standard Rates”, actuate the rate of turn pointer.
Although they are not always marked
1. Rate on a scale,
1 - Turn they are
Rate 180º perclassified
minute. as follows:

1. Rate 1 - Turn Rate

2. 180º
Rateper
2 -minute.
Turn Rate 360º per minute.

3. 360º
2. Rate 2 - Turn Rate Rateper
3 -minute.
Turn Rate 540º per minute.

4. 540º
3. Rate 3 - Turn Rate Rateper
4 -minute.
Turn Rate 720º per minute.

[Link]
Rate52
4 - shows a typical
Turn Rate Turn
720º per & Slip
minute. indicator.
Figure 52 shows a typical Turn & Slip indicator.

2 MIN

Turn & Slip Indicator

Figure 52
Turn & Slip Indicator
Figure 52

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-67

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

For the detection of rates of turn, a rate gyroscope is used and is arranged in the
For the detection
manner shown of in
rates of turn,
figure 53. a rate gyroscope is used and is arranged in the manner
shown in figure 53.

INPUT
AXIS

FWD
X Y1

F
Y X1
P

Rate Gyro Turn Indicator

Figure 53
Rate Gyro Turn Indicator
It differs in two respects from the displacementFiguregyro
53 as it only has one gimbal ring and a
calibrated spring restraining in the longitudinal axis YY1 . When the indicator is in its normal
It differs
operating in twothe
position respects fromaxis,
rotor spin the due
displacement gyro
to the spring as it only
restraint, willhas one be
always gimbal ring
horizontal
and and a calibrated
the turn pointer at spring restraining
the zero datum. in thethe
With longitudinal axis YY
rotor spinning, . Whenwill
its1rigidity thefurther
indicator is in its normal operating
ensure that the zero position is maintained. position the rotor spin axis, due to the spring
restraint, will always be horizontal and the turn pointer at the zero datum. With
the rotor spinning, its rigidity will further ensure that the zero position is
maintained.

Page 1-68 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

When the aircraft turns to the left about the vertical input axis the rigidity of the rotor will
resist the turning movement, which it detects as an equivalent force being applied to its rim
at point F. The gimbal ring and rotor will therefore be tilted about the longitudinal axis as a
result of precession at point P.

As the gimbal ring tilts, it stretches the calibrated spring until the force it exerts prevents
further deflection of the gimbal ring. Since precession of a rate gyro is equal to its angular
momentum and the rate of turn, then the spring force is a measure of the rate of turn.

Actual movement of the gimbal ring from its zero position can, therefore, be taken as the
required measure of turn rate.

1.17.1 BANK INDICATION

In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also necessary to have an indication
that an aircraft is correctly banked for the particular turn. A secondary indicating
mechanism is therefore provided, which, depends for its operation on the effect of
gravitational and centrifugal forces. A method commonly used for bank indication is one
utilising a ball in a curved liquid-filled glass tube as shown in Figure 26.

In the normal level flight the ball is held at the center of the tube by the force of gravity. Let
us assume the aircraft turns left at a certain airspeed and bank angle. The indicator case and
the tube move with the aircraft and centrifugal force (CF) in addition to that of gravity acts
upon the ball and tends to displace it outwards from the center of the tube. However, when
the turn is executed at the correct bank angle and matched with airspeed, then there is a
balanced condition between the two forces and so the resultant force (R) hold the ball in
the center of the tube.

If the airspeed were to be increased during the turn, then the bank angle and centrifugal
force would also be increased. As long as the bank angle is correct for the appropriate
conditions, the new resultant force will still hold the ball central.

If the bank angle for a particular rate of turn is not correct (under-banked/overbanked),
then the aircraft will tend to either skid or slip. In the skid condition the centrifugal force will
be the greatest, whereas in the slip condition the force of gravity is greatest.
 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 54 shows bank indication for various aircraft bank conditions.
Figure 54 shows bank indication for various aircraft bank conditions.

Bank Indications
Figure 54
Bank Indications
Figure 54

Page 1-70 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 1.18 TURN CO-ORDINATOR

The final instrument in this group is the turn co-ordinator. Basically, its
mechanism is changed slightly from the turn and slip indicator, so that it senses
rotation about the longitudinal axis, (bank) as well as the vertical axis, (turn). This
1.18 TURN CO-ORDINATOR
gives a more accurate indication to the pilot, of the turning of the aircraft.
The final instrument
Figure 55 shows ainTurn
this group is the turn
co-ordinator co-ordinator. Basically, its mechanism is
indicator.
changed slightly from the turn and slip indicator, so that it senses rotation about the
longitudinal axis, (bank) as well as the vertical axis, (turn). This gives a more accurate
indication to the pilot, of the turning of the aircraft.

Figure 55 shows a Turn co-ordinator indicator.

TURN COORDINATION

L R
2 MIN
NO PITCH
INFORMATION

Turn co-ordinator Indicator

Figure 55

Turn co-ordinator Indicator

Figure 55

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-71

1.19 HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)

The HSI consists of a servo-driven azimuth (compass) card, which is read in relation to a
miniature aircraft symbol in the center of the display, and a lubber line at the 12 o’clock
position, the azimuth card being driven by the gyrocompass system.

A glideslope pointer and scale on the right hand side of the indicator gives a conventional
display of the aircraft with respect to the glideslope. The scale is in a three-position rotation
display, the three positions being glideslope, when the scale is presenting ILS glideslope
deviation. The center mark is a rectangle and the outer marks are dots. No 2 scale is
presented to display vertical navigation display and No 3 scale shows vertical navigation
failure flag.

The course deviation bar represents the centerline of a selected VOR or a selected localiser
course. Deviation from a selected course is indicated by the bar moving across a scale,
which is represented by four white dots, two on either side of the center of the rotatable
mask.

Two windows in the course mask show indications of: -

1. To-From a VOR station, (a solid triangle with a V annotation).

2. To-From a selected NAV co-ordinate (a solid triangle with an N annotation).

3. To-From a station with aircraft ILS selected (a half-blue and half-yellow flag).

4. Failure flag (orange and yellow striped flag).

One radio bearing pointer displays the bearing to the next WPT. The bearing pointer is a
pink arrow.

A window to the left of the heading dial displays an ALERT annunciator flag to indicate the
proximity of a navigation reference point.

On the top left and top right hand corners of the instrument are to windows labelled DIST
(distance to waypoint) and GND SPD (ground speed) respectively.

Three windows located in the lower left hand corner of the instrument are blank until one
of the auxiliary servo monitors detects a persistent excessive null, at which time the ISM
causes the appropriate servo symbol to come into view.

A cursor consisting of two trapezoids indicates the selected heading on the heading dial. The
heading select indicator is remotely positioned by the heading (HDG) knob on the navigation
selector. A heading (HDG) flag will be displayed, and will cover the heading index at the 12
o’clock position if the heading source fails, or if there is interrupted supply.
 STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

fails, or if there is interrupted supply.

Selected course is displayed on the heading dial by an orange dagger-shaped
indicator, rotating in the centre of the heading dial. A similarly coloured pointer
oppositecourse
Selected the dagger-shaped
is displayed onindicator provides
the heading theanreciprocal
dial by of selected course.
orange dagger-shaped indicator,
The dagger and pointer, together with the airplane symbol, serve as the index
rotating in the centre of the heading dial. A similarly coloured pointer opposite the for dagger-
the course deviation indicator. The course select indicator is remotely positioned
shaped indicator provides the reciprocal of selected course. The dagger and pointer,
by means of the course setting knobs on the navigation selector. Figure 56
together
shows awith the RD700D
Sperry airplane symbol,
HSI. serve a s the index for the course deviation indicator.
The course select indicator is remotely positioned by means of the course setting knobs on
the navigation selector. Figure 56 shows a Sperry RD700D HSI.

SELECTED SELECTED
COURSE HEADING
CAPTURED CAPTURED

SELECTED
WAYPOINT
BEARING
CAPTURED

VERTICAL VERTICAL
FAIL FLAG NAVIGATION

GLIDESLOPE

COURSE MASK
ANNUNCIATION'S

Sperry RD700D HSI

Figure 56
Sperry RD700D HSI
Figure 56

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-73

1.20 COLLINS 331A-8K HSI

The HSI consists of a servo-driven azimuth (compass) card, which is read in relation to a
miniature aircraft symbol in the center of the display and a lubber line at the 12 o'clock
position. The azimuth card is driven by the gyro compass system.

A vertical track or glideslope deviation pointer and scale, on the right-hand side of the HSI,
gives a conventional display of the aircraft with respect to the glideslope. The deviation
scale is marked by five dash marks, one long dash mark in the center, two short dash marks
above it and two short dash marks below it. The vertical track or glideslope deviation
pointer is such that when the aircraft is on the glidepath the pointer is in the central
position on the scale. If the aircraft is off the glideslope, the pointer will move to indicate
whether the deviation is up or down and the amount of movement indicates the extent of
the deviation.

The course deviation bar represents the centerline of a selected VOR or localizer course. The
course deviation scale is marked by five dots, the center one being enclosed in a small circle.
If the aircraft moves off course, the deviation bar will move to indicate whether left or right
of selected course, and the amount of deviation.

A To-From pointer is used when the navigation receiver is tuned to, and receiving a VOR
signal. The to-from pointer indicates whether the selected course is "To" (pointer up) or
"from" (pointer down) the received signal. When the selected course is the same as the
selected VOR radial, and the aircraft is heading towards the signal course, a "to" indication is
given. When the selected course is the same as the selected VOR radial and the aircraft is
flying away from the signal course, a "From" indication is given.

An RNAV bearing pointer indicates the direction to the active waypoint. When not in the
RNAV mode, the pointer is biased to the 6 o'clock position.

Two digital LCD displays in the top left-hand and right-hand corners of the HSI indicate the
distance to go to the next waypoint (MILES) and the groundspeed of the aircraft (GND
SPEED). The brightness of the two displays can be adjusted using the HSI & RA DIM control
located on the main instrument panel.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 57 shows a Collins 331A-8K HSI.

Figure 57 shows a Collins 331A-8K HSI.

Collins 331A-8K HSI

Figure 57

Collins 331A-8K HSI

Figure 57

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-75

1.20.1 WARNING FLAGS

1. MAG annunciator.

Is displayed to show that the information is magnetic heading.

2. HEADING warning flag.

HEADING warning flag comes into view and covers the MAG annunciator if the heading
information becomes unreliable.

3. Navigation warning flag.

Comes into view if navigation data is (orange with white stripes) missing, or unreliable,
when the receiver is tuned to a VOR station.

4. VERT warning flag (GS).

Comes into view when glideslope data is missing or unreliable.

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.21 ANGLE OF ATTACK (AOA)
1.21 ANGLE OF ATTACK (AOA)
Apart from the main flight instruments, one item of information that the pilot needs to
knowApart from the
at various main
stages of flight
flight instruments,
is the angle ofone item Earlier
attack. of information
aircraft that
had athe pilotof
range needs
devices
to know at various stages of flight is the angle of attack. Earlier aircraft had
that gave the pilot indication of an approaching stall, which was an essential indicator but a
range
knowing theofangle
devices that gave
of attack the pilot an
has become indication ofpart
essential an approaching stall, larger
of flying modern, which aircraft.
was
an essential indicator but knowing the angle of attack has become an essential
part of flying modern, larger aircraft.
The simplest forms of angle of attack indicators are the Angle of Attack probe and the stall
[Link]
Thesimplest
probe consists of angle
forms of a hinged-vane-type sensorare
of attack indicators mounted in the
the Angle leadingprobe
of Attack edge and
of a
wing the
so that
stall vane. The probe consists of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the vane
the vane protrudes into the airstream. Figure 58 shows an Angle of Attack
sensor.
leading edge of a wing so that the vane protrudes into the airstream. Figure 58
shows an Angle of Attack vane sensor.

ELCTRICAL
CONNECTION
FWD

HINGED
VANE

SYNCHRO

INDEX
PINS
FUSELAGE
SKIN

Angle of Attack Vane Sensor

FigureVane
Angle of Attack 58 Sensor
Figure 58

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-77

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in a parallel position. If
AEROPLANE
the aircraft’s attitude changes such thatAERODYNAMICS,
the AOA increases, then by definition, the airflow
will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, &and
STRUCTURES so cause the vane to be deflected.
SYSTEMS
Figure 59 shows the detection of the AOA.
In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in a parallel

definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so
cause the vane to be deflected. Figure 59 shows the detection of the AOA.

A330

ANGLE
OF
ATTACK VANE ARM
AIRCRAFT ANGLE OF ATTACK
LONGITUDINAL TRANSDUCER
AXIS

FLIGHT PATH

AIRFLOW

Detecting AOA
Figure 59

Detecting AOA
Figure 59

When the AOA reaches that which the warning unit has been pre-set, the vane
activates a circuit to activate the stick shaker on the control column (Indicating the
When the is
aircraft AOA reaches that
approaching a which
stall). the warning unit has been pre-set, the vane activates a
circuit to activate the stick shaker on the control column (Indicating the aircraft is
approaching a stall).

Page 1-78 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.22 STALL
1.22 WARNING
STALL INDICATION
WARNING INDICATION

Figure
Fig 60 shows the “Stall Warning System”

DEMODULATOR

SHAKER
STICK
M
SS1
TRANSMITTER
POSITION
FLAP
AOA SIGNAL

VANE SENSOR
SUPP
HTR

SYNCHRO SUPP
K1
WOW
SW

GND
28V
DC

FLT
400Hz
115V

Stall
Stall Warning System
Warning System
Figure 60
Figure 60

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-79

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
The system in figure 60 consists of aAERODYNAMICS,
precision counter-balanced aerodynamic vane, which
positions a synchro. The vane isSTRUCTURES
protected against ice formation by an internal heating
& SYSTEMS
element. Also, since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is changed by the extension of the flaps,
the system
The sensor synchro
in figureis 60
alsoconsists
interconnected with a synchro
of a precision within the transmitter
counter-balanced aerodynamicof the flap
vane, which
position positions
indicating a synchro.
system, in order The vane the
to modify is protected
AOA signalagainst
output ice
as aformation
function ofbythe flap
anposition.
internal heating element. Also, since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is
changed by the extension of the flaps, the sensor synchro is also interconnected
with
Sticka shaking
synchroiswithin the transmitter
accomplished of the
by a motor flap
which is position indicating
secured to system,
the control columninand drives
order to modify the AOA signal output as a function of the flap position.
a weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to set up vibrations of the column, to
simulate the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition. Figure 61 shows a stick-
Stick shaking is accomplished by a motor which is secured to the control column
shaker installation.
and drives a weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to set up vibrations of
the column, to simulate the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition.
Figure 61 shows a stick-shaker installation.

MOUNTING
BRACKET

STICK-SHAKER
MOTOR

Stick-Shaker Installation
Stick-Shaker Installation
Figure 61
Figure 61

Page 1-80 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
1.23 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Modern technology has enabled some significant changes in the layout of flight
1.23 ELECTRONIC
instrumentation INSTRUMENT
on most SYSTEMS
aircraft currently in service. The biggest change has been the
introduction of Electronic Instrument systems. These systems have meant that many
Modern technology has enabled some significant changes in the layout of flight
complex Electro-mechanical instruments have now been replaced by TV type colour
instrumentation on most aircraft currently in service. The biggest change has
displays.
beenThese systems also
the introduction ofallow the exchange
Electronic Instrumentof images between
systems. Thesedisplay units
systems in the case
have
of display
meantfailures.
that many complex Electro-mechanical instruments have now been
replaced by TV type colour displays. These systems also allow the exchange of
There are many
images different
between Electronic
display units inInstrument Systems,
the case of displayincluding:
failures.

[Link] are many

Electronic different
Flight Electronic
Instrument SystemInstrument
(EFIS). Systems, including:
1. Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS).
2. Engine Instrumentation & Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
2. Engine Instrumentation & Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
3. Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM).
3. Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM).
Figure 62 shows a typical flight deck layout of an Airbus A320.
Figure 62 shows a typical flight deck layout of an Airbus A320.

COMBINED
AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
EADI ALTIMETER

ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

RADIO VERTICAL
MAGNETIC SPEED
INDICATOR EHSI INDICATOR

EFIS EFIS ECAM EFIS EFIS

PFD ND ENGINE
WARNINGS ND PFD

ECAM
SYSTEMS

GLASS FLIGHTDECK - AIRBUS A320

Flight Deck Electronic Instrumentation Layout

Figure
Flight Deck Electronic 62
Instrumentation Layout
Figure 62

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-81

 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

The Electronic Instrument System (EIS) also allows the flight crew to configure
the instrument layout by allowing manual transfer of the Primary Flight Display
(PFD) with the Navigation Display (ND) and the secondary Electronic Centralized
The Electronic
Aircraft Instrument
Monitoring (ECAM) System
display(EIS)
withalso
theallows the flight
ND. Figure 63crew to configure
shows the
the switching
instrument
panel layoutA320.
from Airbus by allowing manual transfer of the Primary Flight Display (PFD) with the
Navigation Display (ND) and the secondary Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring
(ECAM) display with the ND. Figure 63 shows the switching panel from Airbus A320.

ATT HDG AIR DATA E/S DMC ECAM / ND XFR

NORM NORM NORM NORM

CAPT F/O CAPT F/O CAPT F/O CAPT F/O
3 3 3 3 3 3

A320 EIS Switching Panel

Figure 63

A320 EIS Switching Panel

Figure 63

Page 1-82 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
As well as a manual transfer, the system will automatically transfer displays when either the
Asthe
PFD or well as a manual
primary transfer,fails.
ECAM display the The
system
PFDwill automaticallytransferred
is automatically transfer displays when
onto the
either the PFD or the primary ECAM display fails. The PFD is automatically
corresponding ND, with the ECAM secondary display used for the primary ECAM display.
transferred onto the corresponding ND, with the ECAM secondary display used
for the primary ECAM display.
The system will also automatically transfer the primary ECAM information onto the ND if a
doubleThe failure of the
system will ECAM display system
also automatically [Link]
transfer Figure 64 shows
primary ECAMainformation
block schematic
onto of the
EIS forthe
theNDAirbus 320. failure of the ECAM display system occurs. Figure 64 shows a
if a double
block schematic of the EIS for the Airbus 320.

DISPLAY DISPLAY DISPLAY

MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
DMS No 1 DMS No 3 DMS No 2

Electronic Instrument System (EIS)

Electronic Instrument System (EIS)
Figure
Figure 64
64

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-83

1.24 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

As in the case of conventional flight instrument systems, a complete EFIS installation is

made up of left (Captain) and right (First Officer) systems. Each system comprises:

1. Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI).

2. Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI).

3. Display Control Panel.

4. Symbol Generator.

The EADI and EHSI can either be positioned side by side or vertically top and bottom.
Normally the EADI is positioned on the top or on the onside position.

1.25 ELECTRONIC ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (EADI)

The EADI displays traditional attitude information (Pitch & Roll) against a two-colour sphere
representing the horizon (Ground/Sky) with an aircraft symbol as a reference. Attitude
information is normally supplied from an Attitude Reference System (ARS).

The EADI will also display further flight information, Flight Director commands right/left to
capture the flight path to Waypoints, airports and NAVAIDS and up/down to fly to set
altitudes. Information related to the aircraft’s position with respect to Localizer (LOC) and
Glideslope (GS) beams transmitted by an ILS. Auto Flight Control System (AFCS) deviations
and Auto throttle mode, selected airspeed (Indicated or Mach No) Groundspeed, Radio
Altitude and Decision Height information.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 65 shows a typical EADI display

Figure 65 shows a typical EADI display

Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI) Display

Figure 65

Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI) Display

Figure 65

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-85

The EADI has two display formats:

1. Full Time EADI Display (Data which is always present).

2. Part Time EADI Display (Data which is only present when active).

1.25.1 FULL TIME EADI DISPLAY DATA

Attitude Sphere: Moves with respect to the aircraft symbol to display actual pitch and
roll attitude.

Pitch Attitude: The pitch attitude display has white scale reference marks at 5°, 10°,
15°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 60° and 80° on the sphere.

Roll Attitude: Displays actual roll attitude through a moveable index and fixed scale
reference marks at 0°, 10°, 20°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°.

Aircraft Symbol: Serves as a stationary symbol of the aircraft. Aircraft pitch and roll
attitudes are displayed by the relationship between the fixed
miniature aircraft and the moveable sphere.

Flight Director Cue: Displays computed commands to capture and maintain a desired
flight path. Flying the aircraft symbol to the command cue satisfies
the commands.

Fast/Slow Display: The pointer indicates fast or slow error provided by an angle-of-
attack, airspeed or alternative reference system

Inclinometer: The EADI uses conventional inclinometer, which provides the pilot
with a display of aircraft slip or skid, and is used as an aid for
coordinated manoeuvres.

Attitude Source
Annunciation: The selected attitude source is not annunciated if it is the normal
source for that indicator. As other attitude sources are selected, they
are annunciated in white at the top left-hand side of the EADI. When
the pilot and co-pilot sources are the same, then the annunciation is
amber.
1.25.2 PART TIME EADI DISPLAYS

Several displays are in view only when being used. When not in use, these displays are
automatically removed from the EADI.

Radio Altitude: Displayed by a four-digit display from –20 to 2500 feet. Display
resolution between 200 and 2500 feet is in 10-foot increments. The
display resolution below 200 is 5 feet. The display disappears for
altitudes above 2500 feet (Radio Altitude max altitude is 2,500 feet).

Decision Height: Decision Height is displayed by a three-digit display. The set range is
from 0 to 990 feet in 10-foot increments. The DH display may be
removed by rotating fully counter clockwise the DH set knob.

Note; when the Radio Altimeter height is 100 feet above the DH, a white box appears
adjacent to the radio altimeter display. When at or below the DH, an Amber DH will appear
inside the white box.

Flight Director
Mode Annunciators: Flight director vertical and lateral modes are annunciated along the
top of the EADI. Armed vertical and lateral modes are annunciated in
white to the left of the captured vertical and lateral mode
annunciators. Capture mode annunciators are displayed in green and
are located on the top center for lateral modes and in the top right
corner for vertical modes. As the mode's transition from armed to
capture, a white box is drawn around the capture mode annunciator
for 5 seconds.

Marker Beacon: Displayed above the Radio Altimeter height information. The markers
are of a specified colour of:

Blue - Outer Marker.

Amber - Middle Marker.

White - Inner Marker

Rising Runway: a miniature rising runway displays Absolute altitude reference above
the terrain. It appears at 200 feet, and contacts the aircraft symbol at
touchdown (0 feet).
Rate-of-Turn: Pointer and scale at the bottom of the display indicates rate or turn.
Used with the inclinometer, will enable coordinated turns to be
achieved.

Glide Slope: By tuning to an ILS frequency, the Glide Slope information will be
displayed. Aircraft displacement from the Glide Slope beam centerline
is then indicated by the relationship of the aircraft to the Glide Slope
pointer. The letter “G” inside the vertical scale pointer identifies the
information as Glide Slope deviation. When tuning to other than an
ILS frequency, the Glide Slope display is removed.

Expanded Localizer: By tuning to an ILS frequency, the Rate-of-Turn display is replaced by

the expanded Localizer display. When tuning to other than an ILS
frequency, the expanded localizer display is replaced by the Rate-of
Turn display.

Vertical Navigation
Display: The deviation pointer indicates the VNAV‟s computed path center to
which the aircraft is to be flown. In this mode, the letter “V” inside the
vertical scale pointer identifies the information as VNAV deviation.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.26 ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (EHSI)

1.26The EHSI presents

ELECTRONIC a selectable,
HORIZONTAL dynamic
SITUATION colour (EHSI)
INDICATOR display of flight progress and
plan view orientation. The EHSI has a number of different modes of operation,
these are selectable by the flight crew and the number will be dependent on the
The EHSI presents a selectable, dynamic colour display of flight progress and plan view
system fitted.
orientation. The EHSI has a number of different modes of operation, these are selectable by
the flight crew and the number will be dependent on the system fitted.
Figure 66 shows an EHSI display.
Figure 66 shows an EHSI display.

Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) Display

Figure 66
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) Display
Figure 66

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-89

The EHSI has two display formats:

1. Full Time EADI Display (Data which is always present).

2. Part Time EADI Display (Data which are only present when active).

1.26.1 FULL TIME EHSI DISPLAYS

Aircraft Symbol: The aircraft symbol provides a quick visual cue as to the aircraft’s
position in relation to the selected course and heading, or actual
heading.

Heading Dial: Displays the heading information on a rotating heading dial graduated
in 5° increments. Fixed heading indexes are located at each 45°
position.

Heading “Bug” &

Heading Readout: The notched heading bug is positioned around the rotating heading
dial by the remote heading select knob on the Display Controller. A
digital heading select readout is also provided for convenience in
setting the heading bug. Heading select error information from the
heading bug is used to fly to the bug.

Course Deviation
Indicator: The course deviation bar represents the centerline of the selected
navigation or localizer course. The aircraft symbol pictorially shows
the aircraft position in relation to the displayed deviation.

Select Course
Pointer & Course
Readout: Course pointer is positioned inside the heading dial by the remote
select knob on the Display Controller. Course error information from
the course select pointer is used to fly the selected navigation path. A
digital course select readout is provided for convenience in setting the
select course pointer.
Distance Display: The distance display indicates the nautical miles to the selected DME
station or LRN Waypoint. Depending on the equipment, the distance
will be displayed in a 0 to 399.9 NM or a 0 to 3999 NM format. An
Amber “H” adjacent to the distance readout indicates DME Hold. This
will indicate to the crew that DME information is from the previous
VOR/DME beacon, and not the one providing VOR bearing.

Navigation Source
Annunciators: Annunciation of the navigation source is displayed in the upper right
hand corner. Long range navigation sources such as INS, VLF, RNAV
and FMS are displayed in blue to distinguish them from short-range
sources, which are annunciated in white.

Time-to-Go/Ground
Speed: Either Time-to-Go or Groundspeed can be displayed, selected via the
Display Controller. Ground Speed is calculated using the LRN, if fitted.
If no LRN, then the EFIS uses the DME distance to calculate Ground
Speed.

Drift Angle Bug: The drift angle bug with respect to the lubber line represents drift
angle left or right of the desired track. The drift angle bug with respect
to the compass card represents actual aircraft track. The bug is
displayed as a magenta triangle that moves around the outside of the
compass card.

Desired Track: When LRN is selected, the Course Pointer now becomes the Desired
Track Pointer. The position of the desired Track Pointer is controlled
by the LRN. A digital display of desired track (DRAK) is displayed in the
upper left-hand corner.

TO-FROM
Annunciator: An Arrowhead in the center of the EHSI indicates whether the
selected course will take the aircraft TO or FROM the station or
Waypoint. The TO-FROM annunciator is not in view during ILS
operation.

Heading Source
Annunciation: At the top center of the EHSI is the heading source annunciator.

Heading SYNC
Annunciator: The heading SYNC annunciator is located next to the upper left corner
and indicates the state of the compass system in the slaved mode.
The bar represents commands to the compass gyro to slew to the
indicated direction (+ for increased heading and 0 for decreased
heading). Heading SYNC is removed during compass FREE mode and
for LRN derived heading displays.
1.26.2 PART TIME EHSI DISPLAYS

Vertical Navigation Display: The vertical navigation display comes into view when the
VNAV mode on the flight director is selected. The deviation
pointer then indicates the VNAV‟s computed path center to
which the aircraft is to be flown. In this mode the letter “V”
inside the scale pointer identifies the deviation display.

Glide Slope Deviation: The Glide Slope display comes into view when a VHF NAV
source is selected and the NAV source is tuned to an ILS
frequency. The deviation pointer then indicates the Glide
Slope beam center to which the aircraft is to be flown. The
letter “G” inside the scale pointer identifies the deviation
display.

Bearing Pointer Source

Annunciators: The bearing pointers indicate relative bearing to the selected
NAVAID. Two bearing pointers are available and can be tuned
to either VOR or ADF NAVAIDs. If no NAVAIDs are selected
then the pointers and annunciators are removed. The bearing
source annunciators are colour and symbol coded with the
bearing pointers.

Elapsed Time Annunciation: When in the Elapsed Time (ET) mode, the ET display can read
minutes and seconds or hours and minutes. The hour/minute
mode will be distinguishable from the minute/second mode by
an “H” on the left of the digital display.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.26.3 PARTIAL COMPASS FORMAT

1.26.3 PARTIAL COMPASS FORMAT
The partial compass mode displays a 90 ARC of compass coordinates. The
Partial mode
The partial allowsmode
compass otherdisplays
featuresa such
90 ARCas of
MAP and Weather
compass Radar
coordinates. Thedisplays to
Partial mode
Be selected. Figure 67 shows a Partial EHSI display (Compass Mode).
allows other features such as MAP and Weather Radar displays to Be selected. Figure 67
shows a Partial EHSI display (Compass Mode).

EHSI Partial Compass Mode Display

Figure 67
EHSI Partial Compass Mode Display
Figure 67
Wind Vector
Wind Vector Display:
Display:Wind information is displayed
Wind information in any partial
is displayed in anyformat.
partialThe wind
format.
information can be
The wind shown as magnitude
information can be shownand direction or as head/tail
as magnitude and
component
direction or as head/tail component and cross wind on
and cross wind component, type used is determined
installation of EFIS. In
component, bothused
type cases,
is the arrow shows
determined the direction
on installation ofand
the number
[Link]
In both the velocity
cases, the of the wind
arrow shows(inthe
knots). Wind
direction
and the
information number indicates
is calculated the velocity of the wind (in
from the LRN.
knots). Wind information is calculated from the LRN.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-93

Range Rings: Range rings are displayed to aid in the determining the position of
radar returns and NAVAIDs. The range ring is the compass card
boundary and represents the selected range on the Radar.

NAVAID Position: NAVAID position can be selected during MAP mode. The source of the
NAVAID position marker is selected and annunciated in conjunction
with the associated bearing source and is colour coded.

Weather
Information: Weather information from the Radar can be displayed in partial
compass mode. Weather Radar data is presented in the following
colours:

1. Black = No storm.

2. Green = Moderate storm.

3. Yellow = Less severe storm.

4. Red = Severe storm.

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 68 shows
Figure an EHSIan
68 shows partial
EHSIformat
partialwith Weather
format Radar information.
with Weather Radar information.

EHSI Weather Radar Display

Figure 68

EHSI Weather Radar Display

Figure 68

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-95

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.26.4 MAP MODE

1.26.4
The MAPMAP MODE
mode will allow the display of more navigational information in the
partial compass mode. Information on the location of Waypoints, airports,
The MAP mode
NAVAIDs willplanned
and the allow theroute
display
canof be
more navigational
overlaid on theinformation in the partial
compass mode.
Weather
compass information can also
mode. Information on be
thedisplayed
location ofinWaypoints,
the MAP airports,
mode toNAVAIDs
give a very
and the
comprehensive
planned route candisplay.
be overlaid on the compass mode. Weather information can also be
displayed in the MAP mode to give a very comprehensive display.
Figure 69 shows an EHSI MAP mode display.
Figure 69 shows an EHSI MAP mode display.

EHSI MAP Mode Display.

Figure 69

EHSI MAP Mode Display.

Figure 69

Page 1-96 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.26.5 COMPOSITE DISPLAY

1.26.5 COMPOSITE DISPLAY
In the event of a display unit failure, the remaining good display can display a
In the event of a display unit failure, the remaining good display can display a “Composite
basically a display consisting elements from an EADI and EHSI display.
Display”. This display is selected via the Display Controller and is basically a display
consisting elements
Figure 70 showsfrom an EADI
a typical and EHSIdisplay.
composite display. Figure 70 shows a typical composite
display.

EFIS Composite Display

Figure 70 Display
EFIS Composite
Figure 70

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-97

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.27 EFIS CONTROLLER

1.27 EFISthe
Allows CONTROLLER
crew to select the required display configuration and what information
is to be displayed. Both Captain and Co-
Allows the crew tohave
The controllers selecttwo
themain
required display configuration and what information is to be
functions:
displayed. Both Captain and Co-Pilot have their own display controller’s. The controllers
have two main
Display functions:
Controller: Selects the display format for EHSI as either FULL,
ARC, WX or MAP.
Display Controller: Selects the display format for EHSI as either FULL, ARC, WX or MAP.
Source Select: Selects the system that will provide information
Source Select: required
Selects the systemfor
thatdisplay. Theinformation
will provide source information
required will be
for display.
VOR,
The source ADF, INS,
information willFMS, VHF
be VOR, and
ADF, NAV.
INS, FMS, VHF and NAV.

EFIS
EFIS Display
Display Controllers
Controllers are shown
are shown at Figure
at Figure 71. 71.

DISPLAY SELECT BUTTONS

FULL GS SC
WX ET MAP REV
ARC TTG CP

CRS DIM DH BOT TOP HDG

TEST

RASTER DIM

DISPLAY CONTROLLER

SOURCE SELECT BUTTONS

NAV VLF FMS INS 1 INS 2 HDG ATT

ADF 2 VOR 2
VOR 1
ADF 1
ADF 2
AUTO
ADF 1
OFF
OFF
BRG BRG

SOURCE SELECT CONTROLLER

EFISDisplay
EFIS Display and
and Source
SourceControllers
Controllers
Figure
Figure 71

Page 1-98 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

1.27.1 DISPLAY CONTROLLER

FULL/ARC: The FULL/ARC button is used to change the EHSI display from full
compass rose display to a partial compass display format. Successive
pushes of the button change the display format back and forth
between FULL and ARC.

WX (Weather): The WX button is used to call up weather radar returns on the partial
compass display. If the EHSI is in the FULL display format, selecting the
WX display will automatically select the ARC format. A second push of
the WX button will remove the weather information but the ARC
format will remain.

GS/TTG: By pressing the GS/TTG button, Groundspeed or the Time-to-GO will

alternately be displayed in the lower right corner of the EHSI.

ET: By pressing the ET button, Elapsed time is displayed. If the ET button

is pressed again, it will zero the displayed time. The sequence is:

1. Zero.

2. Start.

3. Stop.

MAP: By pressing the MAP button, the full compass display is changed to
the partial compass display, with active Waypoints displayed. Also
VOR/DME ground station positions will be displayed.

SC/CP: By pressing the SC/CP button, the flight director command cues are
toggled back and forth from single cue (SC) configuration to cross
pointer (CP) configuration.
REV: In the event of an EADI/EHSI display failure, the REV button may also
be used to display a composite format on the remaining good display.
The first push of the button will blank the EHSI and put the composite
display onto the EADI. The second push blanks the EADI and puts the
composite display onto the EHSI. A third push will return EHSI/EADI to
normal.

CRS Select Knob: Rotation of the Course select knob allows the course pointer on the
EHSI to be rotated to the desired course.

DIM: Rotation of the outer concentric DIM knob allows the overall
brightness of the EADI, EHSI to be adjusted. After the reference levels
are set, photoelectric sensors maintain the brightness level over
various lighting conditions.

DH: Rotation of the inner concentric DH knob allows the Decision Height,
displayed on the EADI, to be adjusted. If the knob is rotated fully
counter clockwise, the DH display is removed.

TEST: By pressing the TEST button, the displays will enter the test mode. In
the test mode, flags and cautions are presented along with a check of
the flight director mode annunciations. If the test is successful a
“PASS” is displayed. If the test is unsuccessful then an “FD FAIL” is
annunciated.

RASTER DIM
TOP/BOT: Rotation of the outer (Bottom display) and inner (Top display)
concentric knobs adjusts the raster scan display (Weather Radar and
Attitude Sphere).

HDG: Rotation of the heading select knob allows the heading select bug to
be rotated to the desired heading.
1.27.2 SOURCE CONTROLLER

Used to select the available sources of heading, attitude, bearing and navigational
information for display. Since each aircraft is different, the source controller is normally
tailored to fit each need.

NAV: This button is used to control the source of VHF NAV display
information. Each push of the button will toggle the source between
pilot and co-pilot’s NAV information. VHF systems include DME, ILS
and VOR.

LRN: Long Range Navigation selections depend on the systems available.

These include INS, VLF and FMS systems.

ATT: Attitude button selects the source of attitude information. Each push
of the button will select a different source for display. Not available to
all aircraft.

BRG: This knob allows the selection of VOR and ADF bearings to be
displayed. The selected source is annunciated on the left-hand side of
the display and the bearing to the selected beacon via two bearing
pointers.
 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The EFIS comprises the following units:
The EFIS comprises the following units:
1. Symbol Generator (SG).
1. Symbol Generator (SG).
2. Display units X 2 (EADI & EHSI).
2. Display units X 2 (EADI & EHSI).
3. Control Panel.
3. Control Panel.

4. Remote Light Sensor.

4. Remote Light Sensor.

Figure
Figure 72 shows
72 shows the units
the EFIS EFIS and
unitssignal
and signal interface
interface in block
in block schematic
schematic [Link].

Honeywell

ATT 2 GS

AOA 20 20
F
10 10
G
FULL GS SC
ARC
WX
TTG
ET MAP
CP
REV
10 10
S
DIM DH BOT TOP CMD 20 20
CRS HDG
M .99
I
TEST 200DH DH 140RA

EFIS SG No 1
RASTER DIM

AIR
DATA
COMP NAV VLF FMS INS 1 INS 2 ATT
HDG
Honeywell
ADF 2 VOR 2
VOR 1 CRS NAV 1
INERTIAL
ADF 1
AUTO
ADF 2
ADF 1
345 H 2.1 NM
+0 N
33
OFF OFF 3
REF BRG BRG

30

6
SYSTEM

W
VOR 1

E 1
24

2
ADF 1 21 15
S
HDG
GSPD
NAV AID 013 130 KTS

ILS/VOR
EFIS SG No 3
RAD ALT
Honeywell

ATT 2 GS
WEATHER AOA 20 20
F
RADAR 10 10
G

10 10
S
DME CMD
M .99
20 20
FULL
ARC
WX
GS
TTG
ET MAP
SC
CP
REV 200DH DH 140RA

CRS DIM DH BOT TOP

FMS
HDG

TEST

RASTER DIM

AFCS EFIS SG No 2
Honeywell

CRS NAV 1
GPWS
NAV VLF FMS INS 1 INS 2 HDG ATT
345 H 2.1 NM
+0 N
ADF 2 VOR 2 33 3
VOR 1
30

ADF 1
ADF 2
6

AUTO
ADF 1
W

OFF OFF VOR 1

E 1

BRG BRG
24

ADF 1 21 15
S
HDG
GSPD
013 130 KTS

EFIS Block Schematic

Figure 72
EFIS Block Schematic
Figure 72

Page 1-102 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

1.28 OTHER SYSTEM INDICATIONS

There are endless different instrument displays, which show the pilot's or flight engineer,
the condition of the aircraft's many systems, the range of instruments depending on the size
of the aircraft. On earlier airliners there could have been dozens of instruments on the
panels to pass on information regarding, for example, oil temperature & pressure, cabin
altitude, hydraulic oil quantity, electrical power being used, etc.

1.29 POWERPLANT INSTRUMENTATION

Information required by the flight crew to enable them to monitor the engines include:

1. Fuel Contents.

2. Fuel Flow.

3. Engine RPM.

4. Engine Temperature.

5. Engine pressure.

1.30 FUEL CONTENTS GAUGE

Most modern aircraft have a number of fuel tanks within the wing structure and each
individual tank's contents must be known. There are two main methods of indicating fuel
contents:

1. Resistance Gauges.

2. Capacitance Quantity Indicators.

1.30.1 RESISTANCE GAUGES

This type of gauge tends to found on smaller aircraft. It has a float in the fuel tank that is
connected to a variable resistor. As the fuel level changes, the float will move, thus changing
the resistance, which in turn will alter the current flow through a DC circuit, which in turn
will operate a meter indicating fuel contents.
 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 73 shows a simplified resistance gauge.

Figure 73 shows a simplified resistance gauge.

INDICATOR

S
TANK
RESISTOR

+ DC
POWER

FUEL TANK

Resistance Gauge
Figure 73

1.30.2 CAPACITANCE QUANTITY INDICATORS

Resistance Gauge
This has the advantage over other quantity systems
Figure 73 in that it can give accurate readings in
very large or unusually shaped tanks. The probes within the fuel tank are actually capacitors.
The two plates
1.30.2 of the capacitor
CAPACITANCE QUANTITY willINDICATORS
be separated by fuel on the lower end and air on the
upper end. Since fuel and air have different dielectric constant values, the amount of
capacitance
This has the willadvantage
change as the fuel
over levelquantity
other rises andsystems
falls. Theinprobes
that itwill
canthen
givesend signals to
accurate
readings in very large or unusually shaped tanks. The probes within the
the flight deck gauges to indicate fuel contents. This system usually includes a totalizer, fuel tank
are actually
which will give capacitors. Thetotal
a reading of the twofuel
plates of the Some
on board. capacitor will be separated
fuel systems by fuel
will also include
on the lower end and air on the
indications of fuel used since take-off. upper end. Since fuel and air have different
dielectric constant values, the amount of capacitance will change as the fuel level
rises and falls. The probes will then send signals to the flight deck gauges to
indicate fuel contents. This system usually includes a totalizer, which will give a
reading of the total fuel on board. Some fuel systems will also include indications
of fuel used since take-off.

Page 1-104 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 74 shows a circuit of a capacitance quantity system.

Figure 74 shows a circuit of a capacitance quantity system.

TANK UNIT

LOOP
IS A

EMPTY LOOP
IB B

REF C
FULL
2 - PHASE DISCRIMINATION
MOTOR STAGE

AMPLIFIER
STAGE

INDICATOR
REF
PHASE AMPLIFIER UNIT

Capacitance Quantity Indicating System

Figure 74

Capacitance Quantity Indicating System

Figure 74

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-105

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.31 FUEL
1.31 FLOW
FUEL INDICATOR
FLOW INDICATOR

Although
Although thethe amount
amount of fuel
of fuel consumed
consumed during
during a given
a given flight
flight maymayvaryvary slightly
slightly between
between engines of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful
engines of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of the satisfactory indication of
the satisfactory operation of the engine and the amount of fuel being consumed
operation of the engine and the amount of fuel being consumed during flight. A typical
during flight. A typical system consists of a fuel flow transmitter, which is fitted
system consists
into the of a fuel fuel
low pressure flowsystem,
transmitter,
and which is fittedwhich
an indicator, into the low pressure
shows the rate offuel system,
fuel
andflow
an indicator,
and the total fuel used in pounds per hour. The transmitter measures the per
which shows the rate of fuel flow and the total fuel used in pounds
hour.
fuelThe
flowtransmitter
electricallymeasures the fuel flow
and an associated electrically
electronic unitand
givesan aassociated
signal to electronic
the unit
gives a signalproportional
indicator to the indicator
to theproportional to the 75
fuel flow. Figure fuelshows
flow. Figure
a fuel 75
flowshows a fuel flow
transmitter &
indicator.& indicator.
transmitter

Fuel Flow Transmitter & Indicator

Figure 75
Fuel Flow Transmitter & Indicator
Figure 75

Page 1-106 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

In In
some
some aircraft, a combined
aircraft, fuel flow/pressure
a combined indicator
fuel flow/pressure is [Link]
indicator typeThis
used. of indicator
type of
usually
indicator usually has two pointers moving over the double-scale, one pointerand
has two pointers moving over the double-scale, one pointer the right engine thethe
other
rightthe left engine.
engine and theOnother
most the
largeleft
passenger
engine. aircraft,
On most a dedicated fuel flow aircraft,
large passenger indicatorais
used for each engine. Figure 76 shows two types of fuel flow indicators.
dedicated fuel flow indicator is used for each engine. Figure 76 shows two types
of fuel flow indicators.

TWIN ENGINED COMBINED FUEL FLOW/PRESSURE

INDICATOR

SINGLE ENGINE FUEL FLOW INDICATOR

Fuel Flow Indicators

Figure 76
Fuel Flow Indicators
Figure 76

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-107

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.31.1 FUEL
1.31.1 FLOW
FUEL FLOWTRANSMITTERS
TRANSMITTERS

There
There areare
twotwo types
types of of fuel
fuel flow
flow transmitters
transmitters currentlyininuse:
currently use:

1. Synchronous
1. Synchronous Mass Flow System.
Mass Flow Flow-meter Flow-meter System.

2. Motorless Mass Flow Meter System.

2. Motorless Mass Flow Meter System.
1.31.2 SYNCHRONOUS MASS FLOW FLOW -METER SYSTEM
1.31.2 SYNCHRONOUS MASS FLOW FLOW -METER SYSTEM
This system measures mass flow rather than volume. In this way, it
compensates
This for fuelmass
system measures temperature in its
flow rather thanreadout.
[Link] system
In this way,also measures infor fuel
it compensates
pounds per hour. Figure 77 shows a schematic diagram of the Synchronous
temperature in its readout. The system also measures in pounds per hour. Figure 77 shows
Mass Flow Flow-meter System.
a schematic diagram of the Synchronous Mass Flow Flow-meter System.

CALIBRATED
RESTRAINING TURBINE DECOUPLING IMPELLER
SPRINGS DISK
FUEL FLOW

IMPELLER
MOTOR

FLUID
PASSAGE
FLUID
PASSAGE

115V TRANSMITTER
400Hz

MOTOR
CIRCUIT

INDICATOR

Synchronous Mass Flow Flow-meter System

Synchronous Mass Flow Flow-meter
Figure 77 System
Figure 77

Page 1-108 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Referring to figure 77, fuel enters the transmitter
STRUCTURES impeller,
& SYSTEMS which is rotated at a constant
60rpm by the synchronous impeller motor. The temperature of the fuel will determine its
Referring to figure 77, fuel enters the transmitter impeller, which is rotated at a
volume constant
and the amount of force to be created by the action of the impeller. The turbine is
60rpm by the synchronous impeller motor. The temperature of the fuel
twisted will
against its retaining springs
determine its volume and by
thethe massofflow
amount forceforce
to becreated
createdbybyimpeller movement.
the action of
The masstheflow electrical
impeller. Thetransmitter arrangement
turbine is twisted works
against its on the
retaining principle
springs ofmass
by the a torque
flow
[Link] created by impeller movement. The mass flow electrical transmitter
arrangement works on the principle of a torque synchro.
1.31.3 MOTORLESS MASS M
1.31.3 MOTORLESS FLOW METER SYSTEM
ASS FLOW METER SYSTEM

The motorless flow meter

The motorless flow represents the latest
meter represents in electronic
the latest solid-state
in electronic fuelfuel
solid-state measuring
systems. It is small in size and accounts for variables such as fuel temperaturesfuel
measuring systems. It is small in size and accounts for variables such as and specific
temperatures and specific gravity with an accuracy of 1% as opposed
gravity with an accuracy of 1% as opposed to 2% for motor driven flow meters. Almost to 2% for all
motor driven flow meters. Almost all the large turbine powered aircraft are
the largeconfigured
turbine powered aircraft are configured with the motorless type,
with the motorless type, pound per hour fuel flow meter system. pound per hour
fuel flowFigure
meter78system.
shows a Figure 78 shows
schematic of thea Motorless
schematicMassof the Motorless
Flow Meter. Mass Flow Meter.

DRUM
t
PICK-OFF PICK-OFF
COIL 1 COIL 2

DRIVE

FUEL
FLOW

IMPELLER
SPRING MAGNET
MAGNET
TWO
ONE

Motorless Mass Flow Meter

Motorless Mass78
Figure Flow Meter
Figure 78

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-109

Referring to figure 78, The flow meter transmitter converts the rate into two electronic
signals. The signals are created as the flowing fuel gives an angular displacement to two
continuously rotating magnets. The magnets induce electronic impulses into stationary coils
and the time difference is used as a measure of the mass flow rate.

The fuel enters from the drive end and rotates the drum containing magnet 1 and the drive
shaft. The spring connects the drive shaft to the impeller containing magnet 2. As the
magnets rotate, the pick-off coils receive current pulses, the first pulse occurring at pick-off
coil 1. Then as the spring deflects in proportion to fuel flow, magnet 2 turns with the
impeller and induces a current pulse with a time lag into pick-off coil 2.

The greater the mass flow, the greater the spring deflection and angular difference between
the magnets. The time displacement which, results is directly proportional to mass flow rate
in this motorless transmitter design. The indicator contains electronic circuits, which convert
the time difference to a pound per hour readout.
 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.32PRESSURE
1.32 PRESSURE INDICATORS
INDICATORS

ItItisisessential
essentialforfor
thethe correct
correct andand
safesafe operation
operation of theofengine
the engine that accurate
that accurate indication is
indication is obtained of both the temperature and pressure of the engine oil and
obtained of both the temperature and pressure of the engine oil and fuel supply. Figure 79
fuel supply. Figure 79 shows a fuel pressure indicator and an engine oil
shows a fuel pressure indicator and an engine oil pressure indicator.
pressure indicator.

FUEL PRESSURE INDICATOR

ENGINE OIL PRESSURE INDICATOR

Fuel
Fuel&&Oil
OilPressure Indicators
Pressure Indicators
Figure 79
Figure 79

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-111

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are two methods of detecting the pressure, these are:
There are two methods of detecting the pressure, these are:
1. Pressure Capsule detection.
1. Pressure Capsule detection.
2. Bourbon Tube detection.
2. Bourbon Tube detection.
1.32.1 PRESSURE
1.32.1 CAPSULE
PRESSURE DETECTION
CAPSULE DETECTION

This type
This tyof indicator utilizes a “pressure capsule” or “diaphragm”. Like the bourbon tube, a
diaphragm
bourbontypetube,pressure indictortype
a diaphragm is attached to indictor
pressure a capillary
is tube, which
attached toattaches to the
a capillary fuel
tube,
system
whichand carries pressurised
attaches fuel to the
to the fuel system anddiaphragm. As the diaphragm
carries pressurised fuel to becomes
the diaphragm.
pressurised it expands,becomes
As the diaphragm causing anpressurised
indicator pointer to rotate.
it expands, Figurean
causing 80 indicator
shows a pressure
pointer
to rotate.
capsule Figure
type fuel 80 shows
pressure a pressure capsule type fuel pressure indicator.
indicator.

DIAPHRAGM

Capsule Type Pressure Indicator

Capsule Type Pressure
Figure 80 Indicator
Figure 80

Page 1-112 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.32.2 BOURDON
1.32.2 TUBE
BOURDON DETECTION
TUBE DETECTION

TheThe bourdon
bourdon tubetube is made
is made with awith a metal
metal tube
tube that that is formed
is formed in a shape
in a circular circular shape
with a
with across-section.
flattened flattened cross-section. Onewhile
One end is open end the
is open
otherwhile the other
is sealed. is sealed.
The open end of theThe
open end of the bourdon tube is connected to a capillary tube containing
bourdon tube is connected to a capillary tube containing the pressurised medium. As the the
pressurised
pressurised mediummedium.
enters As
thethe pressurised
bourdon tube, themedium enters
tube tends the bourdon
to straighten. tube,athe
Through series
tube tends to straighten. Through a series of gears, this movement
of gears, this movement is used to move the indicating pointer on the instrument is used
[Link]
move the indicating pointer on the instrument face. Figure 81 shows a Bourdon
Figure 81 shows a Bourdon tube mechanism.
tube mechanism.

POINTER BOURDON
STAFF TUBE

ANCHOR
POINT
GEARING

BourdonTube
Bourdon TubeMechanism
Mechanism
Figure8181
Figure

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-113

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

The most common method used on modern passenger aircraft is a pressure

The most common
transmitter and method
[Link]
Theon modern ispassenger
operation aircraft
that oil/fuel is a acting
pressure pressure
on transmitter
a and
indicator. Thetube
bourdon operation is that
within the oil/fuel moves
transmitter pressure
anacting on a bourdon
electromagnet core. tube
This within the
movement is then transmitted to the indicator via a torque synchro
transmitter moves an electromagnet core. This movement is then transmitted to the system,
moving
indicator viaaapointer
torqueover the calibrated
synchro pressure
system, moving scale. over
a pointer Figure
the82calibrated
shows a pressure scale.
schematic of this system.
Figure 82 shows a schematic of this system.

PRESSURE
INPUT
26 V AC

ENGINE
FIREWALL

BOURDON
FLIGHTDECK
TUBE
PRESSURE
INDICATOR
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER

Pressure Transmitter and indicator

Figure 82
Pressure Transmitter and indicator
Figure 82

Page 1-114 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.33 OILO&ILFUEL
1.33 TEMPERATURE
& FUEL INDICATORS
TEMPERATURE INDICATORS

There areare
There twotwo
main types
main of temperature
types sensors
of temperature used used
sensors in theinoilthe
& fuel
oil &temperature
fuel
measurement,
temperature these are:
measurement, these are:

1. Resistive Bulb Sensor.

1. Resistive Bulb Sensor.

2. Thermocouple Sensor.
2. Thermocouple Sensor.
1.33.1 RESISTIVE BULB SENSOR
1.33.1 RESISTIVE BULB SENSOR
Oil & fuel temperatures are sensed by a temperature sensitive element (resistive
OilBULB),
& fuel temperatures
fitted in the oilare sensed
and by a temperature
fuel system. sensitive
A temperature element
sensor and(resistive
indicatorBULB),
is
fitted in the oil and
shown in figure 82. fuel system. A temperature sensor and indicator is shown in figure 82.

28V DC

TEMPERATURE
BULB
(RESISTIVE TYPE)
CONNECTOR
PINS
OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR

MICA
INSULATOR

MICA
CORE

COMPENSATING
COIL
NICKEL WINDING
ON MICA CORE

Temperature Sensor & Indicator

Figure 82
Temperature Sensor & Indicator
Figure 82

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-115

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The indicator contains a Wheatstone Bridge circuit with the temperature sensor as the
Theresistance.
variable indicator contains
A change a Wheatstone Bridge circuit
rise in temperature causeswith theintemperature
a rise the resistance sensor
value and,
as the variable resistance. A change rise in temperature causes a rise
consequently, unbalances the bridge network with a corresponding flow of current at the in the
resistance value and, consequently, unbalances the bridge network with a
indicator. The indicator
corresponding flowpointer is deflected
of current by an amount
at the indicator. equivalent
The indicator to the
pointer temperature
is deflected
change
by and this is recorded
an amount equivalentontoanthe
indicator calibrated
temperature in degrees
change and this centigrade.
is recorded on an
indicator calibrated in degrees centigrade.
1.33.2 THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR
1.33.2 THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR
The advantage of the thermocouple sensor over the resistive bulb type is that it requires no
The advantage of the thermocouple sensor over the resistive bulb type is that it
power from the
requires no aircraft electrical
power from systemelectrical
the aircraft to operate, It is to
system self-contained
operate, It is and
self-self-generating
circuit. It derives
contained its self-generating
and power from a pair of dissimilar
circuit. It derivesmetals,
its power ironfrom
andaconstantan, which when
pair of dissimilar
heated at theiron
metals, hotand
junction, produces
constantan, a millivoltage
which when heated and atcauses
the hotajunction,
current flow through
produces a the
meter. Figure 83 and
millivoltage shows the thermocouple
causes a current flow sensor
throughand theindicator.
meter. Figure 83 shows the
thermocouple sensor and indicator,

CONSTANTAN (-)
(YELLOW)

IRON (+)
(BLACK)

THERMOCOUPLE
HOT JUNCTION

OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR

Thermocouple & Indicator

Figure 83
Thermocouple & Indicator
Figure 83

Page 1-116 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.34 ENGINE RPM INDICATORS

1.34 ENGINE RPM INDICATORS
All engines have their rotational speed (rpm) indicated, on two spool or triple
spool engines, the high pressure assembly speed (N3) is always indicated; in
All engines have their rotational speed (rpm) indicated, on two spool or triple spool engines,
most cases, additional indicators show the speed of the low pressure (N1) and
the high pressure assembly speed (N3 ) is always indicated; in most cases, additional
intermediate pressure (N2) assemblies. Engine speed indication is electrically
indicators show
transmitted fromthe speed generator
a small of the low pressure
driven by(N1the) and intermediate
engine pressure
to an indicator (N2
that )
shows
assemblies.
the speed asEngine speed indication
a percentage is electrically
of the maximum transmitted
engine [Link] a small
Figure 84 generator
shows thedriven
by the engine to an indicator that shows
compressor speeds for a triple spool engine. the speed as a percentage of the maximum engine
speed. Figure 84 shows the compressor speeds for a triple spool engine.

INTERMEDIATE
LOW PRESSURE PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE
LOW SPEED INTERMEDIATE HIGH SPEED
N1 COMPRESSOR SPEED N3 COMPRESSOR
N2 COMPRESSOR

Compressor
Compressor Spool
Spool Speeds
Speeds
Figure
Figure 84 84

The engine speed is often used to assess the engine thrust, but it does not give
an absolute indication of the thrust being produced because inlet temperature
The pressure
and engine speed is often affect
conditions used tothe
assess theatengine
thrust thrust,
a given but speed.
engine it does not give an absolute
indication of the thrust being produced because inlet temperature and pressure conditions
affect the thrust at a given engine speed.

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 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure
Figure 85 shows
85 shows two types
two types of engine
of engine rpm indicators.
rpm indicators.

ENGINE RPM
INDICATOR

N1 PERCENTAGE
INDICATOR

Engine Speed Indicators

Figure 85

Engine Speed Indicators

Figure 85

Page 1-118 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.34.1 ENGINE SPEED GENERATOR

1.34.1 ENGINE SPEED GENERATOR
The Engine speed generator supplies a three-phase alternating current, the
frequency
The of which
Engine speed is dependent
generator supplies upon engine speed.
a three-phase Thecurrent,
alternating generator
the output
frequency of
frequency
which controls
is dependent the engine
upon speed speed.
of a synchronous
The generatormotor in the
output indicator,
frequency and the speed
controls
rotation of a magnet assembly housed in a drum or drag-cup induces movement
of a synchronous motor in the indicator, and rotation of a magnet assembly housed in a
of the
drum or drum andinduces
drag-cup consequent movement
movement of theand
of the drum indicator pointer.
consequent Figure 86
movement shows
of the
an engine speed generator & indicator.
indicator pointer. Figure 86 shows an engine speed generator & indicator.

SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR FIELD

POINTER
YOKE

SPOOL
DRIVE

FLUX
COUPLING
SPRING

INDICATOR

GENERATOR
FIELD
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
OUTPUT

Engine Speed Generator & Indicator

Engine Speed Figure
Generator
86 & Indicator
Figure 86

Where there is no provision for driving a generator, a variable-reluctance speed

probe, in conjunction with a phonic wheel, may be used to induce an electric
current that is amplified and then transmitted to an indicator. This method can be
Where
used there is no provision
to provide for driving
an indication of rpm,a generator,
without thea requirement
variable-reluctance speed probe, in
for a separately
conjunction with a phonic
driven generator, wheel,
with its may bedrives,
associated used tothus
induce an electric
reducing current that
the number of is amplified
and then transmitted to an indicator. This
components and moving parts of the engine. method can be used to provide an indication of
rpm, without the requirement for a separately driven generator, with its associated drives,
thus reducing the number of components and moving parts of the engine.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-119

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 87 shows a variable-reluctance speed probe and phonic wheel system.
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 87 shows a variable-reluctance speed probe and phonic wheel system.

SPEED SIGNAL
TO AMPLIFIER

COMPRESSOR
CASE

SPEED
PROBE
DRIVE
SHAFT

PHONIC
WHEEL

Variable-Reluctance
Variable-ReluctanceSpeed Probe
Speed & Phonic
Probe WheelWheel
& Phonic
Figure 87 87
Figure

The speed probe is positioned on the compressor casing in line with the phonic
wheel, which is a machined part of the compressor shaft. The teeth on the
periphery
The speed probeofis the wheel pass
positioned on thethe probe once
compressor every
casing revolution
in line with theand induce
phonic an
wheel,
electric current by varying the magnetic flux across a coil in the probe.
which is a machined part of the compressor shaft. The teeth on the periphery of the wheel The
magnitude
pass the probe onceof the current
every is governed
revolution by an
and induce theelectric
rate ofcurrent
changebyofvarying
the magnetic flux
the magnetic
and is thus directly related to the engine speed.
flux across a coil in the probe. The magnitude of the current is governed by the rate of
change of the magnetic flux and is thus directly related to the engine speed.
In addition to providing an indication of rotor speed, the current induced at the
speed probe can be used to illuminate a warning lamp on the instrument panel to
In addition to providing an indication of rotor speed, the current induced at the speed probe
indicate to the flightcrew that a rotor assembly is turning. This is particularly
can be used to illuminate a warning lamp on the instrument panel to indicate to the flight
important at engine start, because it informs the flightcrew when to open the fuel
crew cocks
that a rotor assembly
to allow fuel toisthe
turning.
[Link] is particularly important at engine start, because
it informs the flight crew when to open the fuel cocks to allow fuel to the engine.

Page 1-120 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.35EXHAUST
1.35 EXHAUST TEMPERATUREINDICATING
TEMPERATURE INDICATING

Thetemperature
The temperature of of
thethe exhaust
exhaust gases
gases is always
is always monitored
monitored closelyclosely duringoperation,
during engine engine
operation, especially during the starting cycle when overheat damage is most
especially during the starting cycle when overheat damage is most prevalent. Hot section
prevalent. Hot section temperature is considered the most critical of all engine
temperature is considered the most critical of all engine operating parameters because an
operating parameters because an out of limits condition can render an engine
out of limits condition can render an engine unairworthy in a matter of seconds.
unairworthy in a matter of seconds.
There
Thereare a number
are of different
a number locations
of different that that
locations the exhaust temperature
the exhaust can becan
temperature measured
be
and thus a number of different indicators such as:
measured and thus a number of different indicators such as:

1. [Link]
Turbine InletTemperature
Inlet Temperature(TIT)
(TIT) – Indicates
Indicatesthe
thetemperature is being
temperature monitored
is being
forward of
monitored the turbine
forward of thewheel(s).
turbine wheel(s).

2. [Link]
InterstageTurbine
TurbineTemperature
Temperature (ITT)
(ITT)– Indicates thethe
Indicates temperature is being
temperature taken at
is being
taken at some intermediate position between multiple turbine
some intermediate position between multiple turbine wheels. wheels.

3. [Link]
ExhaustGas
GasTemperature (EGT)
Temperature (EGT) Indicates
– Indicates thethe temperature
temperature is being
is being takentaken
aft of the
aftturbine
of the turbine
wheels. wheels.

4. [Link]
TurbineOutlet
OutletTemperature
Temperature (TOT) Indicates
(TOT) – Indicates the
the temperature
temperature is being
is being taken
taken aft of
aft of the turbine wheels.
the turbine wheels.
Figure 88 shows a typical EGT indicator.
Figure 88 shows a typical EGT indicator.

OVER TEMP
LIMIT BUG
OVERTEMP
WARNING
LIGHT

EGT Indicator
Figure 88
EGT Indicator
Figure 88

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 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Each type of EGT system consists of several thermocouples spaced at intervals

around the circumference of the engine exhaust section casing. The EGT
indicator in the
Each type cockpit
of EGT displays
system consiststhe
of average temperature spaced
several thermocouples measured by the around the
at intervals
individual thermocouple probes. The thermocouple probes consist
circumference of the engine exhaust section casing. The EGT indicator in the of twocockpit
wires of
displays
dissimilar metals that are joined together inside a metal guard tube.
the average temperature measured by the individual thermocouple probes. The Transfer
holes in the tubeprobes
thermocouple allow consist
the exhaust
of twogas to of
wires flow acrossmetals
dissimilar the junction.
that are The metals
joined together
from which the thermocouple wires are made are usually nickel-chromium
inside a metal guard tube. Transfer holes in the tube allow the exhaust gas to flow and across
nickel-aluminium alloys. Figure 89 shows a thermocouple with figure 90 showing
the junction. The metals from which the thermocouple wires are made are usually nickel-
a typical thermocouple harness.
chromium and nickel-aluminium alloys. Figure 89 shows a thermocouple with figure 90
showing a typical thermocouple harness.

NICKEL
ALUMINIUM
WIRE

NICKEL
CHROMIUM
WIRE

TRANSFER HOLES

Thermocouple
Figure 89

Thermocouple
Figure 89

Page 1-122 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

TO GAS TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SYSTEM
THERMOCOUPLES

JUNCTION
BOX
JET PIPE

THERMOCOUPLE
AIR INTAKE

Thermocouple Harness
Thermocouple Harness
Figure 90
Figure 90

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-123

 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.36 ENGINE PRESSURE INDICATORS

The Engine Pressure Ration (EPR) system has for many years been the most
1.36 ENGINE
widely usedPRESSURE INDICATORS
thrust indicating system for aircraft flight deck indication. The EPR is
used as a performance (thrust) setting instrument on many flight decks.
The Engine Pressure Ration (EPR) system has for many years been the most widely used
The EPR
thrust is ratio
indicating of two
system forengine
aircraftpressures: Turbine discharge
flight deck indication. The EPR istotal
usedpressure and
as a performance
compressor inlet pressure. Each manufacturer
(thrust) setting instrument on many flight decks. uses a slightly different engine
station numbering system, and engine stations are a means of identifying engine
pressure
The ratio of
EPR is ratio tap offengine
two [Link]:
For example
TurbinePratt & Whitney
discharge total uses station
pressure 2 (Pt2)
and compressor
and station 5 (Pt5), to identify the engine pressure ratio tap-off points of single-
inlet pressure. Each manufacturer uses a slightly different engine station numbering system,
spool engines. They also use stations 2 and 7 (Pt2) & (Pt7), to identify the engine
and engine stations are a means of identifying engine pressure ratio tap off points. For
pressure ratio tap-off points of a dual-spool engine. Figure 91 shows a typical
example Pratt & Whitney uses station 2 (Pt2 ) and station 5 (Pt5 ), to identify the engine
EPR indicator.
pressure ratio tap-off points of single spool engines. They also use stations 2 and 7 (Pt2 ) &
(Pt7 ), to identify the engine pressure ratio tap-off points of a dual-spool engine. Figure 91
shows a typical EPR indicator.

EPR Indicator Figure 91

EPR Indicator
Figure 91

Page 1-124 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.36.1 EPR FORMULA

1.36.1 EPR FORMULA
The following example is of a Pratt & Whitney JT12 engine EPR cockpit
The indications.
following example
Whenis turbine
of a Pratt & Whitney
discharge JT12 engine
pressure EPR cockpit
is 19.11 pounds indications.
per square When
inch
turbine discharge
absolute andpressure is 19.11 pounds
the compressor per square
inlet pressure inch absolute
is 14.7 and square
pounds per the compressor
inch
inletabsolute,
pressure isthe
14.7 pounds
EPR per1.3.
will be square inch absolute,
Figure 92 showsthe theEPR
EPRwillsystem
be 1.3. and
Figure
the92 shows
calculation of the example in this paragraph.
the EPR system and the calculation of the example in this paragraph.

Pt7 = 19.11 PSI (ABSOLUTE)

Pt2 = 14.70 PSI (ABSOLUTE)

Pt7 MANIFOLD

= 1.3
19.11
14.70
EPR =
INDICATOR

PRESSURE RATIO
EPR

TRANSMITTER

Pt2 PROBE

EPR System
Figure 92
EPR System
Figure 92

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-125

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.37 VIBRATION INSTRUMENTS STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

A turbo-jet engine has

1.37 VIBRATION an extremely low vibration level and a change of vibration, due to an
INSTRUMENTS
impending or partial failure, may pass without being noticed. Many engines are therefore
fittedA with
turbo-jet engine
vibration has an extremely
indicators low vibration
that continually level
monitor and
the a change
vibration of vibration,
level of the engine.
due to an impending or partial failure, may pass without being noticed. Many
The indicator
engines areis usually a milliammeter
therefore that receives
fitted with vibration signals
indicators through anmonitor
that continually amplifier
thefrom
engine mounted transmitters. Figure 93 shows a vibration transmitter and indicator.
vibration level of the engine. The indicator is usually a milliammeter that receives
signals through an amplifier from engine mounted transmitters. Figure 93 shows
a vibration transmitter and indicator.

ENGINE VIBRATION
MEASURED IN
MILS (THOUSANDTHS)
OF INCHES

VIBRATION
TRANSMITTER

Vibration Transmitter & Indicator

Vibration Transmitter & Indicator
Figure 93
Figure 93

Page 1-126 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The vibration level recorded on the indicator is the sum total of vibration felt at the pick-up.
A The
morevibration
accurate level
method differentiates
recorded on thebetween
indicatorinisthe
thefrequency
sum totalranges of eachfelt
of vibration rotating
at the
assembly
[Link] A so
moreenables the source
accurate methodof vibration to be between
differentiates isolated. This is particularly
in the frequency important
ranges
onofmeach
multi-spool
rotating engines.
assemblyA crystal-type vibration
and so enables thetransmitter,
source of giving
vibrationa more
to bereliable
isolated.
indication of vibration,important
This is particularly has been developed for multi-spool
on m multi-spool engines. engines. A system of
A crystal-type filters in the
vibration
electronic circuit
transmitter, to the
giving a indicator makesindication
more reliable it possibleoftovibration,
compare thehasvibration source. A for
been developed
multi-spool
multiple engines.
selector A system
switch enables theof filters
pilot in theaelectronic
to select circuit
specific area to the
to obtain indicator
a reading of the
makes it possible to compare the vibration source. A multiple
level of vibration. Figure 94 shows a multiple-selector vibration indicator. selector switch
enables the pilot to select a specific area to obtain a reading of the level of
vibration. Figure 94 shows a multiple-selector vibration indicator.

Multiple-Selector Vibration Indicator

Figure 94

Multiple-Selector Vibration Indicator

Figure 94

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-127

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 95 shows the functional diagram of a large engine
STRUCTURES indicating system.
& SYSTEMS

Figure 95 shows the functional diagram of a large engine indicating system.

CORE SPEED

FUEL PRESSURE
TEMPERATURE
EXHAUST GAS

FUEL FLOW
MONITOR
COMPRESSOR
SPEED

ENGINE VIBRATION

TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
ENGINE

OIL
RATIO

OIL

Large Engine
Large Engine Indicating
IndicatingSystem
System
Figure
Figure9595

Page 1-128 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
Figure 96 shows a typical LED type electronic engine
STRUCTURES instrumentation group for a four
& SYSTEMS
engine aircraft.
Figure 96 shows a typical LED type electronic engine instrumentation group for a
four engine aircraft.

LED Electronic Instrument group

Figure 96

LED Electronic Instrument group

Figure 96

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-129

1.38 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS (ENGINE & AIRFRAME)

With the introduction of the "Glass Cockpits", most traditional gauges, instruments and
warning lights have been replaced by fully electronic display systems. There are different
types of display systems available, the two main ones being:

1. Engine Instrument and Crew Alerting System (EICAS).

2. Electronic

Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM).

1.39 ENGINE INDICATING & CREW ALERTING SYSTEM (EICAS)

The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel and two computers supplied
with analogue and digital signals from the engine and system sensors. The computers are
designated “Left” and “Right” and only one is in control of the system at any one time, the
other is held in standby. In the event of a failure, it may be switched in either manually or
automatically.

Operating in conjunction with the system are discrete caution and warning lights, standby
engine indicators and a remotely-located panel for selecting maintenance data display. The
system provides the flight crew with information on primary engine parameters (Full-time),
with secondary engine parameters and advisory/caution/warning alert messages displayed
as required.
 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.39.1 DISPLAY UNITS
1.39.1 DISPLAY UNITS
These units provide a wide variety of information relevant to engine operation, and
These units provide a wide variety of information relevant to engine operation,
operation of other automated system. The operation of these displays is the same as those
and operation of other automated system. The operation of these displays is the
in the
sameEFISasasthose
previously
in thedescribed.
EFIS as previously described.

TheThe
upper unitunit
upper displays primary
displays engine
primary parameters,
engine i.e. N1 i.e.
parameters, speed,
N1 EGT,
speed,andEGT,
warning
andand
caution
warningmessages. The lower
and caution unit displays
messages. The secondary
lower unitparameters, i.e. N2 speed,
displays secondary fuel flow, oil
parameters,
quantity,
i.e. N2pressure and flow,
speed, fuel temperature. In addition,
oil quantity, pressuretheand
status of non-engine
temperature. In systems
addition,e.g.
theflight
control
status surface position, hydraulic
of non-engine systems system, APU,
e.g. flight etc., can
control be displayed.
surface position, hydraulic
system, APU, etc., can be displayed.
On the upper unit, a row of Vs will appear when secondary information is being displayed
onOnthe the upper
lower [Link],
Sevena row of Vs
colours arewill appearby
produced when secondary
the CRTs information
for displaying is beingTable
information.
displayed on the lower unit. Seven colors
1 shows the colours and description of their uses. are produced by the CRTs for
displaying information. Table 1 shows the colors and description of there
uses.

Colour Description
White All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.
Red Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales,
and digital readouts.
Green Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N1 speed marks or
target cursors.
Blue Testing of system only.
Yellow Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scale,
digital readouts
Magenta During in-flight engine starting, and for cross bleed messages.
Cyan Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N1, oil pressure,
TAT, etc.) and status marks or cues.

Table
Table 11

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 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 97 shows layout of the EICAS Displays.
Figure 97 shows layout of the EICAS Displays.

CAUTION

RESET CANCEL

UPPER
DISPLAY
8
SBY
0
1
1013 2
(PRIMARY)
X 100 ft
3

7 3 5 0 00
5

6 4

LOWER
DISPLAY
(SECONDARY)
- -
DISPLAY COMPUTER BRT THRUST REF SET
BOTH
ENGINE STATUSEVENT MAX IND
RECORD
L AUTO R L R RESET

EICAS Primary and Secondary Display Formats

Figure 97
EICAS Primary and Secondary Display Formats
Figure 97

Page 1-132 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 98 and 99 show display formats for primary and secondary displays.

Figure 98 and 99 show display formats for primary and secondary displays.

CAUTION
TAT 15°c

0.0 0.0
CANCEL RECALL 10 10
2 2
6 6

N1

0 0

EGT

VVVVVVV

Primary EICAS Display

Figure 98

Primary EICAS Display

Figure 98

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-133

 AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

88.00 88
50 50

OIL PRESS N2

120 120 86 86

OIL TEMP
N3

18 18 4.4 4.4
OIL QTY
N1 FAN
FF
3.1 1.9
VIB

Secondary EICAS Display

Figure 99

Secondary EICAS Display

Figure 99

Page 1-134 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

1.40 DISPLAY MODES

EICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to the function and usage. For
this purpose there are three modes of displaying information:

1. Operational (selected by the flight crew).

2. Status (selected by the flight crew).

3. Maintenance (ground use only and selected via the maintenance panel).

1.40.1 OPERATIONAL MODE

This mode displays the engine operating information and any alerts required to be actioned
by the crew in flight. Normally only the upper display unit presents information: the lower
one remains blank and can be selected to display secondary information as and when
required.

1.40.2 STATUS MODE

When selected this mode displays data to determine the dispatch readiness of an aircraft,
and is closely associated with details contained in the aircraft’s Minimum Equipment List.
The display shows the positions of the flight control surfaces in the form of pointers
registered against vertical scales, selected sub-system parameters, and equipment status
messages on the lower display unit. Selection is normally done on the ground, either as part
of the pre-flight checks of dispatch items, or prior to shutdown of electrical power to aid the
flight crew in making entries in the aircraft’s Technical log. Figure 100 shows an example of
a status page.

1.40.3 MAINTENANCE MODE

This mode provides maintenance engineers with information in five different display
formats to aid them in fault finding and verification testing of major sub systems.
 L C R 0.0 FF 0.0
HYD QTY 0.99 1.00 0.98

HYD PRESS 2975 3010 3000

APU EGT 440 RPM 103 OIL 0.75

OXY PRESS 1750

RUD

AIL ELEV AIL

EICAS Status Page

Figure 100
EICAS Status Page
Figure 100

Page 1-136 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

1.41 DISPLAY SELECT PANEL

To control the operation of the EICAS, a control panel is situated on the center
pedestal. Figure 101 shows a typical EICAS control panel.

1.41 DISPLAY SELECT PANEL

To control the operation of the EICAS, a control panel is situated on the center pedestal.
Figure 101 shows a typical EICAS control panel.

DISPLAY COMPUTER BRT

BRT

ENGINE STATUS EVENT

BAL MAX IND
RECORD L AUTO R RESET
L BOTH R

EICAS Control Panel

Figure 101

EICAS Control Panel

Figure 101

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-137

1.41.1 DISPLAY SELECT PANEL OPERATION

Engine Display Switch: This is a push type switch for removing or presenting the
display of secondary information on the, lower display.

Status Display Switch: This is a push type switch for removing or presenting the
status page on the lower display.

Event Record Switch: Normally, there is an auto event function, this will
automatically record any malfunctions as they occur. The push
switch enables manual event marking so that the crew can
record a suspect malfunction for storage in a non-volatile
memory. This data can be retrieved from the memory and
displayed by ground engineers by operating the ground
maintenance panel. This manual switch can also be used for
activating the recording of fault data, either in the air or on the
ground, on the Environmental Control system, Electrical Power
system, Hydraulic system and APU.

Computer Select Switch: In the “AUTO” position it selects the left or primary computer
and automatically switches to the other in the event of a
failure. The other positions are for manually selecting either
the right or left computers.

Display Brightness: Controlled by the inner knob for the display intensity, the
outer for display brightness.

Thrust Reference Set Switch: Pulling and rotating the inner knob positions the reference
cursor on the thrust indicator display (either EPR or N1) for the
engines, which are selected by the outer knob.

Max Indicator Reset: If any of the measured parameters e.g. Oil Pressure, EGT etc.
and if they exceed normal operating limits, this will be
automatically alerted on the display units. The purpose of the
reset button is to clear the alerts from the display when the
excess limits no longer exist.
1.42 ALERT MESSAGES

The system will continually monitor a large number of inputs (400+) from engine and
airframe systems. If a malfunction is detected then the appropriate alert message is
annunciated on the upper display. Up to 11 messages can be displayed and are at the
following levels:

LEVEL A - Warning: Requiring immediate corrective action and are

displayed in “RED”. Master warning lights are also activated
and aural warnings from the Central Warning System are
given.

LEVEL B - Caution: Requiring immediate crew awareness and possible

action. They are displayed in “AMBER”. An aural tone is also
repeated twice.

LEVEL C - Advisory: Requiring crew awareness, displayed in “AMBER”.

There are no caution lights or aural tones associated with this
level.
Figure 102 shows a display with the three different types of alert messages
Displayed.

Figure 102 shows a display with the three different types of alert messages Displayed.

LEVEL A
TAT 15°c
WARNING
APU FIRE
R ENGINE FIRE 70.0 110.0
CABIN ALTITUDE 10 10
2 2
LEVEL B C SYS HYD PRESS 6 6
R ENG OVHT
CAUTION AUTOPILOT N1
C HYD QTY
R YAW DAMPER 999
775
LEVEL C L UTIL BUS OFF
ADVISORY
EGT

VVVVVVV

Upper EICAS Display – Alert Messages

Figure 102
Upper EICAS Display Alert Messages
Figure 102

Page 1-140 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
1.43 MAINTENANCE CONTROL PANEL
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.43 MAINTENANCE CONTROL PANEL

This panel is used by maintenance engineers for the purpose of displaying maintenance data
stored This
within the is
panel system’s
used bycomputer memories.
maintenance Figure
engineers 103purpose
for the shows aoftypical maintenance
displaying
control panel.
shows a typical maintenance control panel.

PERFORMANCE AND
AUXILLIARY POWER SELECTS DATA FROM
UNIT FORMATS AUTO OR MANUAL EVENT
IN MEMORY
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL ELECTRICAL AND HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM AND MAINTENANCE SYSTEM FORMAT
MESSAGE FORMATS

EICAS MAINT EVENT

READ
DISPLAY SELECT AUTO MAN

ECS ELEC PERF

MSG HYD APU

REC ERASE

CONF ENG
MCDP EXCD
TEST

ERASES STORED DATA

CONFIGURATION AND BITE TEST SWITCH CURRENTLY DISPLAYED
MAINTENANCE ENGINE RECORDS REAL-TIME
FOR SELF-TEST ROUTINE
CONTROL/DISPLAY EXCEEDANCES DATA CURRENTLY DISPLAYED
PANEL (IN MANUAL EVENT)

Maintenance Control Panel

Maintenance Control
Figure 103 Panel
Figure 103

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-141

 PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.44
1.44 ELECTRONIC
ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED
CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT MONITORING
MONITORING

ECAM
ECAM differs
differs fromfrom
EICASEICAS
in thatinthe
that thedisplayed
data data displayed relate essentially
relate essentially to thesystems
to the primary
primary systems of the aircraft and are displayed in checklist and
of the aircraft and are displayed in checklist and pictorial or synoptic [Link] or
synoptic format.
1.44.1 DISPLAY UNITS
1.44.1 DISPLAY UNITS
These cancan
These be mounted
be mountedeithereither
side-by-side or top/bottom.
side-by-side The left-hand/top
or top/bottom. unit is unit is
The left-hand/top
dedicated to information
dedicated to informationon the
on status of theofsystem;
the status warnings
the system; and corrective
warnings action in a
and corrective
sequenced checklist format, while the right-hand/bottom unit is dedicated
action in a sequenced checklist format, while the right-hand/bottom unit is to associated
information
dedicatedintopictorial or synoptic
associated [Link]
information 104or
pictorial shows the layout
synoptic of ECAM
format. Figuredisplays.
104
shows the layout of ECAM displays.

400
350 60
1
300 8 4 0 80
MACH 9

250 120
IAS
240 KNOTS
140

220
180
200

LDG GEAR
5
GRVTY EXTN
RESET
OFF
DOWN

ECAM Display Layout

Figure 104

ECAM Display Layout

Figure 104

Page 1-142 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.45 ECAM DISPLAY MODES

There are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and
1.45 ECAMtoDISPLAY
referred MODES
as phase-related, advisory (mode and status), and failure-related
modes. The forth mode is manual and permits the selection of diagrams related
There are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and referred to as
phase-related, advisory
selection of status (mode andprovided
messages status), and failure-related
no warnings havemodes. The forth for
been triggered mode is
manual and permits
display. theofselection
Selection of diagrams
the displays relatedof
is by means toaany one ofcontrol
system 12 of the aircraft’s
panel. See
systems
Figure for
81 routine checking, and also the selection of status messages provided no
warnings have been triggered for display. Selection of the displays is by means of a system
control
1.45.1panel.
FLIGHTSee FigureR81
PHASE ELATED MODE

In normal
1.45.1 FLIGHT operation the automatic
PHASE RELATED MODE flight phase-related mode is used, and the
displays will be appropriate to the current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. Pre-
Inflight,
normalTake-off, Climb,
operation Cruise, Decent,
the automatic Approach, mode
flight phase-related and post landing.
is used, Figure
and the 105will
displays
shows display modes. The upper display shows the display for pre-take off, the
be appropriate to the current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. Pre-flight, Take-off, Climb,
lower Decent,
Cruise, is that displayed
Approach, for
andthe
postcruise.
landing. Figure 105 shows display modes. The upper
display shows the display for pre-take off, the lower is that displayed for the cruise.

E N G IN E
V IB (N 1 )
10 10
5 5
F .US E D 0 .8 0 .9
8 7. 0 6 5. 0 KG
N1 1530 1530
% F O B : 1 4 0 0 0 KG V IB (N 2 )
O IL
1 .2 1 .3
10 10 QT Y
5 5
F LA P 1 1 .5 1 1 .5
6 50 4 80
S F
EG T
ºC
A IR
L DG E LE V A U TO 500F T
N2
80 8 0 .2 F UL L
% C AB V /S F T/M IN
C K PT 2 0 FWD 2 2 A FT 23
FF
1500 1 5 00 24 22 24 250
K G /H
C AB A LT FT
4150
N O S M O K IN G : ON
S E A T B E LT S : ON L D G I N H I B IT
S P LR S : F UL L A PU B LEED
T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
F LA P S : F UL L
S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %

E C A M U P P E R D IS P L A Y E C A M L O W E R D IS P L A Y - C R U IS E

ECAM Upper and Lower Display (Cruise Mode)

Figure 105

ECAM Upper and Lower Display (Cruise Mode)

Figure 105

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-143

 MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

1.45.2 ADVISORY
1.45.2 MODE
ADVISORY MODE
This mode provides the flight crew with a summary of the aircraft’s condition following a
failure and the
following possible
a failure downgrading
and of systems.
the possible Figureof106
downgrading shows anFigure
systems. advisory
106message
shows
following a Blue Hydraulic failure.
an advisory message following a Blue Hydraulic failure.

5 10 5 10

87.0 65.0
N1
% FOB : 14000KG

10 10
5 5
S FLAP F
650 480
EGT
ºC
ADVISORY
N2 FULL
MESSAGES 80 80.2
%
FF
1500 KG/H
1500

HYD B RSVR OVHT FLT CTL

B SYS LO PR SPOILERS SLOW
1 FUEL TANK PUMP LH
FAILURE
MESSAGES

ECAM Advisory Mode

ECAMFigure
Advisory
106 Mode
Figure 106

Page 1-144 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

1.45.3 ECAM FAILURE MODE

The failure-related mode takes precedence over the other modes. Failures are classified in 3
levels

LEVEL 3: WARNING

This corresponds to an emergency configuration. This requires the flight crew to carry out
corrective action immediately. This warning has an associated aural warning (fire bell type)
and a visual warning (Master Warning), on the glare shield panel.

LEVEL 2: CAUTION

This corresponds to an abnormal configuration of the aircraft, where the flight crew must be
made aware of the caution immediately but does not require immediate corrective action.
This gives the flight crew the decision on when action should be carried. These cautions are
associated to an aural caution (single chime) and a steady (Master Caution), on the glare
shield panel.

LEVEL 1: ADVISORY

This gives the flight crew information on aircraft configuration that requires the monitoring,
mainly failures leading to a loss of redundancy or degradation of a system, e.g. Loss of 1
FUEL TANK PUMP LH or RH but not both.

The advisory mode will not trigger any aural warning or attention getters but a message
appears on the primary ECAM display.
 AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

Figure 107 111 shows the 12-system pages and status page available.

Figure 107 – 111 shows the 12-system pages and status page available.

C ON D TE M P ºC C AB P R E S S L DG E LE V MAN 50 0 F T

AP C A B AL T
PS I V/ S F T /M IN
FT
A LTN M O DE UP
F AN F AN 2
8 10
0 1150
C KP T 2 0 F W D 22 A FT 2 3 0 4 .1 2 0 4150
DN
24 22 24
M AN
SY ST 1 SY ST 2
C H C H C H SA F ET Y
VE NT
HOT IN L ET EX T RA C T
A IR

PA C K 1 PA C K 2

T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %

A IR C O N D IT IO N IN G S Y S T E M P A G E P R E S S U R IS A T IO N S Y S T E M P A G E

ECAM System Displays

Figure 107

Note; These pages are displayed:

ECAM System Displays
Figure
Automatically due to an advisory or failure 107 to the system.
related
Note; These pages are displayed:
Whenever called manually.
Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.

Whenever called manually.

Page 1-146 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 BAT 1 BAT 2 F/ CT R
E LE C 28 V D C B AT 28 V G B Y
15 0A 15 0A

DC 1 DC 2

D C ES S
SP D BR K
TR 1 TR 2
L R
28 V ES S TR EM ER G GEN 28 V
15 0A 28 V 11 6V 15 0A A IL P IT CH TR IM G Y A IL
13 0A 40 0H Z B G G B
3 .2 º UP

AC 1 A C ESS AC 2
R UD
L R
GE N 1 GE N 2 G B Y
EL EV EL EV
26 % A PU 26 %
11 6V 26 %
EX T PW R
11 6V B G Y B
11 6V
40 0H Z 11 6V 40 0H Z
40 0H Z
40 0H Z

T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %

E L E C T R IC A L S Y S T E M P A G E F L IG H T C O N T R O L S Y S T E M P A G E

ECAM System Displays

Figure 108

Note; These pages are displayed:

Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.

ECAM System Displays
Whenever called manually. Figure 108

Note; These pages are displayed:

Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.

Whenever called manually.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-147

 F .U SE D 1 FU E L K G F .U SE D 2 H YD
1550 F OB 1550
GR EE N B LU E Y E LL O W

A PU 2 87 5 0
3000 PSI 3000 PSI 3000

L E FT R IG H T
C TR

5 50 5 50
1 07 5 0 5 60 0 1 07 5 0

T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %

FUE L SYSTE M P AG E H Y D R A U L IC S Y S T E M P A G E

ECAM System Displays

Figure 109

Note; These pages are displayed:

-ECAM System Displays
Figure 109
Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.
Note; These pages are displayed:
Whenever called manually.
Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.

Whenever called manually.

Page 1-148 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 WHEEL B LE E D

2 4 ºC 2 0 ºC
C H C H

R AM A IR 2 3 0 ºC
5 0 ºC
LO HI LO HI
ºC ºC
170 140 140 140
1 REL 2 3 REL 4
1 2
GN D

A PU
AUTO BRK
LP HP HP LP

TAT +19 ºC G.W. 60300 KG T AT +1 9 ºC G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G

SAT +17 ºC 23 H 56 S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %
C.G. 28.1 %

LANDING GEAR/WHEEL/BRAKE SYSTEM PAGE A IR B LE ED SY STE M PA GE

ECAM System Displays

Figure 110

Note; These pages are displayed: ECAM System Displays

Figure 110
Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.
Note; These pages are displayed:

Whenever called manually.

Automatically due to an advisory or failure related to the system.

Whenever
The Gear/Wheel called
page [Link] the related flight phase.
is displayed
The Gear/Wheel page is displayed at the related flight phase.

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-149

 D OOR O X Y 1 85 0 P S I A PU
A PU
A V I O N IC 26%
ARM ARM
B LE E D
C A BIN 116 V
35 PSI
400 HZ
FW D C OM PT
C A RG O

N
10 %
EM ER ARM ARM
E X IT 0 80
C A RG O F LA P O P E N
B U LK EG T
7 ºC
ARM ARM 5
C A BIN
3 580

T AT +1 9 ºC T AT +1 9 ºC
S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 ºC 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %

D O O R /O X Y S Y S T E M P A G E AP U SY STEM PAG E

ECAM System Displays

Figure 111

ECAM System Displays

Note; These pages are displayed: Figure 111

Automatically duepages
Note; These to an are
advisory or failure related to the system.
displayed:

Automatically
Whenever due to an advisory or failure related to the system.
called manually.
Whenever called manually.
Related flight phase.
Related flight phase.

Page 1-150 MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11

 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1

AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.46 CONTROL PANEL
1.46 CONTROL PANEL
The layout of the control panel is shown in Figure 112.
The layout of the control panel is shown in Figure 112.

DISPLAY ON & SGW SELECT DISPLAY ON &

BRIGHTNESS SWITCHES BRIGHTNESS
CONTROL CONTROL

TOP DISPLAY 1 ECAM SGU 2 BOTTOM DISPLAY

FAULT FAULT

OFF OFF

OFF BRT OFF BRT

MESSAGE
CLEARANCE
SWITCH
CLR ENG HYD AC DC

BLEED COND PRESS FUEL

STS

APU F/CTL DOOR WHEEL

RCL

STATUS
MESSAGE RECALL
SWITCH SWITCH
SYSTEM SYNOPTIC
DISPLAY SWITCHES

ECAM Control Panel

Figure 112

ECAM Control Panel

Figure 112

MOD 11 BOOK 2 PART 1 ISSUE 6 - 01/02/11 Page 1-151

1.46.1 ECAM CONTROL PANEL

SGU Selector Switches: Controls the respective symbol generator units. Lights are off in
normal operation of the system. The “FAULT” caption is illuminated amber if the SGU‟s
internal self-test circuit detects a failure. Releasing the switch isolates the corresponding
SGU and causes the “FAULT” caption to extinguish, and the “OFF” caption to illuminate
white.

System Synoptic Display Switches: Permit individual selection of synoptic diagrams

corresponding to each of the 12 systems, and illuminate white when pressed. A display is
automatically cancelled whenever a warning or advisory occurs.

CLR Switch: Light illuminates white whenever a warning or status message is displayed on
the left-hand display unit. Press to clear messages.

STS Switch: Permits manual selection of an aircraft’s status message if no warning is

displayed. Illuminates white when pressed also illuminates the CLR switch. Status messages
are suppressed if a warning occurs or if the CLR switch is pressed.

RCL Switch: Enables previously cleared warning messages to be recalled provided the failure
conditions which initiated the warnings still exists. Pressing this switch also illuminates the
CLR switch. If a failure no longer exists the message “NO WARNING PRESENT” is displayed
on the left-hand display