UNIT (5)

ELECTRICITY

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 ELECTRICITY

Electricity

Static Dynamic

 +  Shortage of electrons/lost electrons.

 -  Extra electrons/gained electrons.
Properties of a charged body:
 A body becomes positively charged when it loses some of its electrons. It becomes negative
charged when it gains some extra electrons.
 A charged body attracts light objects like dust, small pieces of papers or a small pith ball.
 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. The force between charges increases with:
 Increasing any of the charges. Q1 & Q2
 Decreasing the distance (X) between the charges.

𝑄 𝑋𝑄
𝐹=𝐾
𝑋

Conductors and insulators:

 Conductors: These are the materials which contain free electrons that flow through them.
Metals are the best conductors of all. Their electrons are loosely bound to the atoms so that
they are able to move freely between atoms.
 Insulators: These are the materials which contain no free electrons that flow through them.
Most non-metals conduct charge poorly or not at all. Their electrons are all tightly bound to
atoms are not normally free to move.

Methods of charging a body:

 To charge an uncharged object this can be done by:
1. Rubbing.
2. Induction.
3. Charging by contact.

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Rubbing:

 Transfer of electrons between two objects, one of the

objects loses electrons and becomes positively charged and
one gains electrons and becomes negatively charged.
 When a polythene rod is rubbed with a dry cloth, the friction
causes electrons to gain energy. Electrons gain enough
energy to leave the atom and ‘rub off’ onto the polythene
rod.
 The polythene rod has gained electrons, giving it a negative
charge
 The dry cloth has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge.
 Rubbing glass (Perspex) with silk causes the glass to acquire
a net positive charge.

Note that:
Rubbing materials together does not make charge; it simply separates negative and positive
charges which already exist within the material.

Charging by contact:

 When a charged body touches an uncharged object the two bodies will share the charge. Both
will carry a part of the same type of charge.

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 Induction:

 Bring a negative charged rod near an uncharged sphere, the sphere then becomes
polarized (The negative electrons are repelled due to the charged rod leaving the positive
ions near the end of the sphere where the rod is at.)

 Inducing charge/separation of charge.

 Earthing Neutralizing the extra charge.

1. Negative charge on the rod 2. The Sphere loses electrons 3. Remove the earth wire first,
repels the electrons on the to the earth so that the system and then remove the charged
sphere causing the side closer to of the rod and the sphere rod second.
the rod to be relatively positive. becomes neutral. Positive
The side away from the sphere charges = Negative charges Why?
becomes relatively negative. To prevent neutralization of the
Note: Positive charges don’t sphere
move, only electrons are capable
of moving

Amount of charge carried by a charged body:

Quantity of charge Q: this is the amount of electric charge carried by the extra electrons (or extra
positive charge) on the charged body.
It is given by:
𝑸=𝒏𝒆

Where n is the number of extra electrons and e is the charge of one electron (1.6 X 10-19).
The unit of the electric charge is “coulomb”, C.

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Electric Field: is the region where a charged particle experiences a force.
 A charged object is surrounded by an electric field

 Electric field is a vector quantity as it has magnitude and direction and its direction is from (+)
charges to (–) charges.

Force between charges increase with:

1. Increasing any of the charges.
2. Decreasing the distance between charges.
3. The field lines come out from a positive charge and go in a negative charge.

Drawing Electric field lines

 The distance between each line in the diagram should be equal. The lines must be perpindicular
to the charge.
 Electric field strength is proportional to the density of lines drawn. The closer and more number
of lines, the stronger the magnetic field.
 The direction of the field is the direction of movement of a postive charge placed in an electric
field (From Positive to Negative)
 Field line goes out of the positive charge and towards the negative charge.

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  As the distance increases, the electric field strength decreases, so the force on the particle
decreases.
 As the distance decreases, the electric field strenght increases, so the force on the particle
increase

Forces on charge particle in an electric field

When a charged particle enters the electric field (two metal plates with different charges), it will deflect.

Negatively charged particle is attracted by the positive plate and is repelled by the negative plate.

Positively charged particle is attracted by the negative plate and is repelled by the positive plate.

DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY
The electric current: When the terminals of a battery are connected to a lamp electrons flow
from the negative terminal of the battery to the positive terminal. The flow of electrons is called a
current.

Conventional Current: Is based on an old assumption that the positive charges move from
positive pole to the negative.
Electric Current: When the terminals of a battery are connected to a light bulb, electrons flow
from the negative pole of the battery to the positive pole.
Current: Is the amount of charge flowing in the circuit per unit time.
Charge: amount of electric charge carried by extra electrons.

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 𝑸
𝑰= Measured in Amperes (A)
𝒕
….. C/s
The unit of current is the Ampere (A), which is Coulomb/second.

𝟏𝑪
𝟏𝑨 =
𝑺

 Conductor: allows the free movement of electrons.

AMMETER :
 Ammeters are instruments used to measure the electric current
 Ammeter are connected in Series
 Extremely low resistance to allow maximum current to pass through
 Negative terminal connected to the Negative terminal of the battery
 Positive terminal connected to the positive terminal of the battery.

These arrows indicate the flow of electrons.

These arrows indicate the flow of conventinal current.

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Potential Difference and Electromotive Force (EMF)

 Potential Difference and Electromotive Force (EMF) As charges move through the circuit, two
processes occur to these charges:
a) While passing inside the battery, the charges gain electic energy and store them.
b) While passing in the external circuit, the charges loos the stored energy which appears as
heat/light.

 E.M.F: This is the work done per unit charge to move the charge through the circuit, to
change from chemical energy to electric energy.
 Potential Difference: This is the work done per unit charge to move the charge through
the components, to change from electric energy to any type of energy.

VOLTMETER :
 Voltmeters are instruemnts used to measure the p.d. between two points.
 Voltmeters must be connected in parallel
 They have extremely high resistance.

𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑾
P.d = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
= 𝒒
Measured in Volts (V)

Work done to move unit charge through the components

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 OHM ’S LAW
 Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature the potential difference across any component
is directly proportional to the current passing through it.
 Links the Voltage to the Current V = IR
 V ∝ I at constant tempracture (resistance is constant) .

Experiment to explain Ohm’s law

Steps:

1. Set up the experiment as shown

2. Set the variable resistor at its highest value.
3. Take the value of the voltage from voltmeter and the
current from the ammeter. Switch off the circuit.
4. Change the reading on the variable resistor.
5. Repeat the procedure to complete at least 6 sets of readings
for voltmeter and ammeter.

Precautions:

1. Keep the temprature constant by switching the circuit off between readings oi prevent
the wires and the resistor from heating up causing an inrease in resistance.
2. Keeping the current low in the circuit by
a) Using an extra resistance
b) Use a source of low EMF
3. Connect the positive side of the instrument to the positive pole of the battery, and vice
versa
4. Place the ammeter and voltmeter on a horizontal surface to allow the pointer to move
freely. Tap them to check for free movement of the pointer
5. Avoid parallex error: view the scale perpindicularly
6. Each reading should be taken a multiple times and an average should be obtained
7. Use wires with clean ends and avoid a bad connection to keep the resistance low

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 Gradient = 1/R
 Reciprocal = R
 1/Gradient = R
 Realize that the gradient is constant,
so the resistance must be constant too.

Note:
Filament lamp is a non-ohmic conductor so it does not obey ohm’s law, as it’s Current increases
the Temprature increases and Resistance increases. As shown in the diagram.

RESISTANCE :
 Resistance of a conductor is the ratio between the potential difference across the conductor
and the current passing through it.
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
 The unit of the resistance is the ohm (𝜴), which is defined as:
 One ohm: It is the resistance of a conductor when a potential difference of one volt is
produced across the conductor when a current of one ampere passes through it.
Why there exists electric resistance in a ametal?
A metal contains a large number of free electrons. As these electrons move through the metal
lattic they collide with the vibrating metal ions. The collision oppose the flow oe electrons and so
the metal has resistance. The lost electric potential energy of electrons appears as heat due to
these collision.

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Factors affecting the resistance:

Resistance
1) Length of wire R ∝ L (direct relationship) .

Length/m

2) Cross sectional area R ∝ (indirect relationship) .

Resistance
Area/𝑚
3) Material of the wire Copper is better conductor than iron.
a. Nichrome and constantan have High resistance ( They are called resistance wires).
b. Copper wire has Low Resistance.

𝟏
R ∝ 𝒅𝟐
𝑳
R=𝝆𝑨
𝝆 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚

4) Temperature
As temprature increases, collisions between the free electrons
and the positive ions increase so the resistance increases.
Resistance

(linear relationship, not proportional).

Example
 Thick, short copper  very low resistance. Temperature

 Long, thin constantan wire  High resistance (Resistance wire).

A) Copper wire

B) Copper wire

Since both are copper, resistivity is the same

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 𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑩
𝑹𝑨 = 𝑹𝑩
𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑩

d 2d

A = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 A = 𝝅(𝟐𝒓)𝟐

1A A = 𝝅𝟒𝒓𝟐

4A

Variable resistor(Rheostat):
 It is used for varying the current flowing in a
circuit.
 Moving the position of the sliding contact
changes the length, and therefore the
resistance, of the thin coild wire through which
the current has to flow as it passes between
terminals A and B.

THERMISTOR :
 The Thermistor is a semi-conductor component.
 As the temprature decreases, the resistance
increase.

DIODE:
 The Dide is a semi-conductor component
.Non-ohmic conductor does not
obey ohm’s law.

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 RESISTORS CONNECTED IN SERIES :

 The current at any point in the circuit is the same

𝐈𝑻 = 𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟑 = 𝐈𝟒

 The p.d. across each resistor is different and dependant on the value of the resistance V ∝ R
 The sum of all p.d. = the emf of the battery

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + 𝑽𝟒

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒

The total resistance of the circuit is = the sum of all the resistors in series

 Connecting more resistors in series increases the total resistance of the circuit and reduces
the current.

RESISTORS IN PARELLEL :
The p.d. across each component in a parallel circuit is equal

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑽𝟒

The current passing in the two resistances are different and dependant on the value of their
resistance. The sum of all currents is equal to the total current coming out of the battery.

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 𝐈𝑻 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑 + 𝐈𝟒

 The total resistance:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒

 The total resistance is less than the resistance of any of the resistors.
 Connecting more resistors in parallel decreases the total resistance.

in case of two resistors connected in parallel:

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝒕 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

CONNECTING CELLS IN SERIES :

 When a group of cells are connecting in series, the total emf is the sum of their individual
emfs.

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐

CONNECTING CELLS IN PARALLEL :

When a group of cells are connecting in parallel, the total
emf is the emf of one cell.

Advantage of connecting cells in parallel:

 Stays on for longer.
 If one cell runs out the others remain working.

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 ADVANTAGE OF CONNECTING COMPONENTS IN PARALLEL :
 Each component works independently.
 If one is not working the rest remain working.
 Each component takes the full p.d from the power supply.

ELECTRIC POWER AND ENERGY :

Electric energy: When a charge Q moves through a potential difference V the energy lost by the
charge is given by: 𝑬=𝑸𝑽 it has the unit of Joule.

𝑣2
𝐸= ×𝑡
𝑅
𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡 𝐸 =𝐼 ×𝑅×𝑡

𝐸 =𝑉×𝐼×𝑇

Electric power: it is the rate of producing or using electric energy. It has a unit of Watt. It is given
by:

𝑉 𝑃 =𝐼 ×𝑅
𝑃 =𝐼×𝑉 𝑃=
𝑅

CALCLATION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION :

 When we use electric energy in our house, we use billions of Joules each month. This makes
the Joule inconvenient unit for calculation of electric energy consumption.
 A more convenient unit is called kilowatt hour (kW h).
 The kW h is related to the joule by the relation: 1kW h = 3.6X106 Joule = 3.6 MJ
 Assume you are using an apparatus whose power is known in KW and you are using it for
certain time in hour. If the cost of 1kW h is known, then:

Cost of using electric energy= power (in kW) x time (in h) x cost of 1 kWh

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House electrical installations:

HOUSE WIRING :
There are three types of connecting wires used in any home:
 Live Wire: carries electric energy from powerstation. It
should be brown/red. Power supply, fuse and switch are
connected to it.

 Neutral: A blue wire that completes the circuit. P.d. in it

reaches to zero

 Earth wire: Yellow/green wire that is connected to the metal

case of an appliance. It is used for safety and neutralising.

FUSE :
 a glass tube containg a thin tin wire
 Protects the device from an increasing current, by melting when the current
exceeds a certain value to disconnect the whole circuit.
 Fuse value is the maximum current carried by the fuse
before it melts. The value must be higher than the working
current value of the appliance, but close to it.
 This is so that the fuse melts as soon as the value exceeds the
working value of the appliance.

Sources of danger of electricity:

Hazards of exceeding the current value:
1) Appliance may be damaged.
2) A fire may catch on.
Hazards when there is no earthing:
Electric shock.
Hazards of Electricity:
1) Electric shocks due to bad or damaged insulations on wires.
2) A fire may be produced due to high currents and overheating in the wires.
3) Damp Conditions (High humidity or rainy weather).
4) Reduces the resistance of the insulators causing them to conduct electricity. This may
cause an electric shocks if touched carelessly.

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 SYMBOLS OF ELECTICAL COMPONENTS

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