d NVA Ry ey earning objectives \fter this topic, you should know: » the role of the chromosomes in cells » the importance oft » how cells divide by m Figure 1 This special image, a karyotype, shows the 23 pairs of chromosomes from a ody cell of a fernale human being For more information on genes loo! at Topics B135, B137, B138, and B13.9 and about DNA in Topic B13.4 foe ON / wicgons \ { \ DNA to fort 4 Figure 2. The cell pidly growing tissue, stage 1 may only be a few hours, but in adutt animals it can last for years eeded for an organism, 01 anism, to Is tha me worn out and to originals so they can do the same j ion as tk di infor The information in the cells contains nucleus that chromosomes. es that alls has ry the g both new cells and aking contain the make new yo ntrols a characteris ion of DNA, Agene isa part of a e unique nakes up y romosomes. jolecule that e the result of many different genes rather than a single gene. The g grouped tagether on chromosomes. A chromosome may carry several hundred or even thousands of genes You have 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of your body cells, They are arranged in 23 p 2 1).In each pair of chrom one fhromosome is inherited fram the father and one from the mother, As have one chro such, sex cel The cell cycle and mitosis Body cells di sown as the cell cycle (Figure 2), Cell divisior a process called mitosis and it produces tw0 i all your normal body cells hi the same chromosomes and so the same genetic information, Cell division by mitosis produces t tional cells needed for growth and jevelopment in multicellular d for cement of worn out or damaged cell In asexual reproduction, the cells af the offs ep py mitos from the cells of thelr parent. Th xy they contain exactly the sam ge heir parent with lit variation The cell cycle The length of t orit canta ly stage of life of the organism. cycle varies consid he cell cycle are being made all fairly rapid during childhood, but the cell cycle slows, puberty is over and the body is adult. However, even in a regions where there is continued growth or a regular replacells, They include the hair follicles, the skin, the blood, and the lining of fe digestive s The cell cycle in normal, healthy cells follows attern (Figure 2 © Stage 1: this is the longest stage in the c bigger, increase their mass, and carry out norm: portantly they replicate thelr ONA to form tw hromosome ready for cell division, The b-cellular ncrease \ctures such as mitochondria, lbosomes lasts read © Stage 2 - Mitosis: in this process chromosomes is pulled tc each end of . .ge during which the cytoplasm and the cel fe to form two identical daughter cells. Z\ This normal body cell DY) ve pe Alga "the rst stage ofthe Figure 3. Two identical cells are The cel cides in wo to form two Eee vena lave mes formed by mitotic division in the cell containing ur chromosomes Meat cycle, This cell is shown with only two tote ones inthe criginl parent cell pairs of chromosomes rather than 23 In some parts all the time and rake new cells to replat carries on rapid ple, you const st tk n of your body cells die every minute, so cell division by mitosis is very important. Child, mitotic divisions produce new cels faster than the old ones die. an adult cel death and mitosis keep more or less in balanc | very old, mitosis slows down and you show tk 1. Define the terms: a chromosome 1 mark) mark] 2. Describe what happens during the three stages of the cellcycle, (6 marks} 3. a Explain why cell division by mitosis is so important in the body. 2 marks] b Suggest why itisimportant for the chromosome number to stay the same when the cells divide to make other normal body cells 3 marks} Observing cell growing root tip under a microscope. When cells divide, the membrane round the nucleus disappears and the chromosomes take up stains, making them relatively easy to see. You should be able to see the chromosomes dividing to form two identical nuclei @ Describe your observations of mitosis Remember - cells produced when the nucleus divides by mitosis are genetically identical In body cells, chromosomes are found in pairs, © Body cells divide in a series of stages called the cell cycle During the cell cycle the genetic material is doubled. It then divides into two identical nuclei in a process called mitosis. © Before a cell can divide it needs to grow, replicate the ONA to form two copies of each chromosome and increase the number of sub- cellular structures. In mitosis one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell and the nucleus divides. Finally the cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form two identical cells ‘© Mitotic cel division is important in the growth, repair, and development of multicellular organisms.PMA Mem thea i acely) Learning objectives After this topic, you should know: © how cell differentiation varies in animals and plants @ the production and use of plant clones Figure 1 This carly embryo has oniy 8 cells -eded before it becomes a teenager with around 3,7 x 10 cells! asis i At the moment of conception, a potential new human being is just Bythet adult, scients “ntain around 37.2 tillion (3.72 x 10") cells 15 t0 100 tlion! Almost all of these that ta isamazing, Growth isa p division or cell enlargement (Figure 1) have estimated that your body w although estimates the result of mitosis. The growth manent increase In size as a result vary from The cells he same, The) organism, her, This is because, your body, or any complex multicelluk are not t riginal cel {as cells divide, grow and develop, they also begin to differentiate, fame as the Differentiation in animal cells In the early development of ani Each one of them (knowin as a stem cell) can and plant embryos, the ce unsp ome any y in life. By the d to carry out in animals, many types of time a humarrbaby is born, me a particulal come | ost of Its cells are spec job, such as nerve cells, skin cells, or muscle differentiated, Some of their genes have been switche have been switched off, As a result, different types of sp have different sub-cellular structures to carry out spec ic Fung divide by mitosis, but they can only form the Il. Muscle cells divide to produce more muscle cell, f differentiated cells, such as red and skin dult stem cells replace dead or dam: once they have differentiated and they are ame sort of ple. ot divide at all and an plood cel cells, Nerve cells do not di d by stem cells. As a result, when nerve cells are damaged they are not usually replat Ina mature animal, ite entirely restricted to repair and replacement of damag} differentiated cell type divides only to make mor no growth take: of the same cells, Differentiation in plant cells Inscontrast to animal cel t throug rdiffer of the stems and roots, known as the meri areas, mitosis takes place almost con and grow before they finally differentiate. are able to differentiate all formed at active regic sms (Figure 2). in these their lives. ns nuously. The cells then elongate Plants keep growing all through thelr lives at these’growing points The plant cells produced do not sition in the plant. Even then, the differentiation is not permanent. You The! until they are in their final jant cell from one part of a plant t0 ar IL You redifferentiate and do that with animal cel come a completely different type of ce — once a mus aysa mulcortex aseular cylin one of cell disi Figure 2 The main zones of division, elongation, and differentiation in a plant root Cloning plants Produ identical offspring is known as cloning, Huge numbers of identical plant clones can be produced from a tiny piece of leaf tissue. This is because, in the right conditions, a plant cell will become and undergo mitosis many times. Each of these tiated cells will produce more cells by mitosis. Given different ns, these will then diffe ynithetic c a tiny new plant, The n entiate to form t such as xylem ls that are needed to form phloe nd root hair ¢ plant will be identical t the original p tis difficult o clone animals because, as y entiate permanently u have seen, most animal « ly in embryo development. The cells al Asa result, artificial animal clones can only be made by cloning embryos in some way, although adult cells c make an embryo, an be used to 1a Define differentiation mark] Describe why differentiation is important in living organisms. [2 marks} 2. Explain how differentiation differs in animal and plant cells, (4 marks] 3. Calculate by what order of magnitude an adult human is bigger than the original fertilised ovum (Topic B1 3) [4 marks} 4. Discuss how the difference in differentiation patterns affects our ability to clone plants and animals. @p {6 marks rn You learnt about some specialised cells that result from differentiation in Topic B1.4 and Topic B15 You will learn more about the results of differentiation in Topic 83.1, You will learn more about plant and animal cloning in Topic B145, ind Topic B14.6. and Topic Y Cells produced by mitosis are | | genetically identical to the parent cel © Inplant cells, mitosis takes place throughout life in the meristems found in the shoot and root tips. ‘© Many types of plants cells retain the ability to differentiate throughout life. © Most types of animal cell Gifferentiate at an early stage of development.Learning objectives The function of stem cells After this topic, you should know: ‘An egg and sperm cell fuse to form a zygote, a single new cell. That ce divides and becomes a hollow ball of cells - the embryo, The inner cells, » how stem cells ate different from other body cells of this ball are the embryonic stem cells that differentiate to form all of the functions of stem cells in the specialised cells of your body. Even when you are an adult, some of nbryos, in adult animals, and your stem cells remain. An adult stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an noe organism that can give rise to many more cells of the same type. Certain © how treatment with stem celis other types of cell can also arise from stem cells by differentiation. You Rea tacsedtentrentneeriemitn bone marrow is a good source of adult stem cells, Scientists now think of the different tissues th different medical condition: our blood, brain, muscle, and liver. to replace themselves. lls can divid Many of your differe 7 —) However, some tissues cannot do this and stem cells can stay in these You will learn more about the spinal tissues for years, only needed if the cells are injured or affected by di nerves in Topic 8102, and about the Then they start dividing to replace the different types of damaged cell eye in Topic B105. Using stem cells You will earn more about insulin and Many people suffer and even die because parts of their body stop the control of blood glucose levels in ; working properly. For example, spinal injuries can cause paralysis, Topic B1L.2 and Topic B13, ear gee diabetes have to inject themselves with insulin every day becau ells in their pancreas do not work. Millions of people would lace damaged or diseased body parts. because the spinal nerves cannot repair themselves. Peo specialised benefit if we could In coculture human embryonic stem cells, capable of forming other types of entists hope that the embryonic stem cells can be encouraged to grow into almost any different type of cell needed in the body. Already tists have used nerve cells grown from embryonic stem cells to ysed rats. in 2010, the eakthrough. Two scientists manage ome movement to the legs of injecting nerve cells grown from embryonic al cords of paralysed human patients were carried doctors wil can be lang before out. Th Scientists an sse stem cells to help pe have been paralysed to walk again, In 2014, doctors transplanted embryonic ster cells nto the slind as a result of macular des Figure 1). tw safety of the technique but all of the patients people goin a small study to check found they could see better. are also using different types Figure 1 This is what the world looks like to someone with macular degeneration. The light-sensitive cells in the middle of thei retina stop working. Soon stem cell therapy _ sensitive to blood sugar levels and produce the hormone insulin to help ight be able to restore the last vision eat people lals are now taking place. Scientist Is to try and grow cells that are gefrom embs nsplant surgery ( ien be used in opic 82.4). Conditions from infertility to dementia could eventua ueated using stem cells, Stem cells in plants The stem alls meristems can be used to make clones of the mature parent plant uickly and ecor This is important as parent p it gives us a way of producing large numbers of rare plants reliably and a} p ly safely. We may be able to save some rare plants from extinction in this way. loning also gives us a way of producing large populations of identical plants for research, This is important as scientists can chang variables and observe the effects on genetically identical individuals, Cloning large numbers of identical plants from the inha ells in plant stems is also m idely use ticulture producing large numbers of plants such as orchids for sale (Figure 2). n agriculture its used ice large numbers of identical crop pl features, such disease resistance, For example, every banana you eat is producec cloned plant. Figure 2 Cloning exot makes them rel plants, le this orchid, from plant stem cells ively cheap and available for everyane to enjoy 1a Identify the difference yetween a stem cell and a normal bx f4marks] bb Give three sources of stem cells. 3 marks] 2. Identify the advantages of using ster cells to treat diseases, [4 marks} 3. a Explain why the ability to clone large numbers of individual plants is such an advantage in plant research (mar b Suggest how it may enable us to save rare s f plants (marks [ Plants in Topic 8145. Eanes You will learn more about cloning In 2016, Chinese scientists published papers showing how they had used embryonic stem cells to produce mouse sperm cells. They injected the sperm into mice eggs and produced live baby mice which went on to have babies of their own. Scientists hope stem cells may help overcome human infertility in the future ‘© Embryonic stem cells (from human embryos) and adult stem cells (from adult bone marrow) can be cloned and made to differentiate into many different types of cell © Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as paralysis and diabetes, © Stem cells from plant meristems are used to produce new plant clones quickly and economically for research, horticulture, and agriculture. ) = _/yA Learning objectives Asy 1 Topic B23, there are many potential benefits in using stem After this topic, you should know: cells in hum« gradually & real patients, However, the technology is still very new so there are still 1 medicine and they ar ing used to treat @ the process of therap tic cloning of the potential benefits, risks, and social and ethical of the use of stern cells in medi h and treatments. practical risks as well as social and ethical issues raised by the use of stem cells in both medical research and in treatments. @ sor Problems with embryonic stem cells ‘Many embryonic stem cells come from aborted embryos. Others come from spare embryos from fertility treatment, donated because they wil wise be used, Some people question the use of a potential ing as a source of cells, even to cL others me peo at, as the embryo cannot give permission, using itis a violation of its human rights. The religious beliefs of othe ny interference with the pro mean they cannot ac 1 reproduction, n addition, progr jeveloping therapies using embryonic stem cells has be ely slow, difficult, expensive, and hard to control. However, itise yet that scientists have only been working with them for arou years. The signals that control cell differentiation are still not derstood. Not surprisingly itis proving difficult to persuade en Jifferentiate into the type of cells needed tc ts. potentially so U divide and grow rapidly. This is ful but there is some cor yonic stem cells, might cause cancer if they are used to treat people. This has sometimes been a problem when they have been used to treat mice and in early human trea mimune disease There is ask that adult stem cells might be infected with vi could transfer the infections to (0 teat anoth atients. IF person, they may trigger an immune 1 he patient may need to take immunosup Figure 1 Dream Alliance won the Welsh jecting the new cells. Scientists hope en Grand National after revolutionary stem problem. The mother does not ject the embryo, so th cell treatment on a badly damaged tendon. vat ern Doctors hope people will soon have the same benefits to bryonic stem cell yonic ste . { will not be rejected by the patie that a great deel of money and time is being wasted on em cell rat would be better sper ninto other areas ine. Yet in spite of all these conce lot of investment nto stem cell tists and doctors are convin« ople The future of stem cell research tists have Found embryonic stem cells in the umbi born babies and even in the amniotic fluid that surtounds the fetu £ grows. Using these instead o} embryos may help to j overcome some of the ethical cone use.Scientists are also finding ways of growing adult stem cells, 0 3 they have only managed to develop them into a limite. ypes. Ad avoid the controversial use of embryonic tissue. They have been used successfully to treat some forms of heart dise: grow some new organs such as tracheas (windpipes) The ar zarch known as therapeutic cloning (Fiqu much potential but is provi ficult. It involves using cells fr an adult to produce a cloned early ¢ [Link] woul ictly matched embryo! eat ide a source of per tem cells. In th se could then be used for medical treatments such rgans for the arigin ty because they have sts have discovered stem liver and the pancreas ‘o make these cells t special insulin pancreas that are so impo ontrolling bl > cells that are eople with type Scientists have trans} ied stem cells into ci hich worked to control the blood sugar levels. The next Stage i towards the same © heart after damage in a heart attack eyesight inthe blind © damaged bone and cartila Itis not known how many of these hopes will be fulfled ~ only time could provide valuable nree areas of medical researc the use of stem cells, atments, [3 marks} medical tr 2 Summarise the main arguments for and against the use of embryonic stem cells in medical research. [4 marks} ome the ethical objecti rch (Seat 3. Explain how scientists are hoping to ove to using embryonic stem cells in their res stern ces made ti siferetiate nt dierent issues ‘igans or tesues ansplanted into Figure 2 This shows one scientists hope e? be formed into a human treatmer way in whic c stem cells might ts in the future Treatment with stem cells, from embryos or adult cell cloning, may be able to help with conditions such as diabetes. In therapeutic cloning, an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient so the stem cells produced are not rejected and may be used for medical treatment. fe The use of stem cells has some potential risks and some people have ethical or religious objections.2 Cell division Summary questions 1a Whatis the cell cycle? (i mark! bb Explain how and why you would expect the length of the cell cycle to vary: i between an early embryo in the first days after fertilisation and a 5-year-old child 4 marks] between a 13-year-old student and a 70-year-old adult. {5 marks} 2. a State what mitosis is and explain its role in the cell cycle. (3 marks} b Explain, using diagrams, the stages of the cell cycle. [5 marks} € The cell cycle is very important during the development of a baby from a fertilised egg. Its also important all through lif. Explain why. [5 marks] The rate of the cell cycle can vary greatly. i. Which stage of the celt cycle is variable? [1 mark] Discuss when the cell cycle is likely to be very rapid in an human being, and when its likely to bee relatively slow. {5 marks] 3. a State what stem cells are (2 marks] bb [tis hoped that many different medical problems may be cured using stem cells. Explain how this. might work. (4 marks} There are some ethical issues associated with the use of embryonic stem cells. Explain the arguments i forand [4 marks) again: [4 marks) their use, 4 Plants have stem cells just as animals do. a Where would you expect to find stem cells ina plant? [2 marks} b Describe how plant stem cells differ from animal stem cells. [2 marks] Suggest two examples of the use of plant stem cells to produce plant clones. For each explain the advantages of using cloning from stem cells over normal plant reproduction. [6 marks} Evy in 2014, a paper in the journal Cell Transplantation reported on the case of a Polish man whose spinal card had been severed in a stabbing, causing paralysis He had been given a novel treatment — cells from the olfactory lobe of his brain (the area that analyses smells) were grown in culture and then injected around the site of the injury. Thin strips of nerves were attached between the two ends of the spinal cord to give a framework for recovery. He was given intensive physiotherapy. Over a period of months the patient began to recover some control of his legs. He also regained some control of his bladder, bowel, and sexual function. He can now walk with a frame. a The cells he was given were not stem cells - they ‘were cells that encourage the growth of nerve cells — but the research was supported and fund dy groups involved in stem cell research. Suggest why stem cells might also be involved in this type of therapy in the future. [2 marks] The sight of a paralysed man walking, with difficulty, and the apparent regeneration of some of his spinal cord, caused a lot of excitement in the media. The scientists involved were very cautious but excited. Other scientists were very reluctant to see it as major progress. Evaluate this research from the information given here and indicate some of the problems still to be overcome before there is a useful cure for spinal injuries. @ [6 marks} The racehorse Dream Alliance (Topic 824, Figure 1) won the 2009 Welsh Grand National after stem cell treatment for a badly injured tendon in his leg 1a Tendons do not heal easily. Explain how stem cells might help overcome such an injury. [3 marks) tb Horses and other animals have been having successful stem cell treatment for tendon injuries for around 10 years. People also suffer from tendon injuries but human trials are still in the relatively early stages. Suggest reasons why human treatments are so far behind those used by ve 4 marks}