A Level Physics CIE

8. Superposition

CONTENTS
• Stationary Waves
• The Principle of Superposition
• Stationary Waves
• Diffraction & Interference
• Diffraction
….
• Interference & Coherence
• Two Source Interference
• Young's Double Slit Experiment
• The Diffraction Grating
 8.1 Stationary Waves

8.1.1 The Principle of Superposition

The Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves with
the same frequency travelling in opposite directions overlap, the
resultant displacement is the sum of displacements of each wave
This principle describes how waves which meet at a point in space interact
When two waves with the same frequency and amplitude arrive at a point,
they superpose either:

in phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line up

on both waves. The resultant wave has double the amplitude
or, in anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave
line up with the troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no amplitude
Waves in superposition can undergo
constructive or destructive interference
The principle of superposition applies to all types of waves i.e. transverse
and longitudinal
Worked Example
Two overlapping waves of the same types travel in the same direction. The
variation with x and y displacement of the wave is shown in the figure below.

Use the principle

of superposition to
sketch the
resultant wave.
Exam Tip
The best way to draw the superposition of two waves is to find where the
superimposed wave has its maximum and minimum amplitudes. It is then
a case of joining them up to form the wave. Where the waves intersect
determines how much constructive or destructive interference will occur.
 8.1.2 Stationary Waves

Stationary Waves
Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by the
superposition of two waves of the same frequency and amplitude
travelling in opposite directions.

This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its reflection. The

superposition produces a wave pattern where the peaks and troughs
do not move.
Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched
spring fixed at one end
 Stretched strings
Vibrations caused by stationary waves on a stretched string produce sound.
This is how stringed instruments, such as guitars or violins, work
This can be demonstrated by a length of string under tension fixed at one end
and vibrations made by an oscillator:
Stationary wave on a stretched string
As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing waves with different
numbers of minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes) form.

Microwaves
A microwave source is placed in line with a reflecting plate and a small detector
between the two. The reflector can be moved to and from the source to vary the
stationary wave pattern formed.
By moving the detector, it can pick up the minima (nodes) and maxima
(antinodes) of the stationary wave pattern
Using microwaves to demonstrate stationary waves
Air Columns
The formation of stationary waves inside an air column can be produced by
sound waves. This is how musical instruments, such as clarinets and
organs, work

This can be demonstrated by placing a fine powder inside the air column
and a loudspeaker at the open end.
At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly spaced heaps along the
tube, showing where there is zero disturbance as a result of the nodes of
the stationary wave
Stationary wave in an air column
In order to produce a stationary wave, there must be a minima (node) at one
end and a maxima (antinode) at the end with the loudspeaker

Exam Tip
Always refer back to the experiment or scenario in an exam question e.g.
the wave produced by a loudspeaker reflects at the end of a tube. This
reflected wave, with the same frequency, overlaps the initial wave to
create a stationary wave.
 Formation of Stationary Waves
A stationary wave is made up of nodes and antinodes.
• Nodes are where there is no vibration
• Antinodes are where the vibrations are at their maximum
amplitude.
The nodes and antinodes do not move along the string. Nodes are fixed and
antinodes only move in the vertical direction. Between nodes, all points on
the stationary are in phase.
The image below shows the nodes and antinodes on a snapshot of a
stationary wave at a point in time.
L is the length of the string
wavelength λ is only a portion of the length of the string
Worked Example
A stretched string is used to demonstrate a stationary wave, as shown in the
diagram.

Which row in the table correctly describes the length of L and the name of X
and Y?
ANSWER: C
Exam Tip
The lengths of the strings will only be in whole or ½ wavelengths.
For example, a wavelength could be made up of 3 nodes and 2
antinodes or 2 nodes and 3 antinodes.
 Measuring Wavelength

Stationary waves have different wave patterns depending on the frequency of

the vibration and the situation in which they are created.

Two fixed ends

When a stationary wave, such as a vibrating string, is fixed at both ends, the
simplest wave pattern is a single loop made up of two nodes and an antinode.
This is called the fundamental mode of vibration or the first harmonic
The particular frequencies (i.e. resonant frequencies) of standing waves
possible in the string depend on its length L and its speed v.
As you increase the frequency, the higher harmonics begin to appear
The frequencies can be calculated from the string length and wave
equation.
 Diagram showing the first three modes of vibration of a stretched string with corresponding
frequencies

The nth harmonic has n antinodes and n + 1 nodes

One or two open ends in air column

When a stationary wave is formed in an air column with one or two open ends,
we see slightly different wave patterns in each
Diagram showing modes of vibration in pipes with one end closed and the
other open or both ends open
In Image 1: only one end of the air column is open, so, the
fundamental mode is now made up of a quarter of a wavelength with
one node and one antinode
Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node or antinode
In Image 2: the column is open on both ends, so, the fundamental
mode is made up one node and two antinodes
In summary, a column length L for a wave with wavelength λ and
resonant frequency f for stationary waves to appear is as follows:
Air Column Length & Frequencies Summary Table
Worked Example
A standing wave is set up in a loudspeaker emits sound with frequency f and is
placed at one end of a pipe with length L. The pipe is closed at the other [Link]
-1
speed of sound is 340 m s .

With a sound wave of wavelength of 10 m, what is the frequency of the second

lowest note produced?
Exam Tip
The fundamental counts as the first harmonic or n = 1 and is the lowest
frequency with half or quarter of a wavelength. A full wavelength with
both ends open or both ends closed is the second harmonic. Make sure to
match the correct wavelength with the harmonic asked for in the question!
 8.2 Diffraction & Interference

8.2.1 Diffraction

What is Diffraction?
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass an obstruction.
This obstruction is typically a narrow slit (an aperture)
The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the gap compared with the
wavelength of the waves.
Diffraction is the most prominent when the width of the slit is approximately
equal to the wavelength
Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it
spreads out
Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the vertical
lines in the diagram above.
The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is its amplitude
This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through
a gap.
Diffraction can also occur when waves curve around an edge:

When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around it
Note: Any type of wave can be diffracted i.e. sound, light, water

Worked Example
When a wave is travelling through air, which scenario best demonstrates
diffraction?

[Link] radiation through a gate post

[Link] waves passing a steel rod

[Link] waves passing between human hair

D.X-rays passing through atoms in a crystalline solid

Answer: D

Diffraction is most prominent when the wavelength is close to the

aperture size
-7 -8
UV waves have a wavelength between 4 × 10 – 1 × 10 m so won’t be
diffracted by a gate post
Sound waves have a wavelength of 1.72 × 10-2 – 17 m so would not be
diffracted by the diffraction grating
Radio waves have a wavelength of 0.1 – 106 m so would not be diffracted by
human hair
X-rays have a wavelength of 1 × 10-8 – 4 × 10-13 m which is roughly the gap
between atoms in a crystalline solid.
Therefore, the correct answer is D

Exam Tip
When drawing diffracted waves, take care to keep the wavelength constant. It is
only the amplitude of the wave that changes when diffracted.
 Diffraction Experiments

As discussed above, the effects of diffraction are most prominent when the
gap size is approximately the same or smaller than the wavelength of the
wave.
As the gap size increases, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in
the case that the gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no
longer spread out.
 The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how
much the waves spread out

Ripple tanks are used a common experiment to demonstrate diffraction of

water waves
Wave effects may all be demonstrated using a ripple
tank
The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple
tank.
• The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
• The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength

Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration

 Exam Tip
Familiarising yourself with the wavelength of electromagnetic waves is
essential for identifying which wave will cause the greatest diffraction
effect for a giving gap width.

8.2.2 Interference & Coherence

Interference & Coherence
Interference occurs when waves overlap and their resultant displacement is the sum
of the displacement of each wave.
This result is based on the principle of superposition and the resultant waves may
be smaller or larger than either of the two individual waves.
Interference of two waves can either be:
the resultant waves may be smaller or larger than either of the two
individual waves.
Interference of two waves can either be:
• In phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line
up on both waves. The resultant wave has double the amplitude
• In anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave
line up with the troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no
amplitude
Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or
destructive interference
 At points where the two waves are neither in phase nor in antiphase, the resultant
amplitude is somewhere in between the two extremes.
Waves are coherent if they have the same frequency and constant phase difference

Coherent vs non-coherent wave.

The abrupt change in phase creates
an inconsistent phase difference
Coherence is vital in order to produce an observable interference
pattern. Laser light is an example of a coherent light source, whereas
filament lamps produce incoherent light waves.
 Worked Example
The diagram shows the interferences of coherent waves from two point sources.

Which row in the table correctly identifies the type of interference at points X, Y and Z.
ANSWER: B

• At point X:
Both peaks of the waves are overlapping. This is constructive interference
and rules out options C and D

• At point Y:
Both troughs are overlapping and so constructive interference occurs there

• At point Z:
A peak of one of the waves meets the trough of the other. This is
destructive interference (Row B)
Exam Tip
Think of ‘constructive’ interference as ‘building’ the wave and
‘destructive’ interference as ‘destroying’ the wave
 8.2.3 Two Source Interference

Demonstrating Two Source Interference

Interference of sound, light and microwaves can be demonstrated with slits or
diffraction gratings

Using Water Waves

Two-source interference in can be demonstrated in water using ripple tanks.
The diagram below shows diffracted circle shaped water waves from two point
sources eg. dropping two pebbles near to each other in a pond
Water waves interference pattern from a ripple tank
The two waves interfere causing areas of constructive and destructive
interference. The lines of maximum displacement occur when all the peaks
and troughs line up with those on another wave.

Using Sound Waves

Two source interference for sound waves looks very similar to water waves

Sound wave interference

from two speakers
Sound waves are longitudinal waves so are made up of compressions and
rarefactions. Constructive interference occurs when two compressions or two
rarefactions line up and the sound appears louder.
Destructive interference occurs when a compression lines up with a
rarefaction and vice versa. The sound is quieter, this is the technology used
in noise-cancelling headphones.

Using Microwaves
Two source interference for microwaves can be detected with a moveable
microwave detector
Microwave interference experiment
 • Constructive interference: regions where the detector picks up a maximum
amplitude
• Destructive interference: regions where the detector picks up no signal

Using Light Waves

For light rays, such as a laser light through two slits, an interference pattern
forms on the screen
Laser light interference experiment
• Constructive interference is shown as bright fringes on the screen. The
highest intensity is in the middle
• Destructive interference is shown as the dark fringes on the screen. These
have zero intensity
 Two Source Interference Fringes
For two-source interference fringes to be observed, the sources of the wave
must be: Coherent (constant phase difference)
Monochromatic (single wavelength)

When two waves interfere, the resultant wave depends on the phase difference
between the two waves. This is proportional to the path difference between the
waves which can be written in terms of the wavelength λ of the wave.

As seen from the diagram, the wave from slit S2 has to travel slightly further
than that from S1 to reach the same point on the screen. The difference in
distance is the path difference
Path difference of constructive and destructive interference is determined by wavelength
• For constructive interference (or maxima), the difference in wavelengths will be
an integer number of whole wavelengths.
• For destructive interference (or minima) it will be an integer number of whole
wavelengths plus a half wavelength
• n is the order of the maxima/minima since there is usually more than one of
these produced by the interference pattern

An example of the orders of maxima is shown below:

Interference pattern of light waves shown with orders of maxima

n = 0 is taken from the middle, n = 1 is one either side and so on

Worked Example
Two coherent sources of sound waves S1 and S2 are situated 65 cm apart in air as shown
below.

The two sources vibrate in phase but have different amplitudes of vibration. A
microphone M is situated 150 cm from S1 along the line normal to S1 and S2. The
microphone detects maxima and minima of the intensity of the sound. The wavelength of
the sound from S1 to S2 is decreased by increasing the frequency. Determine which
orders of maxima are detected at M as the wavelength is increased from 3.5 cm to 12.5
cm.
Exam Tip
The path difference is more specifically how much longer, or shorter,
one path is than the other. In other words, the difference in the distances.
Make sure not to confuse this with the distance between the two paths.
 8.2.4 Young's Double Slit Experiment
Double Slit Interference
Young’s double slit experiment demonstrates how light waves produced an interference
pattern. The experiment is shown below

Young’s double-slit
experiment arrangement
When a monochromatic light source is placed behind a single slit, the light is
diffracted producing two light sources at the double slits A and B.
Since both light sources originate from the same primary source, they are coherent
and will therefore create an observable interference pattern.

Both diffracted light from the double slits create an interference pattern made up
of bright and dark fringes
The wavelength of the light can be calculated from the interference pattern and
experiment set up. These are related using the double-slit equation
Double slit interference equation with a, x and D represented on a diagram
• The interference pattern on a screen will show as ‘fringes’ which are dark
or bright bands.
• Constructive interference is shown through bright fringes with varying
intensity (most intense in the middle).
• Destructive interference is shown from dark fringes where no light is seen
• A monochromatic light source makes these fringes clearer and the distance
between fringes is very small due to the short wavelength of visible light
Worked Example
A laser is placed in front of a double-slit as shown in the diagram below.

The laser emits light of frequency 750 THz. The separation of the maxima P
and Q observed on the screen is 15 mm. The distance between the double slit
and the screen is 4.5 [Link] the separation of the two slits.
Exam Tip
Since a, x and D are all distances, it's easy to mix up which they refer to.
Labelling the double slit diagram in the way given in the notes above will
help to remember the order i.e. a and x in the numerator and D underneath in
the denominator.
 8.2.5 The Diffraction Grating
The Grating Equation
A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel,
identical, close-spaced slits.
When monochromatic light is incident on a grating, a pattern of narrow bright
fringes is produced on a screen

Diagram of diffraction grating used to

obtain a fringe pattern
The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive interference) are
produced can be deduced by the diffraction grating equation

Diffraction grating equation for the angle of bright fringes

Exam questions sometime state the lines per m (or per mm, per nm etc.) on the
grating which is represented by the symbol N
d can be calculated from N using the equation
The angular separation of each maxima is calculated by rearranging the grating
equation to make θ the subject
The angle θ is taken from the centre meaning the higher orders are at greater
angles

Angular separation
 The angular separation between two angles is found by subtracting the smaller
angle from the larger one.
The angular separation between the first and second maxima n1 and n2 is θ2 – θ1

Orders of Maxima
The maximum angle to see orders of maxima is when the beam is at right
angles to the diffraction grating
This means θ = 90o and sin θ = 1

The highest order of maxima visible is therefore calculated by the equation:

Worked Example
An experiment was set up to investigate light passing through a di raction
grating with a slit spacing of 1.7 µm. The fringe pattern was observed on a
screen. The wavelength of the light is 550 nm.

Calculate the angle α between the two second-order lines.

Exam Tip
Take care that the angle θ is the correct angle taken from the centre and
not the angle taken between two orders of maxima.
 Determining the Wavelength of Light
Method
• The wavelength of light can be determined by rearranging the grating equation
to make the wavelength λ the subject
• The value of θ, the angle to the specific order of maximum measured from the
center, can be calculated through trigonometry
• The distance from the grating to the screen is marked as D
• The distance between the center and the order of maxima (e.g. n = 2 in the
diagram) on the screen is labelled as h - the fringe spacing
• Measure both these values with a ruler. This makes a right-angled triangle
with the angle θ as the ratio of the h/D = tanθ
The wavelength of light is calculated by the angle to the order of maximum
• Remember to find the inverse of tan to find θ = tan-1(h/D).
This value of θ can then be substituted back into the diffraction grating
equation to find the value of the wavelength (with the corresponding order n)

• Improving experiment and reducing uncertainties

The fringe spacing can be subjective depending on its intensity on the screen.
Take multiple measurements of h (between 3−8) and finding the average
• Use a Vernier scale to record h, in order to reduce percentage uncertainty
Reduce the uncertainty in h by measuring across all fringes and dividing
by the number of fringes
• Increase the grating to screen distance D to increase the fringe separation
(although this may decrease the intensity of light reaching the screen)
• Conduct the experiment in a darkened room, so the fringes are clearer
Use grating with more lines per mm, so values of h are greater to lower
percentage uncertainty