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Atom, Elements, Compounds

The document provides information about six substances in a table including their melting points, boiling points, and electrical conductivity as solids and liquids. It then asks a series of multiple choice and short answer questions about the substances and chemical reactions: 1. Substance A could be a metal. Substances B and D are liquid at room temperature. Substance E could have a similar structure to silicon(IV) oxide. Substance D could be propane. Substance B could be sodium chloride. 2. The document asks questions about the reaction of potassium iodide and lead nitrate to form lead iodide, and the redox reaction of chlorine gas bubbling through an aqueous solution of potassium

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

12 views63 pages

Atom, Elements, Compounds

Uploaded by

Aarya Modi

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

1 The following table gives information about six substances.

melting point boiling point electrical conductivity electrical conductivity

substance
/ °C / °C as a solid as a liquid

A 839
39 1 good good

B –1
–1
18 poor poor

C 776
76 1 poor good

D –11 poor poor

E 1607
607 poor poor

F –5 1 poor good

(a) Which substance could be a metal?

[1]

(b) State all the substances that are liquid at room temperature?

[1]

(d) Which substance could be propane?

[1]

(e) Which substance could be sodium chloride?

[1]

[Total: 5]

[Link]
(a) Potassium iodide is an ionic compound.

(i) Describe what happens, in terms of electron loss and gain, when a potassium atom reacts
with an iodine atom.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Describe the structure of solid potassium iodide. You may draw a diagram.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(iii) Explain why potassium iodide has a high melting point.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Link]
(b) Potassium iodide and lead nitrate are both soluble. Lead iodide is insoluble.

(i) Describe how a pure dry sample of lead iodide could be made from solid potassium iodide
and solid lead nitrate.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [4]

(ii) Write an ionic equation for the formation of lead iodide, PbI2, when potassium iodide and
lead nitrate react with each other.
State symbols are not required.

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

2I – + Cl 2 → I2 + 2Cl –

(i) State the colour change expected in this reaction.

start colour ..........................................................................................................................

end colour ...........................................................................................................................

[2]

(ii) Identify the reducing agent in this reaction. Explain your answer.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 16]

[Link]
3 Carbon dioxide and silicon(IV) oxide are oxides of Group IV elements.

(a) Complete the following table.

carbon dioxide silicon(IV) oxide

formula SiO2

melting point / °C –56 1610

physical state at 25 °C gas

conduction of electricity non-conductor

structure macromolecular
[4]

(b) (i) Name the type of bonds that exist between the atoms in silicon(IV) oxide.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Explain why silicon(IV) oxide has a very high melting point.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) Explain, in terms of attractive forces between particles, why carbon dioxide has a very low
melting point.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iv) Explain, in terms of particles, why carbon dioxide is a non-conductor of electricity.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Link]
(d) (i) Name the type of chemical reaction in which carbon dioxide is produced from fossil fuels.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Name the chemical process in which green plants convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) Name the chemical process in which living things produce carbon dioxide.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 13]

[Link]
4 Iron pyrite, FeS2, is known as Fool’s Gold because it is a shiny yellow solid which is similar in
appearance to gold. Iron pyrite is an ionic compound. Gold is a metallic element.

(a) Iron pyrite, FeS2, contains positive and negative ions. The positive ion is Fe2+.

Deduce the formula of the negative ion.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) A student is provided with a sample of iron pyrite and a sample of gold.

Suggest how the student could distinguish between the two substances.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(c) Sulfur dioxide is produced on a large scale by heating iron pyrite strongly in air. The iron pyrite
reacts with oxygen in the air producing iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, and sulfur dioxide.

(i) Construct a chemical equation for the reaction between iron pyrite and oxygen.

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Give one use of sulfur dioxide.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 6]

[Link]
5 Carbon and silicon are elements in Group IV. They both form oxides of the type XO2.

(a) Silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2, has a macromolecular structure.

(i) Describe the structure of silicon(IV) oxide.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [3]

(ii) State three properties which silicon(IV) oxide and diamond have in common.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [3]

(iii) How could you show that silicon(IV) oxide is acidic and not basic or amphoteric?

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) Explain why the physical properties of carbon dioxide are different from those of diamond and
silicon(IV) oxide.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

[Total: 9]

[Link]
6 Use your copy of the Periodic Table to help you answer some of these questions.

(a) Predict the formulae of the following compounds.

(i) nitrogen fluoride..................................................................................................................

(ii) phosphorus sulfide.............................................................................................................

[2]

(b) Deduce the formulae of the following ions.

(i) selenide ..............................................................................................................................

(ii) gallium ................................................................................................................................

[2]

ions OH– Cr3+ Ba2+ SO42–

compounds

(i) chromium(III) sulfate ..........................................................................................................

(ii) barium hydroxide ................................................................................................................

[2]

[Total: 6]

[Link]
7 Lithium bromide is an ionic compound. It can be electrolysed when it is molten or in aqueous
solution. It cannot be electrolysed as a solid.

(a) Solid lithium bromide is a poor conductor of electricity. The ions cannot move to the electrodes,
they are held in an ionic lattice by strong forces.

(i) Describe the motion of the ions in the solid state.

. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. .... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... . [1]

(ii) Define the term ionic bonding .

................................................................. .................................... .................................. [2]

(iii) What is meant by the term ionic lattice?

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) The diagram shows th,e electrolysis of molten lithium bromide.

- : .1=8
=- :::::::= - - Power pack
--® -i'""

carbon
l---A---:::::�electrodes

molten
lithium bromide

heat

(i) Mark on the diagram the direction of the electron flow. (1]

(ii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction at the negative electrode (cathode).

. .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. .... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... . [1]

(iii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction at the positive electrode (anode) .

................................................................. .................................... .................................. [2]

(iv) Which ion is oxidised? Explain your answer .

................................................................. .................................... .................................. [2]

[Link]
(c) When aqueous lithium bromide is electrolysed, a colourless gas is formed at the negative
electrode and the solution becomes alkaline.

Explain these observations and include an equation in your explanation.

............................................................................... ............................................................... (3)

[Total: 14)

[Link]
1 Calcium reacts with nitrogen to form the ionic compound calcium nitride, Ca3N2.

(a) Draw a diagram, based on the correct formula, which shows the charges on the ions and the
arrangement of the electrons around the negative ion.

Use o to represent an electron from a calcium atom.

Use x to represent an electron from a nitrogen atom.

[3]

(b) In the lattice of calcium nitride, the ratio of calcium ions to nitride ions is 3 : 2.

(i) What is meant by the term lattice?

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) In terms of ionic charges, explain why the ratio of ions is 3 : 2.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

In terms of electron transfer, explain why calcium is the reducing agent.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

[Total: 10]

[Link]
2 Ammonia is manufactured by the Haber process. Nitrogen and hydrogen are passed over a catalyst
at a temperature of 450 °C and a pressure of 200 atmospheres.

The equation for the reaction is as follows.

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

The forward reaction is exothermic.

(a) State one use of ammonia.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) What is the meaning of the symbol ?

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

nitrogen ......................................................................................................................................

hydrogen ....................................................................................................................................
[2]

(d) Name the catalyst in the Haber process.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(e)
e) If a temperature higher than 450 °C was used in the Haber process, what would happen to
the rate of the reaction? Give a reason for your answer.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) If a temperature higher than 450 °C was used in the Haber process, what would happen to
the yield of ammonia? Give a reason for your answer.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Link]
(f)
f) If a pressure higher than 200 atmospheres was used in the Haber process, what would
happen to the yield of ammonia? Give a reason for your answer.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Explain why the rate of reaction would be faster if the pressure was greater than
200 atmospheres.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) Suggest one reason why a pressure higher than 200 atmospheres is not used in the
Haber process.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(g) Draw a dot-and-cross diagram to show the arrangement of the outer (valency) electrons in one
molecule of ammonia.

[2]

(h) Ammonia acts as a base when it reacts with sulfuric acid.

(i) What is a base?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between ammonia and sulfuric acid.

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Link] [Total: 18]

3 Two macromolecular forms of carbon are graphite and diamond. The structures of graphite and
diamond are given below.

graphite diamond

(a) Explain in terms of its structure why graphite is soft and is a good conductor of electricity.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) State two uses of graphite which depend on the above properties.

It is soft ......................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................

It is a good conductor of electricity ............................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................
[2]

(c) Silicon(IV) oxide also has a macromolecular structure.

(i) Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon(IV) oxide.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Predict two physical properties which diamond and silicon(IV) oxide have in common.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Link] [Total: 8]
4 For each of the following elements give one physical property and one chemical property.

(a) bromine (Br2)

physical property .......................................................................................................................

chemical property ......................................................................................................................

[2]

(b) carbongraphite(C)

physical property .......................................................................................................................

chemical property ......................................................................................................................

[2]

(c) manganese (Mn)

physical property .......................................................................................................................

chemical property ......................................................................................................................

[2]

[Total: 6]

[Link]
5 In 1985 the fullerenes were discovered. They are solid forms of the element carbon. The structure
of the C60 fullerene is given below.

(a) (i) In the C60 fullerene, how many other carbon atoms is each carbon atom bonded to?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Another fullerene has a relative molecular mass of 840.

How many carbon atoms are there in one molecule of this fullerene?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Fullerenes are soluble in liquid hydrocarbons such as octane. The other solid forms of carbon
are insoluble.
Describe how you could obtain crystals of fullerenes from soot which is a mixture of fullerenes
and other solid forms of carbon.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(c) A mixture of a fullerene and potassium is an excellent conductor of electricity.

(i) Which other form of solid carbon is a good conductor of electricity?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Explain why metals, such as potassium, are good conductors of electricity.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(iii) The mixture of fullerene and potassium has to be stored out of contact with air. There are
substances in unpolluted air which will react with potassium.
Name two potassium compounds which could be formed when potassium is exposed to
air.

....................................................................................................................................... [2]
[Link]
[Total: 10]
6 The table below gives the electron distributions of atoms of different elements.

element electron distribution

A 2+7
B 2+8+4
C 2+8+8+1
D 2 + 8 + 18 + 5
E 2 + 8 + 18 + 7
F 2 + 8 + 18 + 18 + 8

For each of the following, select an element or elements from the table that matches the description.
Each element may be selected once, more than once or not at all.

(a) These two elements are in the same group.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) This element forms a fluoride with a formula of the type XF3.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(c) This element reacts violently with cold water.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(d) This element has a macromolecular structure similar to that of diamond.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(e) The only oxidation state of this element is 0.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(f) This element is bromine.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(g) This element is a good conductor of electricity.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

[Total: 7]

[Link]
7 The hydroxides of the Group I metals are soluble in water. Most other metal hydroxides are
insoluble in water.

(a) (i) Crystals of lithium chloride can be prepared from lithium hydroxide by titration.

burette filled with

hydrochloric acid of
concentration 2.20 mol / dm3

conical flask

25.0 cm3 of aqueous lithium hydroxide

and indicator

25.0 cm3 of aqueous lithium hydroxide is pipetted into the conical flask.
A few drops of an indicator are added. Dilute hydrochloric acid is added slowly to the
alkali until the indicator just changes colour. The volume of acid needed to neutralise
the lithium hydroxide is noted.

A neutral solution of lithium chloride, which still contains the indicator, is left. Describe
how you could obtain a neutral solution of lithium chloride which does not contain an
indicator.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

[Link]
(ii) You cannot prepare a neutral solution of magnesium chloride by the same method.
Describe how you could prepare a neutral solution of magnesium chloride.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) The concentration of the hydrochloric acid was 2.20 mol / dm3. The volume of acid needed
to neutralise the 25.0 cm3 of lithium hydroxide was 20.0 cm3. Calculate the concentration
of the aqueous lithium hydroxide.

LiOH + HCl → LiCl + H2O

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) Lithium chloride forms three hydrates. They are LiCl.H2O, LiCl.2H2O and LiCl.3H2O.
Which one of these three hydrates contains 45.9 % of water?
Show how you arrived at your answer.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Total: 10]

[Link]
1 Substances can be classified as:

elements mixtures
m

Elements can be divided into:

metals non-

(a) Define each of the following terms.

(i) element

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(ii) compound

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(iii) mixture

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Classify each of the following as either an element, compound or mixture.

(i) brass .................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) carbon dioxide ..................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) copper .................................................................................................................. [1]

(c) Which physical property is used to distinguish between metals and non-metals?
It is possessed by all metals but by only one non-metal.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Total: 9]

[Link]
2 (a) The diagram shows the lattice of a typical ionic compound.

– + – +
+ – + –
+ – + –
– + – +
– + – +
+ – + –

(i) Explain the term ionic lattice.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(ii) In this lattice, the ratio of positive ions to negative ions is 1:1.
In the lattice of a different ionic compound, the ratio of positive ions to negative ions
is 1:2.
Suggest why this ratio varies in different ionic compounds.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) Give three physical properties of ionic compounds.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) Strontium oxide is an ionic compound. Draw a diagram which shows its formula, the
charges on the ions and the arrangement of the valency electrons around the negative
ion.
The electron distribution of a strontium atom is 2 + 8 + 18 + 8 + 2.

Use o to represent an electron from a strontium atom.

Use x to represent an electron from an oxygen atom.

[3]

[Total: 9]

[Link]
3 Diamond and graphite are different forms of the same element, carbon.
Explain the following in terms of their structure.

(a) Graphite is a soft material which is used as a lubricant.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) Diamond is a very hard material which is used for drilling and cutting.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity and diamond is a poor conductor.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 6]

[Link]
4 Both strontium and sulfur have chlorides of the type XCl 2. The table below compares some
of their properties.

strontium chloride sulfur chloride

appearance white crystals red liquid
formula SrCl 2 SCl 2
melting point / °C 874 –120
boiling point / °C 1250 59
conductivity of liquid good poor
dissolves to form reacts to form a
solubility in water
a neutral solution solution of pH 1

(a)
a) Use the data in the table to explain why sulfur chloride is a liquid at room temperature,
25 °C.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(ii) Strontium is a metal and sulfur is a non-metal. Explain why both have chlorides of
the type XCl 2.
The electron distribution of a strontium atom is 2 + 8 + 18 + 8 + 2.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(iii) Deduce the name of the acidic compound formed when sulfur chloride reacts with
water.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iv) Explain the difference in the electrical conductivity of liquid strontium chloride and
liquid sulfur chloride.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [3]

[Link]
(b) Strontium chloride-6-water can be made from the insoluble compound, strontium
carbonate, by the following reactions.

SrCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → SrCl 2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

SrCl 2 (aq) + 6H2O(l) → SrCl 2.6H2O(s)

The following method was used to prepare the crystals.

1 Add excess strontium carbonate to hot hydrochloric acid.

2 Filter the resulting mixture.
3 Partially evaporate the filtrate and allow to cool.
4 Filter off the crystals of SrCl 2.6H2O.
5 Dry the crystals between filter papers.

(i) How would you know when excess strontium carbonate had been added in step 1?

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) Why is it necessary to filter the mixture in step 2?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) In step 3, why partially evaporate the filtrate rather than evaporate to dryness?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(c) In the above experiment, 50.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid of concentration 2.0 mol / dm3 was
used. 6.4 g of SrCl 2.6H2O was made.
Calculate the percentage yield.

number of moles of HCl used = ............................

number of moles of SrCl 2.6H2O which could be formed = ............................

mass of one mole of SrCl 2.6H2O is 267 g

theoretical yield of SrCl 2.6H2O = ............................g

percentage yield = ............................% [4]

[Total: 15]

[Link]
5 This question is concerned with the elements in Period 5, Rb to Xe.

(a) The electron distributions of some of these elements are given in the following list.

element A 2+
element B 2+
element C 2+
element D 2+
element E 2 + 8 + 18 + 18 + 4
element F 2 + 8 + 18 + 18 + 7

(i) Identify element C. ............................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Which element in the list does not form any compounds?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) Which element in the list forms a chloride of the type XCl 2?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iv) Which two elements would react together to form a compound of the type XY4?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(v) Which element in the list would react with cold water to form an alkaline solution and
hydrogen?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Predict two differences in physical properties and two differences in chemical properties
between rubidium and the transition metal niobium.

physical .............................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

chemical ...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [4]

[Total: 9]

[Link]
6 Until recently, arsenic poisoning, either deliberate or accidental, has been a frequent cause
of death. The symptoms of arsenic poisoning are identical with those of a common illness,
cholera. A reliable test was needed to prove the presence of arsenic in a body.

(a) In 1840, Marsh devised a reliable test for arsenic.

hydrochloric
acid

cold surface

black stain
shows presence
H2 and arsine of arsenic
pieces of zinc burning
and arsenic compound

Hydrogen is formed in this reaction. Any arsenic compound reacts with this hydrogen to
form arsine which is arsenic hydride, AsH3.
The mixture of hydrogen and arsine is burnt at the jet and arsenic forms as a black stain
on the glass.

(i) Write an equation for the reaction which forms hydrogen.

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(ii) Draw a diagram which shows the arrangement of the outer (valency) electrons in
one molecule of the covalent compound arsine.
The electron distribution of arsenic is 2 + 8 + 18 + 5.

Use x to represent an electron from an arsenic atom.

Use o to represent an electron from a hydrogen atom.

[2]

[Link]
(b) Another hydride of arsenic has the composition below.

arsenic 97.4 % hydrogen 2.6 %

(i) Calculate the empirical formula of this hydride from the above data.
Show your working.

....................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................[2]

(ii) The mass of one mole of this hydride is 154 g. What is its molecular formula?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) Deduce the structural formula of this hydride.

[1]

(c) Hair is a natural protein. Hair absorbs arsenic from the body. Analysis of the hair provides
a measurement of a person’s exposure to arsenic. To release the absorbed arsenic for
analysis, the protein has to be hydrolysed.

(i) What is the name of the linkage in proteins?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) Name a reagent which can be used to hydrolyse proteins.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) What type of compound is formed by the hydrolysis of proteins?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

[Link]
(d) In the 19th Century, a bright green pigment, copper(II) arsenate(V) was used to kill rats
and insects. In damp conditions, micro-organisms can act on this compound to produce
the very poisonous gas, arsine.

(i) Suggest a reason why it is necessary to include the oxidation states in the name of
the compound.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) The formula for the arsenate(V) ion is AsO43–. Complete the ionic equation for the
formation of copper(II) arsenate(V).

......Cu2+ + ......AsO43– → ..................................

[2]

[Total: 14]

[Link]
7 The structure of an
Scandium fluoride and silicon(IV) oxide have giant structures.

(a) Scandium fluoride is an ionic compound.

(i) The valency of scandium is three. Draw a diagram which shows the formula of the
compound, the charges on the ions and the arrangement of the valency electrons
around the negative ion.
Use x to represent an electron from a scandium atom.
Use o to represent an electron from a fluorine atom.

[3]

(ii) The melting point of scandium fluoride is 1552 °C. Explain why scandium fluoride
has a high melting point.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Silicon(IV) oxide has a macromolecular structure.

(i) Describe the structure of silicon(IV) oxide. You may use a diagram.

[3]

(ii) How does the electrical conductivity of these two compounds differ?

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) Explain the difference in conductivity.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 10]
[Link]
1 Carbon and silicon are elements in Group IV. Both elements have macromolecular
structures.

(a) Diamond and graphite are two forms of the element carbon.

(i) Explain why diamond is a very hard substance.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(ii) Give one use of diamond.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

[Link]
(iii) Explain why graphite is a soft material.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(iv) Give one use of graphite.

............................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Two of the oxides of these elements are carbon dioxide, CO2, and silicon(IV) oxide,
SiO2.

(i) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule
of the covalent compound carbon dioxide.
Use x to represent an electron from a carbon atom.
Use o to represent an electron from an oxygen atom.

[3]

(ii) A section of the macromolecular structure of silicon(IV) oxide is given below.

O O
O

Use this diagram to explain why the formula is SiO2 not SiO4.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(iii) Predict two differences in the physical properties of these two oxides.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]
[Link]
[Total: 13]
2 The diagrams below show the electron arrangement in two compounds.

+ –
K Cl H O H

(a) In a water molecule, each hydrogen atom is bonded to the oxygen atom by sharing a pair
of electrons.
Why does an oxygen atom share two pairs of electrons rather than just one pair?

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(b) Describe how a potassium atom becomes a potassium ion.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(c) Why is there a bond between the ions in potassium chloride?

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(d) Solid potassium chloride is a poor conductor of electricity. When dissolved in water it is
a good conductor. Explain.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 5]

[Link]
3 The following is a list of the electron distributions of atoms of unknown elements.

element
lement el distribution
A 2,5
B 2,8,4
C 2,8,8,2
D 2,8,18,8
E 2,8,18,8,1
F 2,8,18,18,7

(a) Choose an element from the list for each of the following descriptions.

(i) It is a noble gas.

(ii) It is a soft metal with a low density.

(iii) It can form a covalent compound with element A.

(iv) It has a giant covalent structure similar to diamond.

(v) It can form a negative ion of the type X3 . [5]

(b) Elements C and F can form an ionic compound.

(i) Draw a diagram that shows the formula of this compound, the charges on the ions
and the arrangement of the valency electrons around the negative ion.
Use o to represent an electron from an atom of C.
Use x to represent an electron from an atom of F.

[3]

(ii) Predict two properties of this compound.

[2]

[Link] [Total: 10]

4 There are three types of giant structure – ionic, metallic and macromolecular.

(a) Sodium nitride is an ionic compound. Draw a diagram that shows the formula of the
compound, the charges on the ions and the arrangement of the valency electrons
around the negative ion.

Use x to represent an electron from a sodium atom.

Use o to represent an electron from a nitrogen atom.

[3]

(b)
b) Describe metallic bonding.

[3]

(ii) Use the above ideas to explain why

metals are good conductors of electricity,

[1]

metals are malleable.

[2]

(c) Silicon(IV) oxide has a macromolecular structure.

(i) Describe the structure of silicon(IV) oxide (a diagram is not acceptable).

[3]

(ii) Diamond has a similar structure and consequently similar properties.

Give two physical properties common to both diamond and silicon(IV) oxide.

[2]
[Link]
[Total: 14]
5 Complete the following table.

electrical electrical
type of
particles present conductivity conductivity of example
structure
of solid liquid

positive and negative

ionic poor
ions

atoms of two different

macro
elements in a giant poor
oor
molecular
covalent structure

metallic and good copper

[Total: 6]

[Link]
6 Magnesium reacts with bromine to form magnesium bromide.

(a) Magnesium bromide is an ionic compound. Draw a diagram that shows the formula of
the compound, the charges on the ions and the arrangement of outer electrons around
the negative ion.
The electron distribution of a bromine atom is 2, 8, 18, 7.

Use x to represent an electron from a magnesium atom.

Use o to represent an electron from a bromine atom. [3]

(b) In the lattice of magnesium bromide, the ratio of magnesium ions to bromide ions is
1:2.

(i) Explain the term lattice.

[2]

(ii) Explain why the ratio of ions is 1:2.

[1]

(iii) The reaction between magnesium and bromine is redox. Complete the sentences.

Magnesium is the agent because it has

electrons.

Bromine has been because it has

electrons.
lec

[Total: 10]

[Link]
7 The table shows the melting points, boiling points and electrical properties of the six
substances A to F.

electrical
electrical conductor
conductor of
substance melting point / oC boiling point / oC at room
substance
temperature
dissolved in water

A 961 2193 good does not dissolve

B 113 444 does not conduct does not dissolve

C 0 100 very poor very poor

D 803 1465 does not conduct good

E –5 to -1 102 to 105 good good

F -8 -6 does not conduct does not dissolve

(i) Which three substances are solids at room temperature?

[1]

(ii) Which one is an ionic compound?

[1]

(iii) Which one is a gas at room temperature?

[1]

(iv) Which two substances are liquids at room temperature?

[1]

(v) Which substance is a metal?

[1]

(vi) Which one is an impure substance?

[1]

[Link]
8 (a The structure of a typical ionic compound is a regular arrangement of positive and
negative ions.

– + – +
+ – + –
+ – + –
– + – +
– + – +
+ – + –

(i) What is the name of this regular arrangement of particles?

[1]

(ii) Give two physical properties of ionic compounds.

[2]

(b) Ions are formed by electron loss or gain. The electron distribution of a magnesium
atom is 2 + 8 + 2 and of a nitrogen atom is 2 + 5.

(i) Give the formula of the magnesium ion.

[1]

(ii) Give the formula of the nitride ion.

[1]

(iii) What is the formula of the ionic compound, magnesium nitride?

[1]

(iv) In this compound there is an ionic bond. Why are the two ions attracted to each
other?

[1]

[Link]
1 It was reported from America that a turbine engine, the size of a button, might replace
batteries. The engine would be built from silicon which has suitable properties for this
purpose.

(a)
a) Why are batteries a convenient source of energy?

[1]

(ii) The engine will run on a small pack of jet fuel. What other chemical is needed to
burn this fuel?

[1]

(b) Silicon has the same type of macromolecular structure as diamond.

(i) Explain why one atom of either element can form four covalent bonds.

[2]

(ii) Predict two physical properties of silicon.

[2]

(iii) Name a different element that has a similar structure and properties to silicon.

[1]

(i) Balance the equation for the reduction of silicon(IV) oxide.

SiO2 + C → Sii CO [1]

(ii) Explain why the silicon(IV) oxide is said to be reduced.

[1]

(iii) Describe the structure of silicon(IV) oxide. You may use a diagram.

[Link] [2]
2 Calcium and other minerals are essential for healthy teeth and bones. Tablets can be taken
to provide these minerals.

Healthy Bones
Each tablet contains
calcium
magnesium
zinc
copper
boron

(a) Boron is a non-metal with a macromolecular structure.

(i) What is the valency of boron?

...........................................................................

(ii) Predict two physical properties of boron.

...................................................................................................................................

(iii) Name another element and a compound that have macromolecular structures.

element …………………..

compound ………………………

(iv) Sketch the structure of one of the above macromolecular substances.

[7]
[Link]
(b) Describe the reactions, if any, of zinc and copper(II) ions with an excess of aqueous
sodium hydroxide.

(i) zinc ions

addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide .....................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

excess sodium hydroxide ..........................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

(ii) copper(II) ions

addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide .....................................................................

...................................................................................................................................

excess sodium hydroxide ..........................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................[4]

(c) Each tablet contains the same number of moles of CaCO3 and MgCO3. One tablet
reacted with excess hydrochloric acid to produce 0.24 dm3 of carbon dioxide at r.t.p.

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + 2O

MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + CO2 + 2O

(i) Calculate how many moles of CaCO3 there are in one tablet.

number of moles CO2 = ..............

number of moles of CaCO3 and MgCO3 = ..............

number of moles of CaCO3 = ..............

[3]

(ii) Calculate the volume of hydrochloric acid, 1.0 mol / dm3, needed to react with one
tablet.

number of moles of CaCO3 and MgCO3 in one tablet = ..............

Use your answer to (c)(i).

number of moles of HCl needed to react with one tablet = ..............

volume of hydrochloric acid, 1.0 mol / dm3, needed to

react with one tablet = ..............
[2]

[Link]
3 Concentrated ammonia solution gives off ammonia gas. Concentrated hydrochloric acid gives off
hydrogen chloride gas. Ammonia, NH3, and hydrogen chloride, HCl, are both colourless gases.
Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to make the white solid ammonium chloride.

Apparatus is set up as shown.

cotton wool cotton wool

soaked in concentrated soaked in concentrated
hydrochloric acid ammonia solution
A B C D

glass tube

After ten minutes a white solid forms in the tube where the gases meet.

(a) (i) Write the chemical equation for the reaction of ammonia with hydrogen chloride.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Name the process by which the ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases move in the tube.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) At which point, A, B, C or D, does the white solid form? Explain why the white solid forms
at that point.

the solid forms at ..............

explanation .........................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................
[3]

(iv) The experiment was repeated at a higher temperature.

Predict how the results of the experiment would be different. Explain your answer.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [3]

[Link]
(b) Some of the white solid is removed from the tube and dissolved in water.

Describe how the white solid could be tested to show it contains,

(i) ammonium ions,

test ......................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

result ...................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................
[3]

(ii) chloride ions.

test ......................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

result ...................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................
[3]

N H

(i) State the type of bonding in ammonia.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Link]
(ii) Hydrazine, N2H4, is another compound of nitrogen and hydrogen.

Complete the diagram to show the electron arrangement in a molecule of hydrazine,

showing only outer shell electrons.

H H

N N

H H
[3]

(d) Nylon and proteins are both polymers containing nitrogen.

(i) Name the linkages found in the polymers of nylon and protein.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Describe one difference in the structures of nylon and protein.

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii) What is the general name given to the products of hydrolysis of proteins?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

[Link]
(e) Suggest the structure of the monomer used to make the polymer shown.

H O

N C
n

[1]

[Total: 22]

[Link]
4 The table below shows the elements in the third period of the Periodic Table,
the number of electrons in their outer energy level, their oxidation state in their common
compounds and their melting points.

element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
number of outer
electrons oxidation state +1 +2 +3 +4 / –4 –3 –2 – 0
98 65 66 1414 31 115 1
melting point / °C – –
0 0 7 101 189

(a) Describe and explain the variation in oxidation state across the period.

.........................................................................................................................................

..... [3]
...................................................................................................................................... .

(b) The firstthreeelements,Na,MgandA l, are metals.

Describe the structure of a typical metal.

...............................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................
..... [3]

[Link]
(c) Explain why Na, Mg and Al are good conductors of electricity.

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(d) Which element exists as diatomic molecules of the type X2?

.............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(e) Silicon has a similar structure to diamond.

Explain why silicon has the highest melting point in the period.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Link]
(f) Sodium chloride is a crystalline solid with a high melting point. It dissolves in water
to give a neutral solution. Phosphorus trichloride is a liquid at room temperature. It reacts with water to
form an acidic solution.
Suggest an explanation for these differences in properties.

........................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................. [2]

(g) Describe how you could show that magnesium oxide is a basic oxide and not an
amphoteric
oxide.

........................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................. [2]

(h) Draw a dot-and-cross diagram showing the bonding in magnesium oxide. Show outer
electrons
only.

[3]

[Total: 17]

[Link]
1 The table shows the melting points, boiling points and electrical properties of fivesubstances,
A to E.

electrical electrical
melting point boiling point
substance conductivity conductivity
/ °C / °C
of solid of liquid

A –7 59 poor poor
B 1083 2567 good good
C 755 1387 poor good
D 43 181 poor poor
E 1607 2227 poor poor

Choose a substance from the table above to match each of the following descriptions. A
substance may be used once, more than once or not at all. Justify each choice with evidence
from the table.

One has been completed as an example.

This substance is covalent and is a solid at room temperature (25 °C). ..................
D

Its melting point is above room temperature. It has a low melting point and...............
evidence ..................................................................................................................... it does

not conduct as a liquid, so it is covalent.

....................................................................................................................................................

(a) This substance has a giant covalent structure. ..................

evidence ....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) This substance is a metal. ..................

evidence ....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(c) This substance is a liquid at room temperature (25 °C). ..................

evidence ....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(d) This substance is an ionic solid. ..................

evidence ....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]
[Link] [Total: 11]
2 Use your copy of the Periodic Table to help you answer these questions.

(a) Predict the formula of each of the following compounds.

(i) aluminium fl
uoride ........................................................................................................ [1]
(ii) arsenic
oxide ................................................................................................................
[1]
(iii) silicon
bromide ..............................................................................................................
[1]

(b) Deduce the formula of each of the following ions.

(i) phosphide .............................................................................................................

........ [1]
(ii) barium ...................................................................................................................
........ [1]
(iii) francium ................................................................................................................
........ [1]

(c) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one
molecule of the
covalent compound carbon dioxide.

Use x to represent an electron from a carbon atom. Use o to

represent an electron from an oxygen atom.

[3]

[Total: 9]

[Link]
3 Nitrogen can form ionic compounds with reactive metals and covalent compounds with non-metals.

(a) Nitrogen reacts with lithium to form the ionic compound lithium nitride, Li3N.

(i) Write the equation for the reaction between lithium and nitrogen.

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Lithium nitride is an ionic compound. Draw a diagram which shows its formula, the charges
on the ions and the arrangement of the valency electrons around the negative ion.

Use x for an electron from a lithium atom.

Use o for an electron from a nitrogen atom.

[2]

(b) Nitrogen fluoride is a covalent compound.

(i) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule of the
covalent compound nitrogen trifluoride, NF3.

Use x for an electron from a nitrogen atom.

Use o for an electron from a fluorine atom.

[2]

(ii) Lithium nitride has a high melting point, 813 °C. Nitrogen trifluoride has a low melting point,
–207 °C.
Explain why the melting points are different.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 8]

[Link]
4 Carbonyl chloride is made from carbon monoxide and chlorine.

CO(g) + Cl 2(g) COCl 2(g)

(a) Two methods of preparing carbon monoxide are from methane and oxygen, and from methane
and steam.

(i) The reaction between methane and oxygen can also form carbon dioxide. How can carbon
monoxide be made instead of carbon dioxide?

....................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) The following reaction is used to make carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
The reaction is carried out at 1100 °C and normal pressure.

CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

The reaction is reversible and comes to equilibrium. Suggest why a high temperature is
used.

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(iii) What is the disadvantage of using a high pressure for the reaction given in (a)(ii)?

.............................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) Chlorine is made by the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride.

Describe this electrolysis. Write ionic equations for the reactions at the electrodes and name
the sodium compound formed.

....................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [5]

[Link]
(c) The structural formula of carbonyl chloride is given below.

C O

Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons around the atoms in one
molecule of this covalent compound.

Use ○ to represent an electron from an oxygen atom.

Use × to represent an electron from a chlorine atom.
Use ● to represent an electron from a carbon atom.

[3]

[Total: 13]

[Link]
5 Germanium is an element in Group IV. The electron distribution of a germanium atom is
2 + 8 + 18 + 4. It has oxidation states of +2 and +4.

(a) Germanium forms a series of saturated hydrides similar to the alkanes.

(i) Draw the structural formula of the hydride which contains three germanium atoms
per molecule.

[1]

(ii) Predict the general formula of the germanium hydrides.

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

[Link]
(b) Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule of
the covalent compound germanium(IV) chloride, GeCl 4.

Use o to represent an electron from a chlorine atom.

Use x to represent an electron from a germanium atom.

[2]

(c) Describe the structure of the giant covalent compound germanium(IV) oxide, GeO2.
It has a similar structure to that of silicon(IV) oxide.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [3]

(d) Is the change GeCl 2 to GeCl 4 reduction, oxidation or neither? Give a reason for your
choice.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 9]

[Link]
1 The table gives the melting points, the boiling points and the electrical properties of six
substances A to F.

melting point boiling point electrical conductivity electrical conductivity

substance
/ °C / °C as a solid as a liquid
A –210 –196 does not conduct does not conduct
B 777 1627 does not conduct good conductor
C 962 2212 good conductor good conductor
D –94 63 does not conduct does not conduct
E 1410 2355 does not conduct does not conduct
F 1064 2807 good conductor good conductor

(a) Which two substances could be metals? ................................................................... [1]

(b) Which substance could be nitrogen? .......................................................................... [1]

(c) Which substance is an ionic solid? ............................................................................. [1]

(d) Which substance is a liquid at room temperature? ..................................................... [1]

(e) Which substance has a giant covalent structure similar to that of diamond? .............. [1]

(f) Which two substances could exist as simple covalent molecules? ........................... [1]

[Total: 6]

[Link]
2 The Group I metals show trends in both their physical and chemical properties.

(a)
a) How do their melting points vary down the Group?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) Which element in the Group has the highest density?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) All Group I metals react with cold water. Complete the following equation.

........Rb + ........H2O → ................ + ................

[2]

(b) Lithium reacts with nitrogen to form the ionic compound, lithium nitride.

(i) State the formula of the lithium ion. .............…….. [1]

(ii) Deduce the formula of the nitride ion. .............…….. [1]

(iii) In all solid ionic compounds, the ions are held together in a lattice.
Explain the term lattice.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iv) What is the ratio of lithium ions to nitride ions in the lattice of lithium nitride?
Give a reason for your answer.

........ lithium ions : ........ nitride ions

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 9]

[Link]
3 The uses of a substance are determined by its properties.

(a) Plastics are poor conductors of electricity. They are used as insulation for electric cables.
Which other two properties of plastics make them suitable for this purpose?

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) Chromium is a hard, shiny metal. Suggest two reasons why chromium is used to
electroplate steel.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(c) Why is aluminium used extensively in the manufacture of aeroplanes?

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Link]
(d) Why is copper a suitable material from which to make cooking utensils?

copper
cooking
utensil

food

heat

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(e) Describe the bonding in a typical metal.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

[Total: 10]

[Link]
4 Three of the halogens in Group VII are listed below

chlorine

bromine
iodine

(a)
a) How does their colour change down the Group?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) How do their melting points and boiling points change down the Group?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(iii) Predict the colour and physical state (solid, liquid or gas) of astatine, At.

colour .........................................................................................................................

physical state ....................................................................................................... [2]

53 I,
131
(b) A radioactive isotope of iodine, is used to treat cancer.

(i) Define the term isotope.

....................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

53 I?
131
(ii) How many protons, electrons and neutrons are there in one atom of

number of protons ..............

number of electrons ............
number of neutrons ............ [2]

53 I, emits radiation, a different element with a proton number of

(iii) When this isotope, 131
54 is formed.
What is the name of this element?

.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(c) Fluorine, the most reactive halogen, forms compounds with the other halogens. It forms
two compounds with bromine.
Deduce their formulae from the following information.

compound 1
The mass of one mole of this compound is 137 g.
Its formula is ................................. [1]

compound 2
0.02 moles of this compound contain 0.02 moles of bromine atoms and 0.1 moles of
fluorine atoms.
Its formula is ................................. [1]
[Link]
[Total: 11]
5 The first three elements in Group IV are
carbon,
silicon,
germanium.

(a) The element germanium has a diamond-type structure. Describe the structure of
germanium. A diagram is acceptable.

[2]

(b) Unlike diamond, graphite is soft and is a good conductor of electricity.

(i) Explain why graphite has these properties.

[3]

(ii) Give a use of graphite that depends on one of these properties.

property

use [1]

(i) Give the formulae of these oxides.

[1]

(ii) How are their structures different?

[2]

(d) All these elements form compounds with hydrogen called hydrides. The saturated
hydrides of carbon are the alkanes. Predict the formula of the hydride of germanium
which contains two germanium atoms.

[1]
[Link]
6 (a Copper has the structure of a typical metal. It has a lattice of positive ions and a “sea”
of mobile electrons. The lattice can accommodate ions of a different metal.

Give a different use of copper that depends on each of the following.

(i) the ability of the ions in the lattice to move past each other

[1]

(ii) the presence of mobile electrons

[1]

(iii) the ability to accommodate ions of a different metal in the lattice

[1]

(b) Aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution can be electrolysed using carbon electrodes. The
ions present in the solution are as follows.

Cu2+(aq), 4
2
(aq), +
(aq), (aq)

(i) Write an ionic equation for the reaction at the negative electrode (cathode).

[1]

(ii) A colourless gas was given off at the positive electrode (anode) and the solution
changes from blue to colourless.

Explain these observations.

[2]

[Link]
(c) Aqueous copper(II) sulphate can be electrolysed using copper electrodes. The
reaction at the negative electrode is the same but the positive electrode becomes
smaller and the solution remains blue.

(i) Write a word equation for the reaction at the positive electrode.

[1]

(ii) Explain why the colour of the solution does not change.

[2]

(iii) What is the large scale use of this electrolysis?

[1]

[Link]

Common questions

Choosing the correct element for XF3 requires identifying an element that can achieve three covalent bonds with fluorine atoms. This typically involves elements with a valency of three, such as those that can expand their octet, provided they are within a suitable periodic table group .

To determine the hydrate of lithium chloride that contains 45.9% water, calculate the molar mass of each hydrate and find the percentage by mass of water. LiCl·3H2O is the correct answer as it has a molar mass of 160.5 g/mol, of which 73.5 g/mol is water, yielding approximately 45.9% water by mass .

The catalyst used in the Haber process is iron. It is important because it increases the rate of reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases to form ammonia, without being consumed in the process itself .

Both silicon(IV) oxide and diamond have macromolecular structures with strong covalent bonds between atoms. Diamond's carbon atoms are bonded tetrahedrally, which contributes to its hardness, while silicon(IV) oxide consists of a network of silicon-oxygen bonds. Both have high melting points and are hard, but silicon(IV) oxide is typically less dense than diamond .

At temperatures higher than 450 °C, the rate of the reaction increases because kinetic energy is higher, leading to more frequent and energetic collisions between molecules. However, the yield of ammonia decreases at higher temperatures because the reaction is exothermic, so higher temperatures favor the reverse reaction, decomposing ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen .

Ionic compounds differ in their ratios of positive to negative ions due to the differing valencies of the elements involved. This affects the compound's stoichiometry and may influence properties such as melting point, solubility, and electrical conductivity, with more symmetrical ratios often leading to more stable lattices .

Increasing the pressure beyond 200 atmospheres increases both the rate of reaction and the yield of ammonia because it shifts the equilibrium toward the formation of ammonia, a side with fewer moles of gas. However, the economic feasibility decreases as maintaining very high pressures is costly and requires more robust equipment, possibly leading to diminishing returns on additional pressure increases .

Fullerenes can be extracted from soot by exploiting their solubility in liquid hydrocarbons like octane, which sets them apart from other insoluble solid carbon forms. By dissolving the mixture in such solvents, fullerenes can be separated via filtration and then crystallized upon evaporation of the solvent .

Graphite is softer than diamond because its carbon atoms are arranged in layers that can slide over each other easily, due to weak van der Waals forces between the layers. This makes graphite good for use in lubricants and pencils. In contrast, diamond has each carbon atom covalently bonded to four others in a rigid three-dimensional structure, providing great hardness, which makes it suitable for cutting and drilling tools .

A mixture of fullerene and potassium must be stored away from air because potassium is highly reactive with substances like oxygen and water vapor present in the air, forming compounds such as potassium oxide (K2O) and potassium hydroxide (KOH), which can alter the mixture's properties and potentially cause hazardous reactions .

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