Chapter 5 Remote Sensing

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Classification of Satellite Remote Sensing Systems
5.3. Remote Sensing Satellite Orbits
5.4. Remote Sensing Satellite Payloads
5.5. Passive Sensors
5.6. Active Sensors
5.7. Types of Images
5.8. Image Classification
5.9. Image Interpretation
5.10. Applications of Remote Sensing Satellites
5.11. Major Remote Sensing Missions
5.1. Introduction
What is Remote Sensing? (RM)
The science of identifying, measuring and analysing the
characteristics of objects of interest without actually being in
contact with them.

How is RM carried out?

RM is done by sensing and recording the energy reflected or
emitted by these objects and then processing and interpreting
that information.

Why can RM be done in such a way?

Every object has a unique characteristic reflection and
spectral emission.

Who needs RM?

Biologists, geologists, geographers, agriculturists, foresters
and engineers to generate information on objects on the
Earth’s land surface, oceans and atmosphere.
RM’s applications:
• Monitoring and surveying natural and agricultural
resources, assessing crop inventory and yield.
• Locating forest fires and assessing the damage caused.
• Mapping and monitoring of vegetation.
• Monitoring and assessing air and water quality.
• Surveying land.

Two kinds of platform for RM:

• Aerial RM: Sensors are mounted on aircraft, balloons,
rockets and helicopters.
ü Monitoring land use.
ü Locating forest fires.
ü Making detailed and accurate maps of remote and
inaccessible locations.
ü Obtaining direct measurements of the properties of
the upper atmosphere.
Combined LiDAR and aerial photographic survey. ©Terra Imaging
 Ø Advantages (compared to satellite RM, see below):
§ Higher spatial resolution (20 cm or less) as the
systems work at lower altitude.
Ø Disadvantages:
§ Smaller coverage area, hence higher cost per
unit area of land coverage.

• Satellite RM: Sensors are mounted on a satellite or a

constellation of satellites.
ü Providing information on a continuous basis of vast
areas on the Earth’s surface.
ü Temporal resolution of minutes.
Ø Advantages:
§ Continuous acquisition of data.
§ Frequent and regular revisit capabilities,
providing up-to-date information.
§ Large coverage area.
§ High spectral resolution.
§ Semi-automated/computerized processing and
analysis.
§ Ability to manipulate/enhance data for better
image interpretation.
§ Accurate data mapping.
5.2. Classification of Satellite Remote Sensing Systems
RM systems can be classified based on:
(1) the source of radiation:
§ Passive RM
§ Active RM.
(2) the spectral regions used for data:
§ Optical RM (visible, near IR and short IR wavelengths).
§ Infrared RM.
§ Microwave RM.
5.2.1. Optical RM systems
• Wavelengths:
§ Visible: 0.3-0.7 µm.
§ Near IR: 0.72-1.30 µm.
§ Short IR: 1.3-3.0 µm.

h#p://[Link]
• The images are formed by detecting the solar radiation
reflected by objects on the ground.
• Two types of optical RM:
§ Passive optical RM: Using the reflection of the Sun
light, only working during the day, strongly depending on
the weather.
§ Active optical RM: Using laser beams and studying the
reflectance and scattering characteristics of objects to
the laser beams.

• How can Optical RM distinguish objects from each other?

(The working principle)
Ø Different materials have different reflectance.
 Typical Reflectance Spectrum of VegetaBon
h#p://[Link]

The labelled arrows indicate the common wavelength bands used in op:cal remote
sensing of vegeta:on: A: blue band, B: green band; C: red band; D: near IR band;
E: short-wave IR band
In optical band, the most reflective surfaces are light or
nearly white while the least reflective ones are black.

5.2.1. Infrared RM:

• Wavelength:
§ mid-IR: 3-5 µm (for objects of 500-1000 K).
§ long-IR: 8-14 µm (for objects of around 300 K).
• The images are formed by detecting the thermal radiation
emitted from the Earth’s surface and objects.
• The amount of thermal radiation depends on the
temperature of objects.
h#p://[Link]
[Link]
 Planck’s func:on

kB: Boltzmann constant

Wien’s displacement law

b is Wien’s displacement constant, b = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K

• Colder objects appear darker in the raw IR images, but in

the reduced images colder objects appear brighter than
hotter ones according to the convention of IR RM.
5.2.3. Microwave RM:
• Wavelength:
§ 1 cm to 1 m.
• Advantages (compared to optical and IR RMs):
§ Microwave can pass through clouds, haze and dust,
making it a technique independent of weather.
§ Independence of the solar illumination, working both
during the day and night.
§ A unique technique to measure sea wind and wave
direction:
² It is indirectly by measuring the microwave
scattering from the sea surface and the relationship
between sea wind and wave height.
² Two methods:
ü Estimating the backscattering coefficient using a
microwave scatterometer.
ü Measuring the brightness temperature using a
microwave radiometer.
• Disadvantages:
§ Requiring sophisticated data analysis.
§ Poorer resolution (θ = λ/D).

• Two types of microwave RM:

§ Passive microwave RM: Detecting microwave radiation
from objects.
§ Active microwave RM: Illuminating objects by microwave
radiation and measuring microwave radiation scattered
back to the radar receiver.
The intensity of scattered radiation depends on physical
properties of objects (slope, roughness, dielectric
constant, orientation,…).
Ac:ve Microwave Remote Sensing
5.3. Remote Sensing Satellite Orbits
• Sun-synchronous orbits (700-900 km): observing the same
area periodically (2-3 weeks) to monitoring changes in the
images without correction for different illumination
conditions (i.e., different reflectance).

Example: SPOT (Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre,

optical bands) at 820 km, inclination 98.80 crosses the
equator at 10:30 AM local solar time.
• eccentricity: 0.0014365
• inclination: 98.3502°
• perigee height: 704 km
• apogee height: 724 km
• right ascension of ascending node: 189.5324°
• argument of perigee: 101.3507°
• revolutions per day: 14.53469931
• mean anomaly at epoch: 258.9304°
 SPOT-4

Epoch (UTC): 16 April 2017 22:23:21

Sun-synchronous anima:on

Source: h#ps://[Link]
Soil Moisture AcBve Passive (SMAP)
• Wavelength: 21 cm
• Orbit: sun-synchronous
• Perigee: 688.4 km
• Apogee: 690.7 km
• Inclina:on: 98.120
• Period: 98.4 min
• Antenna diameter: 6 m