{ cadhok partes MA Vo = fons Protest se sake t eee {eel Lise THE NINETEENTH oa 0 CENTURY PHILIPPINE Be ECONOMY, SOCIETY, ,.3. »s\ AND THE CHINESE © vel eel MESTIZOS oki bo % Hy Pale me Rizal e roe wn bow ited nk fe whet = pie Eeoroy, ~% al Strom : pee negtigos @ What wis Ht may cal A chapter, one needs to locate him within the wider context of the Philippines in the nineteenth century. This chapter will discuss the changing landscape of Philippine economy in the nineteenth century and describe how these developments had an impact on the society in which Rizal grew up, matured, and eventually was martyred. It will begin by looking at the tremendous economic development starting in the late eighteenth century as a product of multiple factors. The chapter will then map the effects of economic developments on Spanish policies on education, social life, and the People of the Philippines. The role of an important population, the Chinese mestizos, in Philippine life and economy will also be noted. These Chinese mestizos will be located in the context of the changing Social stratification in the Philippines. T: fully appreciate the details of Rizal's life related in the previousEARNING/ OBJECTIVES) At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: A locate Rizal's life in the Philippines within the wider context of the developments in the nineteenth century; A explain the important role of the Chinese mestizos and their ranks within the changing Philippine economy and society; and 4 discuss the interplay of several factors that contributed to the changing landscape of Philippine society and economy. VOCABULARY, cash crop — crops cultivated for export decree — an order issued by a legal authority; a policy pronouncement Galleon Trade — From 1565-1815, this was the form of trade between the Philippines and Mexico. The galleons would sail to Mexico loaded with goods and return to the Philippines carrying the payment in silver. insulares — pure-blooded Spanish born in the Philippines mestizo — a person with mixed ancestry—one parent is Chinese or Spanish and the other is a native; an important sector of the population in nineteenth century Philippines merchant houses — firms established in Manila and other cities by foreign traders pacto de retroventa — an agreement that allowed a landowner to sell his/her land with the guarantee that he/she could buy the land back at the same price Parian — Chinese enclave established in 1581 outside the walls of Intramuros. The Chinese were forced to live in the Parian. peninsulares — pure-blooded Spanish born in Spain principalia — wealthy pure-blooded natives said to have descended from the kadatoan class sangley — a term that proliferated in the Spanish Philippines to refer to people of pure Chinese descent;.came from the Hokkien word “seng-li” meaning business social stratification - a way by which people in a society are categorized based on socio-economic as well as political standardsTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY PHILIPPINE ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND THE CHINESE MesTIzos © The Changing Landscape of Philippine Economy and Society Many scholars consider the nineteenth century as an era of profound change in the Philippines. During this period, yast economic, political, social, and cultural currents were felt. Change, however, had its initial ripples in the previous century. By the late eighteenth century, the monarchy in Spain-experienced a dynastic shift from the Habsburgs to. the Bourbons. Under the new leadership, Spain recalibrated colonial policies that would have an effect on the Philippines. With the goal of invigorating the profitability of the colonies like the Philippines, Bourbon policies and reforms were carried out. The first-governor-general to the Philippines under the Bourbon mandate was José de Basco y Vargas who arrived in the Philippines in 1778. By the time Basco arrived, the Galleon Trade, the main economic institution existing in the Philippines, was already a losing enterprise. As Spain sought ways to salvage the dwindling economy of the empire, the global wave of industrialization became a silver lining. As many imperial powers in Europe and the West were undergoing industrialization, an increased demand for raw materials presented an opportunity to look into the agricultural potential of the Philippines. Thus, it was viewed that the transformation of the economy towards being export- oriented, harnessing the agricultural products that could be yielded from the archipelago, was the way to go. To better facilitate the envisioned reorientation of the economy, Basco established-the Royal-Philippine. Company in [Link] finance agricultural projects. and manage the new trade being established between the Philippines and Spain (and Europe) as well as other Asian markets. These changes, however, were met with lukewarm reception. Resistance also came from various sectors like the Catholic Church that was not receptive of the labor realignments entailed by the planned reforms, and traders62. THE LIFE AND Works OF JOSE RIZAL that were still holding on to the Galleon Trade, It also did not help that the Royal Philippine Company was fraught with issues of mismanagement and corruption. As Basco -pushed-for the reforms, ee | Chinese merchants that reinvigorated internal trad alized the development of cash crop: farms; f > relaxed certain policies. thai e gradual opening of Manila to foreign markets; a blished the Tobacco Monopoly to maximize the production of this export good. Global events continued to affect the Philippines at the beginning of the nineteenth century. By 1810;-the~Mexican ‘War of Independence rattled the Spanish empire, as it would eventually lead to the loss of the precious Latin American colonies. With this came the eventual end of the Galleon Trade which became a concern in the Philippines. As the Philippine economy hung in the balance, policies were recalibrated and with the eventual closing of the Royal Philippine Company, Manila was-opened-to~world trade by~1834. As a result, foreign merchants and traders came and eventually resided in Manila and took over the role of financing and facilitating the burgeoning agricultural cash crop, export-oriented, economy. Some of the major investments came from British and American traders that set up merchant houses in Manila. The rapid development of the economy began to flow in the Philippines through cash crops. By the first half of the nineteenth century, majority of the exports of the Philippines came from cash crops like tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, abaca, and coffee. The importance of land became more evident as cash crops became the major source of revenue in the colony. As the provinces shifted to cultivating cash crops, land ownership and management began to be a concern. The farmers felt the pressure of the economy while the hacenderos grabbed the opportunity. For example, when a small landowner needed capital and money, he would engage in a [Link] retroventayan agreement of sale guaranteeing that he could buy the land back at the same priceTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY PHILIPPINE ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND THE CHINESE MesTizos 63 at which it was sold. However, it became difficult to buy back land given the continuously increasing demand of the economy and the renewals of the sale, which further buried the farmers to indebtedness. Eventually, they would forfeit the land and would be forced to become tenant farmers, or kasamd. Aside from this mode, land acquisition also came in the form of land-grabbing. As the growing economy required better management of lands, _inquilinos emerged, renting land to sublet it to smaller farmers. These factors would bring change to the social stratification in the countryside that, as the next chapter will show, did not continue without tensions and contestations. The Chinese and Chinese Mestizos a The sectors that [Link] from. the changing ‘economy were the Chinese and the Chinese mestizos. Since pre-colonial times, the natives of the Philippines had had trade relations with the Chinese. During the height of the Galleon Trade, it was also Chinese products that comprised most the goods being traded. The influx of Chinese settlements in the Philippines made the Spaniards suspicious of the Chinese. These feelings led to stringent state policies towards the sangley ranging from higher taxes, the restriction of movement with the establishment of the Chinese enclave (the Parian), to actual policies of expulsion. The Chinese, however, proved to be “necessary outsiders” in Philippine colonial economy and society. Although the Spaniards were wary of the Chinese, they realized the importance that the latter played in sustaining the economy. From the g00ds loaded on the gallons to the development of retail trade, the Chinese enlivened the economy. Eventually and gradually, they became integrated into colonial society, giving rise to intermiarriages with indios that gave birth to Chinese mestizos. The Chinese mestizos assumed an important role in the economyall throughout the Spanish colonial period. They influenced the changing economy in the nineteenth century by purchasing land, accumulating wealth and influence. Impact on Life in the Colony The economic developments, as mentioned, precipitated social, political, and cultural developments as well. For example, the new economy demanded a more literate population to address the rising need for a more professionalized workforce to man the trading activities in Manila and other centers. This demand compelled the issuance of the colonial government order in 1836 that required all towns to set up primary schools to teach the population how to [Link] write. It eventually led to the [Link]-in 1863 that mandated free primary education. Eventually, the nineteenth century also gave birth to many schools that addressed the growing demand for more professionals. Schools like Ateneo Municipal were established during this time. The complex nature of the developing economy also allowed the government to intensify bureaucratization and to streamline colonial governance. As Manila became a trading center, it became a viable destination for people seeking better opportunities or those wanting to escape the worsening conditions in the farmlands. The increased~ rateof-internal. migration raised several concerns. Ofiéy people flocked the centers of trade like Manila. Overcrowding implied issues in living quarters, sanitation and public health, and increase in criminality. ‘Two, the continuous movement of people made tax collection extra difficult. In order to mitigate these concerns, one measure implemented was the 1849 decree*of Governor-General. [Link] that urged the people [Link]-adopt’surnames. With the de apellidos drawn up, the colonial government assigned surnames to people and forbade changing names at will. Together with more policies like the registration and possession of a1th NUNETEENTH ©: soc NTURY PHILIPPINE ECONOMY, AND THE CHINESE MesTIz0s 5 cedula personalbearing one’s name and residence, the colonial government sought to have a better surveillance mechanism. ‘Yo help carry out policies better, the guardia civil was eventually established, As the new economy afforded the colonial state new opportunities, it also prompted the state to be more regulatory and to assert its authority, Renegotiating Social Stratification The Philippine society felt the impact of the developing economy. As a result, social relations underwent redefinitions and the changing dynamics brought about a renegotiation of social stratification. With the growing relevance of the mestizo population, new lines were drawn with the following social strata: Pure-blooded Spaniard born in the Iberian insulc Pesinsiior, Peninsula (Le., Spain) Insular Pure-blooded Spaniard born in the Philippines Born of mixed parentage, a mestizo can be: Spanish mestizo — one parent is Spanish, the Mestizo other is a native; or Chinese mestizo — one parent is Chinese, the other Is a native Wealthy pure-blooded native supposedly Principalia descended from the kadatoan class Indio Pure-blooded native of the Philippines Chino infiel Non-Catholic pure blooded Chinese As the Spaniards lost economic power in the nineteenth century, they asserted dominance by virtue of their race. This issue brought complications with the rising principalia and mestizo populations who realized their indispensable position in society as movers and facilitators of the economy. The renegotiation continued throughout the century as the mestizos66 THE LIFE AND WORKS OF JOSE RIZAL and principalia elite eventually demanded social'recognition that the pure-blooded Spaniards had consistently denied them. These peat mestizos and members of the principalia continued to amass economic and cultural capital. They also availed themselves of the opportunity to obtain higher degrees of education not only in the Philippines but also in Europe. These activities augmented their relevance in society as it was from these ranks that articulations of nationalism would emerge. Summative Activity Create a worksheet containing the table illustrated below. Write the changes and developments that were felt in the nineteenth-century Philippines. After listing the changes, plot them within Rizal’s biography and write which aspects you think had a direct or indirect impact on Rizal while citing events in his life. Change and Development Relation to Rizal's Life Economic a 9 Socio-culturalTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY PHILIPPINE ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND THE CHINESE MESTIZOS Ca Life in a Cigar Factory 67 Read the following excerpts about the cigar factories in Manila in the nineteenth century. Note: As the economy developed with tobacco being one of the most profitable crops, cigars became a prime export from the Philippines. This allowed the proliferation of cigar factories in Manila that often employed women, called cigarreras. In the following excerpts, you will get glimpses about the life in a cigar factory. ABOUT THE WORK IN THE FACTORY: From foreign observers: I was surprised by the order and decency which reigned over the multitude of women and young girls; they certainly did not belong to the lowest rung of society and usually worked by families. All were silent and none said a word but their eyes functioned very effectively and their hands even more so. I noticed the celerity with which the women rolled each cigar and pasted both ends. However their work was not considered done until after both ends of the cigar were cut following a given model and afterwards strictly inspected by the maestra of the section. Then only was the cigar allowed to be part of a pack of 32; a thousand packs made up one chest and 500, a half chest.68 THE LIFE AND WORKS OF JOSE RIZAL ABOUT THE STRUGGLES OF THE CIGARRERAS: From a complaint as reported by an inspector: The many abuses committed by the soldiers against the female workers of the factory (if the abuses cannot be stopped) might cause the closing down of the factory as a result of manpower shortage. These workers are mostly the poor and needy people of the towns of Obando, Polo and Meycauayan and the remote towns of Bulacan who seek employment in the establishment, starting either as bustaquems or sorters of tobacco until they learn how to make cigars. They live miserably in the nearby poblaciones and go to their homes only during fiestas or after having been paid their wages. However, a group of soldiers would get together at night and search their homes under the pretext of looking for tulisanes and then would mercilessly maltreat them. On the night of March 20 of this year [I856] at 12 midnight, a maestra by the name of Maria Tac came to me weeping to denounce the abuses of these soldiers. While she and her son and two other companions were sleeping, the door was forced open and four or five armed men broke into it and searched the house and their belongings for smuggled items. Not having found more than a peso and some cuartos which they took, they left uttering profanities, showing no respect for the maestra. The following day I went to see the gobernadorcillo of the mestizos to present the attached report. Without knowing what decision was taken in this regard, all I assure you is that the money taken was not returned and the abuses continue to be committed. On the night of the 14th of this month between 9 and 10 in the evening, some soldiers led by their lieutenant, while on patrol in barrio Dampalit, met female cigarette workers residing in other towns and forced the workersTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY PHILIPPINE ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND THE CHINESE MesTIzos 69 to follow them to fields and forest. They (the cigarette workers) were only allowed to go after much begging on their part and after bribing the soldiers. With this kind of behavior it is certain that very soon the workshops of this factory shall run out of employees. This is why I bring all these to your knowledge so that the Central Government can adopt measures to curb such abuses which may adversely affect the factory established in that area. ‘Source: Camagay, Maria Luisa, “The Cigarreras of Manila" Phifppine Studies vol. 34 no. 4 (1986): 507-517 Questions for Reflection Divide the class in groups of five members and discuss the following questions. Prepare a short report and share your discussions with the class: 1. What can you say about the conditions of the cigarreras in Manila? 2. What do these excerpts reveal about the life in nineteenth century Manila? 3. How can these excerpts be related to a discussion about the situation of women in nineteenth century Manila? This chapter aimed to situate Rizal’s life within the larger context of the nineteenth century. It focused on the economic and social developments in the century that shaped the world in which Rizal lived. The Philippines, being part of the wider Spanish empire, underwent changes when the. Spanish Crown also had a dynastic shift in the eighteen century. With this came the Bourbon reforms that brought new policies of economic70 THE LIFE AND WorKS OF JOSE RIZAL reorientation for the colonies. With the development of the cash crop economy and the opening of Manila and other cities to world trade, the economy boomed in the nineteenth century. This development in the economy also had a profound impact on the social and political landscapes. The new economy resulted in changes in policies about education and heightened the surveillance and regulatory mechanisms of the state. Furthermore, the nineteenth century saw the ascendance of the mestizo and principalia classes that would assert their relevance in society. Thus, it is not wholly surprising that men like José Rizal flourished in the nineteenth century. Born in the 1860s, Rizal grew up in a society in transitions. By the time he matured, he could reap the benefits of the changes that were happening. As he was exposed to higher education, he would realize that as much as economic development was a reality, so was the rising inequality and worsening conditions for the majority of the population. BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND FURTHER) READINGS) Abinales, Patricio and Donna Amoroso. 2005. State and society in the Philippines. Pasig: Anvil Publishing, Inc. Bankoff, Greg. 1996. Crime, society, and the state in nineteenth century Philippines. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Camagay, Maria Luisa. 1986. The cigarreras of Manila. Philippine Studies 34(4): 507-517. Diokno, Maria Serena I. 1998. The end of the galleon trade. Kasaysayan Series Vol. 4: Life in the Colony, pp. 7-25- Hong Kong: Asia Publishing Company Limited. Diokno, Maria Serena I. 1998. The economy transformed Kasaysayan Series Vol. 4: Life in the Colony, pp. 274? Hong Kong: Asia Publishing Company Limited.THE NINETEENTH CENTURY PHILIPPINE ECONOMY, I SOCIETY, AND THE CHINESE MESTIZOS Schumacher, John N. 2009. The Philippine background. In The Propaganda Movement, 1880-1895, pp. 1-18. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Schumacher, John N. 2008. Rizal in the context of the nineteenth-century. In The Making of a Nation, pp. 16-34. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Wickberg, Edgar. 1964. The Chinese mestizo in Philippine history. Journal of Southeast Asian History 5(1): 62-100. Wickberg, Edgar. 2000. The Philippine Chinese before 1850. In The Chinese in Philippine life, 1850-1898, pp. 25-36. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.