Chapter 2 Literature Review

This chapter is addressing the general concept, literature, and theories on the

previous study that has a close affiliation with this study. Those works of literature will

be addressed accordingly by the interpretation of the current study problem and objective

then will be explained in a subsequent chapter. This chapter is based on past researches,

books, and journals in various parts and fields of the world. Overall this chapter will

include the general concept of sugarcane production, wastewater, the material, and the

chemical input used in the production process; also, the impacts of wastewater on the

physiochemical characteristics of water, the consequences of wastewater on the

community study area health, and the side effects of wastewater on the biodiversity

(fishes). Lastly, the study will address spatial analysis and its role in distributing the

factory's wastewater.

The study topic address wastewater that is resulting from sugarcane factory and

its consequences on different environmental components, prior addressing the concept of

wastewater the study should take the gap to define the source of the problem which is

Sugarcane production.

2.1 Sugarcane production concepts

This process uses numerous arrangements to process sugarcane to white sugar

which is grinding, purification, crystallize, refinement and crushing. It can be inferred

that the factories can process sugarcane from raw sugarcane to white sugar. It can also be

inferred that the factory with equipment and tools have the experience to crush and grind

65
sugarcane sticks and to extract the juice or any kinds of sugarcane (Morgenroth & S.

Pfauipro, 2010).

Sugar is a product, considered as one of energy materials that most of us consume

on daily intake. Indeed it is widespread, even for the most of it has consequences on

human being health and environment. However, sugar production becomes a vital

commodity to the world’s population with its recognition and demand in the world

market regardless of its health implications to the world population. In some tropical and

subtropical countries, mass commercial sugarcane plantation has resulted in huge losses

and pollution to the environmental component and biodiversity (Prasara-a & Gheewala,

2015).

Sugar product has several types of originations; all of them have been cultivation

as cane and beet. Commonly sugar is processed from sugarcane (Nelson et al., 2013).

Sugar production has different concepts; the differences mainly refer to the procedures or

the components in terms of production stages as well as other concepts that the study will

examine. Generally, sugar production is defined as a set of the process and stages which

include agricultural, preparation and milling, purification, concentration, crystallization

and centrifugation stage (Langenhove et al., 2009).

Sugars (saccharides) is a part of the carbohydrate compounds, produced from first

to the last stage of the photosynthesis process, which combines carbon dioxide and water

to generate oxygen and glucose. Chemically symbolize as a monosaccharide: 6CO2 +

6H2O (C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Prasara-a & Gheewala, 2015). Sugars are the process of sugar

milling, juice clarification and treatment, Crystallization and Centrifugal separation

(Chauhan et al., 2011).

66
 Sugar production requires input materials in this case, the study addresses the

chemical input materials that have been used because of the massive impact on the

envir

onm

ent,

hum

an,

and

drink

ing

wate

r, as

seen

in figure (2.1), the primary purpose of this study to seek out the amount used in the

process of production. The types of chemical compounds within wastewater are potential

to destroy water quality.

Figure ‎2.1. Diagram showing the main environmental and social impact of sugarcane
agro-industry.

Source: Modification M.K. Chauhan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Reviews 15 (2011) 3445– 3453.

2.2 The material input of sugarcane factories

67
 Commonly any industry needs input materials called as raw materials;

nevertheless, the amount of them depends on factories size. Sugar factories require a

considerable amount of input, both raw materials and chemicals materials.

2.2.1 Raw materials

There are considerable numbers of raw materials. However, the study has

addressed the primary raw input materials needed for sugar production and have a role in

wastewater formation, as follows:

68
[Link] Cane stalks (Saccharum)

Saccharum is considered as the main ingredient of sugar production. It can

produce several by-products, such as bagasse and molasses. They can be used as a

resource and input for other plants. Bagasse is the source for power plant energy, whereas

molasses is the source for the ethanol production plant. Hence, bagasse and molasses are

by-products of sugar mills, and they improve the environmental industry quality. Studies

inform that 1 ton of raw sugar is produced from 0.38 tons of molasses, 2.4 tons of

bagasse with 50% moisture content, and 368 kg of ashes where slugs are emitted

(Chauhan et al., 2011).

According to Thailand's data, it is confirmed that 1 ton of sugarcane produces

103.6 kg sugar and 45.2 kg molasses (Prasertsri, 2007); and 1 ton of dry bagasse fed into

acid hydrolysis process for producing 186 kg of ethanol (Botha, 2006).

[Link] Water

Water is a vital resource to cultivate and produce sugarcane, and it plays a significant role

in the production process. Water can be used in the molting process or other usages. The

study confirms that 1 ton of raw sugar can generate 17,000 m 3 of wastewater and needs

0.15 ha of land. Moreover, the expansion of sugarcane land depends on water resources

around the local agro-meteorological conditions. Sometimes the total amount of rainfall

is insufficient; therefore, any geographical area requires enough irrigation to meet plant

water demands. However, sugar production has significant potential consequences on the

indigenous water availability by reducing water quantity and quality for other usages

(Hess et al., 2016).

69
 A study conducted in India confirms that 1 ton of can processing requires around

1,500–2,000 dm3 of water, and generates about 1,000 dm 3 of wastewater (Sahu &

Chaudhari, 2015). Other studies confirm that the total amount of water needed for

producing one ton of cane is 2.1- 2.8 m3 (Bantacut & Novitasari, 2016).

2.2.2 Chemical materials

The most important chemical substance used in sugar production is lime water,

calcium oxide, and calcium phosphate.

[Link] Lime water

The distillation of lime water can be made by adding water to calcium oxide: 2 Ca

OH +2 H2O ------- 2Ca (OH)2. The preparation of lime should be into consideration and

is called Baume (Be). The concentration degree of lime water should be added in the

main tank 15 Be, then the concentration degree of lime water ought to be diluted to 3-5 in

three tanks. The best condition the melting lime is when the cane juice gets cold.

Therefore, adding lime water to the cane juice before heating could be able to melt much

amount of lime. However, undiluted lime may cause an enormous number of

technological problems; it will be deposited on pipes evaporators surface and leads to the

exploitation of factories’ energy. The primary purpose of adding lime water to cane juice

is for increasing pH ion (concentration of hydrogen ion in the solution) which is ranging

between 8-8.2. Through this understanding, the hydrogen ion concentration degree in

juice sugar is essential. The retention time estimation of lime water with cane juice

reaction is 15-20 minutes. If reacted without adequate retention time, it leads to the

existence of calcium ions. Therefore, inside the evaporator tube, it leads to the viscosity

70
of sugar solutions. Thus, it can reduce the working efficiency, evaporation, and boiling

centrifugal-m crystallization machines (Chauhan et al., 2011).

71
[Link] Calcium phosphate

Phosphate plays a significant role in the process of cane juice purification;

therefore, to complete the deposition process, the juice must contain a percentage of

phosphate ranging from 250-300 PM. Phosphate should be added when the percentage of

raw juice is lower. The most important reaction in the process of purification of juice is

the formation of solutions, which is called as calcium phosphate

P2O5 + Ca (OH) 2 ------- Ca (Po3)2 +H2O

Mixed Juice
(Juices from the mills)

P2O5 Juice weight Milk Lime addition

Separation of gases Heating the juice in

and vapors in flash Geysers 14 C°

Deposition of impurities in the Evaporator Pure juice

precipitators

Clay Filters

Figure ‎2.2. The process of producing sugar juice

Source: Modification M.K. Chauhan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
15 (2011) 3445.

Those materials during their output are in a different shape as liquid, solid and

gas. Besides the multiple benefits, there are consequences to the environment. If the sugar

72
factories outputs are not adequately managed with a proper system, it will pollute the

environment such as the water, air, and human health (Chauhan et al., 2011).

The first process of sugar production is the cultivation of Sugarcane; its process

consists of cane growing, pre-harvest burning, and harvesting. The second process is

Sugar Mill, comprises of crushing, juice clarification, evaporation, crystallization, and

CHP. Both of them require somewhat of a chemical substance; nevertheless, the study

focuses on the chemical material used in the process of milling. A study conducted in

South Africa about Environmental Impact Assessment of Lignocellulosic Lactic Acid

Production: Integrated with Existing Sugar Mills, ratified that the auxiliary chemicals

used in the production are magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2) and Triethylamine (TEA).

The study found that those elements had a side effect on freshwater, eutrophication

potential (FWEP) and marine eutrophication potential (MEP). Also, it can reduce the

environmental burden by 95.4% and 95.8% for FWEP and MEP, and the eutrophication

potential contribution attributed to the impacts associated with Mg (OH) 2,

Triethylamine, and ethanol (Gezae et al., 2016).

2.3 Concepts of wastewater

Sugarcane factories are remarkable water consumers and also produce wastewater

with more significant organic contents, typically discharged into the river or

watercourses. For meeting the process, the factory may get the water from two kinds of

sources: first, from the cane stalks itself, which can be used in various operations within

the process such as evaporation, crystallization, and refinery. This kind of water may

contain enough amounts to sustain the process of sugar manufacturing. The second one

73
can be reached from wells, rivers, or lakes; mainly transported using barometric

condensers, turbines, and machinery. Besides the consumption of large volumes of water,

it also generates some organic compounds and problems the environment (Ingaramo et

al., 2009). Wastewater is unwanted unserviceable water which commonly discharged to

surrounding areas through river streams. This discharge is undesirable due to overburden

the environment and contain a high percentage of biological and chemical oxygen

demands. It is necessary to eliminate the waste using some process as treatment.

Nevertheless, the treatment process depends on the type of pollutants that existed in

wastewater. Some of them rely on chemical coagulation, bio-coagulation, filtration, and

ion-exchange aerobic and anaerobic treatment (Sahu et al., 2017).

Wastewater of sugar factories has externalities to the environmental components.

Due to a high level of contaminants such as suspended solids, chemicals, organic, and

inorganic matter, those chemical materials are harmful. If not appropriately treated, it

might ultimately contribute adverse effects on the environment by reducing the

freshwater bodies’ quality (Sahu et al., 2017). The sugarcane factories can generate

wastewaters with a massive amount of pollutants. The wastewater effluents from the

sugar factories are highly variable both in quantity and quality. Such wastes contain high

concentrations of organic materials, physical-chemical and biological pollutants with

different concentration levels (Hamoda & Al-sharekh, 1999).

Some of the Wastewater with a high amount of sludge require special techniques

to implement the treatment process — the extensive constituents from wastewater need

proper handling, treatment, and disposal. Sludge is usually slurry, contains 0.25-12%

solids by weight, based on operations and processes. Primary sludge is the solids fraction

74
that settles from wastewater in the primary sedimentation tank and consists of organic

solids, grit, and inorganic fines with the significant effect of the TSS, TDS, Turbidity,

Color and Sediments (Rughoonundun & Holtzapple, 2017). The wastewater from sugar

factories may have a different source. All of those wastes are gathering and congregating

as wastewater contains various types of chemical ingredients, C-organic →

microorganisms metabolism → Aerobic→ organic= CO2, NO3, NH3, H2O, NO2, SO4.

While: C- organic → microorganisms metabolism → Aerobic→ inorganic= N2, NH3,

CH4, H2S. Therefore, the study wants to address the consequences of wastewater on

drinking water, human health, and organisms.

2.4 Wastewater Treatment of Sugarcane Factories

Discharging wastewater without proper treatment provisions will burden the

elements of surrounding life; hence, several worldwide Sugarcane factories have

addressed and performed the treatment sewage system. Sragi is a sugarcane factory,

located in Pekalongan Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. The principle

management of this factory is under three stepts, which comprises Reuse, Reduce, and

Recycle methods. These comprehensive systems aim to resolve and control the balanced

environment, starting from the equalization of wastewater by operating water pumping

machine, neutralization by utilizing calcium oxide, and sedimentation control by

separating solid from liquid waste.

Solid waste is sold as soil fertilizer, while liquid waste is recycled anaerobically

using a boiler. The treated wastewater then uses a surplus of aerobic results in the

evaporator condensation process; the condensation surplus is then used as fertilizer for

agricultural irrigation. This process shows that the Sragi factory has an appropriate waste

75
management system as it has considered the balance of the environment and has a role in

achieving environmental sustainability. The mill has carried out efficiency manners and

instilled the principle of ecological conservation by reducing waste disposal and reusing

wastewater to deliver the concept of sustainability (Nihaya et al., 2018)

Sugarcane wastewater usually has high concentrations of BOD and COD.

Nevertheless, the treatment approaches might depend on the character of pollutants

existed in sewage. There are several types of Sugarcane wastewaters technologies, some

of them are based on chemical coagulation, and others are on bio-coagulation, filtration,

aerobic, and anaerobic treatment. The whole techniques require significant funds (Sahu et

al., 2017).

The treatment of sugarcane wastewater is fundamental to protect the environment

components, particularly water quality. Moreover, there are several approaches to reduce

the wastewater concentration; the concentration of sugarcane wastewater can be

investigated through the physiochemical and biological test.

The process of physiochemical treatment in Egypt is comprised of adsorption,

coagulation/flocculation, oxidation processes, and membrane treatment. Those processes

have been studied with particular focus on effluent decolorization and have been engaged

and congenial with environmental regulations (Ghandour et al., 2017).

Sugarcane wastewater generates massive apprehensive and environmental

problems associated with water, land pollution, and other kinds of ecological

components. Some authors confirmed that sewage in groundwater could disturb the

quality of groundwater by releasing its chemical composition. Untreated wastewater also

could damage the ecosystem of water bodies by increasing the physiochemical

76
components of water; therefore, it is necessary for enforcing the wastewater regulation to

reduce the negative consequences. Many factories worldwide use conventional biological

therapy to reduce the impacts, for instance, the typical processes of the treatments are the

separation of oil-solid, equalization, anaerobic digestion, decomposition of wastewater by

adding degrading bacteria, aerobic decomposition, and stabilization. Before releasing the

wastewater to the river, the drain should be monitored through the bio-indicator process

by breeding fish or other aqueous components in the ponds. The wastewater in ponds will

be excellent if the concentrations are lower than the effluent standard before finally

discharging them into the river (Qureshi et al., 2015).

2.5 Physiochemical characterization of the effluents wastewater on water

2.5.1 The physical influence

Wastewater has full ability to alter the physical characteristics of water,

characterized by undesirable pollutants. Drinking water has several physical

characteristics; nevertheless, the study limited the most important effects of wastewater

from sugarcane factories such as Total Suspended Solids, Total Dissolved Solids,

Turbidity, Odor, and Color. Based on the health regulation, treated wastewater from

irrigation and other usage is prohibited in the vicinity of drinking water wells since it can

bring effluent and pose several risks. The risks have a long-term influence and

consequences which are difficult to evaluate. We are aware that the world today is

suffering from water scarcity due to climate change phenomena and other threats (Shakir

et al., 2016).

[Link] Total Suspended solids (TSS)

77
 TSS is measured by the suspended particulate matter within the water. It has a

significant relationship with the turbidity. A high suspended solid accompanied by the

turbidity affects the water and aqueous life as it is constraining light penetration,

damaging the fish gills, and damage the spawning habitat by smothering fish eggs.

Analytically, suspended solids are determined by filtering a known volume of water

through a 0.45 µm filter paper and noting the increase in weight of the filter paper. The

study conducted in Haspolat Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP), in the northern part

of Cyprus, confirmed that improving wastewater treatment plant by constructing

anaerobic ponds developed the water quality in terms of TSS. It is clear that anaerobic

ponds improve the effluent quality and rapidly stabilize the stable organic wastes, also

make the wastes more liable for further treatment and reduce the oxygen demand in

aerated and facultative ponds (Türker et al., 2009).

All upstream transport some suspended solids under natural situations;

nevertheless, if concentrations are enhanced, for example, anthropogenic aggravation,

this can lead to variations to the physiochemical and biological characteristics of the

water (Bilotta & Brazier, 2008). Inorganic and organic compounds of TSS have been

involved in different types of manufacturing, such as commercial chemical products. The

process of wastewater contains different types of inorganic and organic compounds. The

effects of organic pollutants can increase water turbidity, decrease water cleanliness, and

affect other organisms (Wang & Zhang, 2009).

Total suspended solids (TSS) is one of the most polluted elements that affect

watercourses around the world and is considered to be one of the major pollutants that

deteriorates water quality. Also, it can contribute to higher expensive costs for water

78
treatment, decreases fish resources, and affecting the general aesthetics of the water

bodies. TSS reduces and depletes the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in drinking

water. It is also necessary to understand the values of the TSS to maintain and manage

the characters of the effluent (Verma et al., 2013).

The calculation of the TSS usually uses the gravimeter method. The test is done

using filter paper. First, dry the solid residue on the filter until it reaches a constant

weight. Second, weight and put it at the temperature between 103-105 Celsius degrees

and weight it again. The weight of the filter is the value of the TSS; the amount of the

TSS is the difference between total dissolved solids and total solids. TSS requires glass-

fiber filter (Whatman Grade 934 AH with size 1,5 µm-Particle Retention Standard for

TSS in water analysis also requires Gelman type A/E, with size 1,0 µm (Nasrabadi et al.,

2016). In general, the TSS calculated using the following formula:

A is the weight of filter paper + dry residue. B is the weight of filter paper (Clesceri et al.,

1998).

[Link] Turbidity

Turbidity is aesthetically unpleasant because the excess of turbidity leads to

bacteria growth, damage photosynthesis inside the water, and decrease the fish amount.

The permissible value of the standard differs from the one to another country. A higher

level of turbidity poses numerous matter for stream systems. Higher turbidity levels are

frequently related to higher levels of viruses, parasites, and some bacteria since they can

occasionally attach themselves and let water dirtier; thus, turbid water typically has more

pathogens. Turbidity blocks out the light transparency needed by submerged aquatic

79
vegetation. It also can raise surface water temperatures above average because of

suspended particles near the surface, which facilitate the process of absorption of heat

from sunlight (Kale, 2016).

The unit for Turbidity is Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). Turbidity can

provide food, shelter, and protection for pathogens. If the Turbidity is not removed, it

leads to waterborne diseases, which can cause significant cases of gastroenteritis.

Fortunately, traditional water treatment processes can effectively remove Turbidity when

it is appropriately operated (Kale, 2016). Turbidity is commonly caused by colloidal

particles such as clay, silt, non-living organic particulates, plankton, and other

microscopic organisms. The level of turbidity can measure pollution intensity, ranging

between 21-62.5 and 8-26.5 NTU. Increasing values from up-stream to down-stream

along the branch may be attributed to drains discharge (Abd et al., 2012).

Turbidity analysis requires distilled water with electrical conductivity less than 2

µS\cm, and two kinds of soluble in hydrazine Sulphate (NH2)2 H2SO4). Distilled water

is diluted to 100 ml in a measuring flask and methylene tetra mine (CH2)6N4) with

distilled water is diluted to 100 ml in a measuring flask. Combine 5.0 ml of the 1st

solution and 5.0 ml of the 2nd solution into 100 ml of measuring flask. Let them stand for

24 hours at a temperature of 25 C⁰ ± 3 C⁰. The instrument requirements are

Nephelometric, beaker, spray bottle, pipette volume 5 ml and 10 ml, analytics scales, and

flask with a size of 100 ml and 1000 ml (Nasrabadi et al., 2016).

The calculation of the Turbidity is Turbidity A is NTU

Turbidity in the diluted sample, fp is a dilution factor (Clesceri et al., 1998).

[Link] Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

80
TDS in drinking water is originated from natural sources of anthropogenic activities,

manure, sewage, agricultural, urban run-off, factories wastewater, and other unwanted

elements in water that produce unpleasant color, tastes, and odors and may also exert

osmotic pressure that affects aquatic life or become carcinogenic especially halogenated

compound. The TDS concentrations in drinking water can create some disease like

cancer, coronary heart disease, arteriosclerotic heart disease, cardiovascular disease,

inflammation of the gallbladder, and gallstones. TDS in levels >500 mg/L result in

excessive scaling in water pipes, water heaters, boilers, and household appliances such as

kettles and steam irons (Abd et al., 2012) & ( WHO, 1996).

A study conducted in Egypt on the TDS evaluation of the Nile River Quality; the

TDS was 183.5 mg/l, less than the permissible level stated by the Egyptian law 48/1982

(500 mg/l). Also, less than the value suggested by USEPA (500mg/l) (Shahata &

Mohamed, 2015). TDS is the most significant factor in many drinking water developing

plans. The freshwater is a basic human need for survival and perfect health. Nonetheless,

most of the global water sources contain impurities and consequences, including TDS.

Many influences that affect the concentration of TDS, some of them naturally occur

while others could be the product of people’s daily activities and also from industrial,

domestic, and agricultural sectors. The principles of TDS testing is evaporating sample

with a porous filter paper with a size 2 μm at a temperature of 180 C⁰, then weighed to

constant weight. The requirements of the TDS are analytical scales, a cup made of

porcelain or silica, oven, furnace with a maximum temperature of 550 C⁰, paper clip

filter, and clip cup, filter device equipped with suction pump, heated water, pipette and

desiccator. The calculation of the TDS is:

81
Example Levels of total dissolved solids that bound

Example Levels of total dissolved solids that evaporate (mg\L) = Total dissolved solids

(mg\L) - Levels of total dissolved solids that bound (mg\L)

A1 is constant weight: empty plate after heating at a temperature of 180 C⁰

A2 is constant weight: empty plate after burning at a temperature of 550 C⁰

B: is constant weight: an empty plate of total dissolved solids after heating at 180 C⁰

C: is constant weight: the contains plate of total dissolved solids after burning at 550 C⁰

(Clesceri, 1998).

In drinking water, TDS is created from sewage and urban industrial wastewater. Hence,

TDS assessment has reflected a sign to define the water quality. The study clears that in

Islamic colony, the values of TDS are ranging between 290-595 ppm. In town, the range

is 406-694 ppm, and in Shahdrah these values range from 401-429 ppm. Therefore, these

ranges were suitable and acceptable; it is not harmful (Mohsin et al., 2013).

[Link] Odors of the water

Odors usually come from different sources as volatile organic compounds and

might be produced by phytoplankton and aquatic plants or decaying organic matter or

Industrial. Odors can be released into residential neighborhoods by wind due to the lack

of treatment plants system of wastewater (TSOWW); it is causing inconvenience and

nuisance. The control of Odors emissions has become a significant challenge in the

wastewater treatment industries (Zhou et al., 2016).

82
 Odors create environmental issues and adverse effects on human health. Some

studies demonstrate that the exposure of Odors may cause various effects on human

health, ranging from emotional stresses such as states of anxiety, unease, headache or

depression to physical symptoms. The Odor is disturbing when there are many industrial

activities run around residential areas (Capelli et al., 2011).

Odor emissions are inherently related to wastewater management. Odors can

significantly decrease the life quality and have been connected to health-related problems

such as nausea, headaches, insomnia, loss of appetite, and respiratory issues. Also, some

Odors compounds such as H2S entail severe occupational risks in confined spaces within

WWTP H2S, and sulphur-containing combinations can account for up to 80–90% of

Odors compounds in WWTPs (Estrada, 2015). Odors can come directly or indirectly

from human anthropogenic; the adverse effect is classified as a contaminant. Odors create

massive environmental problems, damage the environment quality, injury and deteriorate

animal living conditions, and harm or discomfort to anybody. Moreover, the adverse

effect problems the health and safety of standard life property (Nicell, 2009).

[Link] Water Color

Watercolor can be measured when it possesses some level of Color. The Color of

water is referring to the existence of organic and inorganic materials. It is expressed as

Pt-Co the platinum-cobalt scale or TCU (True Color Unit). It might also be expressed as

Hazen units which are equivalent to mg/l Pt-Co. The standard of watercolor can naturally

range from 0-300 mg/l Pt-Co, and higher values are related to the presence of complex

organic molecules such as humic acids. The study conducted in Egypt in Bahawalpur

City, about Assessment of drinking Water Quality and its Impact on residents Health,

83
confirms that 86% residents had clear water and minimal numbers of residents had

diluted and faint water. The water quality was acceptable in this area because of the

proximity to the river. In an Islamic colony, 48% of populations have perfect water, while

50% of citizens have diluted water. It was possible because of the suspended minerals

and dead organic matter (Mohsin & Sahib, 2013).

2.5.2 The chemical influence

The wastewater has a significant role in altering the physical characteristic of

drinking water; also, it has full power to change the chemical characteristic of water.

Those characteristics are COD, BOD, NH3N, Hardness, Alkalinity, Do, pH, and

Calcium.

84
[Link] Biological Oxygen demand (BOD)

Biological Oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen consumed by

microorganisms for breaking down the organic substance. Biodegradable organic matter

in water provides nutrients for the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms (Gorde &

Jadhav 2013). Usually, titration is used to determine the value of BOD (Parande et al.,

2009) & (Ali et al., 2014).

The study conducted in Vahirab River found that the BOD standard value for

inland surface water was 6 mg/l or less; a higher amount can threat to the aquatic

ecosystem. The BOD at Labanchara Rupsha was high due to the discharged of untreated

wastewater from industries. Sewage from household latrines on the bank cause high BOD

values. Through the data and discussion, the water from the river during the study period

was in the safe limit for irrigation, domestic use, and other use such as recreational

activities, but not for drinking purpose regarding its DO and BOD (Ahmed et al., 2015)

&(Shahata & Mohamed, 2015).

The same study was done in El Nasria, Egypt linked to BOD, which confirms that

changes and values in BOD along the sampling sites reflected the degree of organic

matter pollution of the River Nile. The study found that BOD concentration sometimes

reached the threshold of polluted waters. This phenomenon happens because of the low-

quality water at El Nasria, chiefly during June, July, and August with much organic

pollution at the location during these months (Ali et al., 2014).

The principle of BOD consists of sample dilution, requiring incubation period for

five days at 20ºC. The measurements must be before and after the incubation period.

Decreasing dissolved oxygen during incubation indicates the amount of oxygen required

85
by the water sample. This measurement requires more than five solutions which are

buffer Phosphate Solution, Magnesium Sulphate Solution, Magnesium Sulphate Solution,

Ferric Chloride Solution, Dilution Water, and Wastewater. The calculation of BOD can

be seen as follows:

BOD 5 days, 20ºC (mg/l) = – –

Where D1 is DO 0 the blank day (mg/l)

D2 is DO 5 the blank day (mg/l)

B1 is DO 0 sample day (mg/l)

B2 is DO 5 sample day (mg/l)

P is dilution rate, f is seeding corrections (Leonore et al., 1998).

[Link] Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Chemical oxygen demand determines the oxygen required for chemical oxidation

of organic matter. Also, it measures the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter in a

water sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant, such as

dichromate. The concentrations of COD in industrial wastewaters may have values

ranging from 100 mg l-1 O2 to 60,000 mg l-1 O2. The minimum values of COD in

different water samples refer to low organic pollutants, while maximum concentration

indicates a higher concentration of pollutants (Divya & Belagali, 2012).

A study of the Nile River had checked COD with essential measurements of water

quality. The result showed that Chemical Oxygen Demand COD reached the value of

19.5 mg/l and varied from 18 to 21 mg/l. The allowable level for COD stated by the law

48/1982 is < 10- 15, indicates that there is an increase due to the consumption of oxygen

by aquatic organisms in water (Shahata & Mohamed, 2015).

86
 COD may demand soluble as Standard Potassium Dichromate Solution 0.25 N

(K2Cr2O7), Sulfuric Acid Reagent, Silver Sulfate (Ag2SO4), Ferroin Indicator Solution

(FeSO4.7H2O), Ferro Ammonium Sulphate (FAS) solution 0.25 N

(Fe(NH4)2(SO4).6H2O), and Mercury Sulfate (HgSO4); also, it may require equipment

such as reflux apparatus, Liebig cooler 30 cm, hot plate or equivalent (100 ml and 1000

ml of measuring flask), (25 ml or 50 ml) of buret, (5 mL, 10 ml, 15 ml, 50 ml) of pipette

volume, 250 ml of Erlenmeyer and analytical scales.

The measurement of COD as mg O2/Liter

A = ml FAS for the blank, B = ml FAS for the sample

C = Normalition FAS, Normalition FAS

(Lenore, 1998).

[Link] Total Alkalinity, pH and Hardness

Hard water is considered with high mineral contents that are usually not harmful

to humans, but an excessive amount of hard water has a side effect on water quality taste.

It is often measured by calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate Ca HCO3+ Mg

HCO3 in the water. Other metallic ions may also contribute to hardness, which causes

scale formation in the water network since it consists of calcium and carbonates.

According to the World Health Organization, the hardness of water standard should be

500 mg/l. A study in Bahawalpur City, Pakistan, showed that hardness was ranging from

195-330 mg/l in Islamic colony, 190-310 mg/l in satellite town and from 265-285 mg/l in

Shahdrah. According to the study results, the standardized amount by the WHO, the

hardness does not become harmful for local inhabitants (Mohsin & Sahib, 2013).

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 Determination of hardness in water, either potable or domestic is importance.

Hard water causes scaling, which is precipitation of minerals to form a deposit called

lime scale. Hardness ion, along with alkaline ions, is the most critical factor in

cardiovascular diseases and can potentially affect the health of humans and animals.

According to a range of studies, from a health point of view, calcium and magnesium

with 40–80mg/l and 20–30 mg/l−1, respectively, are dangerous with a total water

hardness of 2–4mmolL (Lergaa & Sullivan, 2008). It is fundamental and necessary to

recognize the hardness in water because the occurrence of calcium and magnesium in the

water or other metal ions might also contribute to hardness; it is usually expressed as

mg/l CaCO3. Water hardness is classified in <50 is soft, 50-100 is moderately soft, 100-

150 is slightly hard, 150-250 is moderately hard, 250-350 is hard, and >350 is

excessively hard (Ali et al., 2014).

The method to find hardness is titration of complexometry with EDTA. The

process demand many soluble such as Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate (EDTA), MgSO4,

Buffer solution of pH 10, solution of pH 12, KCN 10%, Eriochrome Black T, Murexida

indicator, and calcium standard solution. There are three types of formula to calculate the

hardness: Total hardness, Calcium hardness, and Magnesium hardness (Kaya & Kaya,

2015).

Total hardness=

Calcium hardness =

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 Alkalinity is indicated as the presence of carbonate or bicarbonates HCO3+CO3.

Usually, it has a relationship with hardness; therefore, the excess alkalinity concluded

from the hardness. Alk- TH×1.06 = Exc Alk. The alkalinity is the ability of water to

neutralize acids; it refers to the existence of carbonate, limestone, bicarbonates, or

hydroxides. It can be expressed as mg/l CaCO3. Alternatively, sometimes reported as

mg/l HCO3 (Ali et al., 2014).

The calculation of the total Alkalinity (mg/l CaCO3) =

100 × V EDTA × MEDTA× 100

V. sample

Pollution of drinking water is considered enormous environmental challenges.

Quick industrialization and growth of population have led to the problem of this issue,

particularly of the aqueous environment with plenty of contaminants due to the alkaline

wastewaters generated from soda ash, chloro-alkali, sugarcane, dye manufacturing,

textile, pulp and paper, chemical, paint, food, and beverage industries (Jain et al., 2014).

pH is a significant parameter of industrial discharge that must be controlled.

Worldwide, environment authorities such as the Environmental Protection Agency have

set rules for permissible ranges of pH in numerous categories. These rules and authorities

assert that the pH should be reduced within the permissible range before being

discharged. The pH of wastewater discharged by industries should be within of 6.5 - 8.5.

To neutralize the alkaline concentration from industrial wastewater, the factory used

some chemical substances depending on the application such as sulfuric acid,

hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and carbon dioxide (Mohan et al., 2010).

89
 The types of equipment required for the pH measurement are magnetic stirrer

glass electrodes and pH meter. On the other hand, pH demands a pH buffer solution as

well; the measurement is done digitally (Lenore, 1998).

[Link] Ammonia NH3-N

Usually comes from a different source. Ammonia can typically exist in water

through the rising of the microbiological decomposition of nitrogenous compounds in

organic material, from aquatic organisms that can excrete Ammonia, industries process,

domestic sewage and animal slurry component that can be discharged directly into water

bodies; the standard of Ammonia in water bodies is usually <0.02 mg/l as N (Suchetana

et al., 2017).

A study conducted in the Nile River confirmed that Ammonia from the

nitrogenous compounds existed in nature is a fundamental part for the growth and

reproduction of plants and animals. Industrial processes can synthesize the ammonia ion

from proteinaceous organic matter and urea. The recorded mean values violate the

permissible limits of 48/1982 (not to exceed 0.5 mg/l). Regularly, NH concentrations

were ranging from 1.25-8.35 mg/l in the Rosetta branch, and 1-22.3 mg/l in drains

outfalls. The study attributed the massive increase of ammonia concentrations related to

organic pollution resulting from domestic sewage, industries, and fertilizer runoff. This

study confirmed the impact of sewage discharge and agricultural runoff in this area (Abd

et al., 2012).

Providing safe drinking water and suitable sanitation is essential and

indispensable for sustaining life. Treated wastewater discharged to water body improves

and adapts the environmental parameters, both qualitative and quantitative. The study

90
associated with wastewater on organismic biosensors confirms that the sugar plant

wastewaters mostly exceeded and surpassed the raw municipal wastewaters inflowing the

WWTP in many parameters and variables such as Suspended Solids, COD, COD-Mn,

BOD, Nitrate, and Nitrite. In order to avoid the contaminants from the sugar plant, the

actions for recycling and regenerating are a significant challenge. The environmental

influence can be evaluated by measuring EPI (the environmental performance index),

which measures the levels of COD above the regulated values. In this study, COD

decreased below the standard values in the effluent and downstream waters (Topi et al.,

2015) & (Rault et al., 2017).

A study conducted in china about wastewater discharge and its impact on

drinking water confirms that the main factor of stressing water resources and water

quality in many regions is increasing economic development and human migration.

Because of wastewater, drinking water can contain chemicals and pathogens, absorb and

accumulate sediments with potential risk both for aquatic organisms in the river and

drinking water quality at downstream sites (Wang et al., 2017).

Ammonia can form complex compounds from yellow to brown. The intensity of

the color is measured by absorption at 420 nm wavelength. NH4 requires some reagent as

Nessler's reagent, NaOH with some milligram (ml) of aquades, Mercury Iodide HgI2 and

Potassium Iodide KI, Seignette Salt Reagent, and Potassium Sodium Tartrate

Tetrahydrate, KNaC4H4O6.4H2O. The second step is creating calibration curves to make

a standard solution for the NH4. The third is calculating the NH4 presented in a

concentration of NH4 + (ppm) = A x S = ppm. Where A is an absent sample, and S is the

slope of the calibration curve (ppm NH4 /absorbance unit) (Lenore, 1998).

91
[Link] Calcium

Calcium comes from several sources of dissolved rocks that rich in calcium

minerals mainly limestone and gypsum; presented as Ca2+ and is readily dissolved from

rocks that rich in calcium minerals, particularly as carbonates and Sulphate. Calcium

concentrations in natural waters are typically <15 mg l-1. Samples for calcium analysis

should be collected in plastic or borosilicate glass bottles without a preservative. They

should be analyzed immediately, or as soon as possible, after collection and filtration. If

any calcium carbonate precipitated after filtration and during storage, it must be re-

dissolved with hydrochloric or nitric acid and then neutralized before analysis.

Acidification of unfiltered waters before analysis should be avoided since it causes the

dissolution of carbonates, calcite, and dolomite (Chapman & Kimstach, 1996). Calcium

is the fifth most abundant element in the earth crust and is very important for human cell

physiology. About 95% calcium in human body stored in bones and teeth. The high

deficiency of Calcium in humans may cause rickets, poor blood clotting, and bones

fracture — and the exceeding limit of Calcium produced cardiovascular diseases.

According to the WHO (1996) sandards, the permissible range of Calcium in drinking

water is 75- 200 mg/l. However, an adult requires 1,000 mg/ day to work correctly

(Mohsin & Sahib, 2013).

The calcium content as CaCO3 in the test sample can be calculated using the

following formula: Calcium levels (mg Ca/L) = where VC.µ is volume of test sample

solution (mL), VEDTA (a) is average volume of Na2EDTA and standard solution for

titration of total hardness (mL), MEDTA is molarity of Na2EDTA standard solution for

titration (mmol / mL), VEDTA (b) is average volume of Na2EDTA standard solution for

92
calcium titration (mL). While the percentage feedback of calcium (% Recovery, % R) is

calculated using the following formula;

R is recovery, A is sample rate of spike test (mg/L), B is sample test level not

spike (mg / L); C is the standard value obtained (target value) (mg / L) how C=Yx Z/V.

Where Y is additional standard volume (mL), Z is additional calcium levels (mg / L);

and V is the final volume (mL) (Lenore, 1998).

[Link] Phosphate (PO4)

Phosphate plays a vital role in the industrial process, and plant/animal

metabolism; consequently, they can produce waste as products. Domestic detergent and

effluents represent significant sources of phosphorus in natural water. High

concentrations of nutrients can cause many problems to the water quality such as

acidification, eutrophication, and impairing the aquatic organisms to survive and grow

(Mohsin & Sahib, 2013).

Phosphates enter waterways from human and animal waste, industrial effluents,

phosphorus-rich bedrock, laundry, cleaning, and fertilizer runoff. These phosphates

become detrimental when they cause eutrophication. Phosphates exist in three forms:

orthophosphate, phosphate (or polyphosphate), and organically bound phosphate. Each

compound contains phosphorus in a different chemical formula. Natural processes

produce Ortho and Poly for treating boiler waters and available in detergents. When the

concentration of phosphates rises above 100 mg/liter, the coagulation processes in

drinking water treatment plants may be adversely affecting. Orthophosphate with

ammonium makes a yellow-colored complex, while with the addition of SnCl2 reducer

will be reduced to blue colored compound-complex form; a specimen meter is used to

93
measure the intensity of the blue color at a wavelength of 660 nm. There are three

essential types of solution that need to check Phosphates; they are ammonium Molybdate

solution, SnCl2 solution, and Standard Phosphate Solution 100 mg/l.

The calculation is concentrations of orthophosphate (mg/l) = AxS, where A is

absorbance example, and S is the slope of the calibration curve (mg/l per unit of

absorbance). After measuring the physical and chemical parameter, it is essential to

compare them with the water quality index (WQI) in order to understand the water

quality in the study area through specific calculation. The result of it can put the water in

the category and also be easy to recognize and estimate the ramifications on human

health through health risk assessment.

94
[Link] Chloride

Chloride exists in river, and various industrial discharges may contain and

increase chloride levels in the water. Chloride is typically determined by Photometers,

colorimetric or chromatographic methods and reported as mg/l or ppm. CL is mostly

gained from the dissolution of salts of hydrochloric acid (NaCl), NaCO 2, industrial waste,

sewage, and seawater. Surface water bodies occasionally have a low concentration of

chlorides comparing with groundwater. High CL concentration can cause impairment of

metallic pipes and structure and also harms growing plants. Based on WHO standards

concentration, chloride should not pass 250 mg/l. In study areas, the Cl value ranges from

16-66 mg/l in Islamic colony, 54-78 mg/l in Satellite town and from 51-88 mg/l in

Shahdrah. Thus, all the samples have a lesser concentration of chloride (Mohsin & Sahib,

2013).

The study conducted in Egypt about Assessment the Physico-Chemical

Characteristics of Water and Sediment in Rosetta Branch was recognizing the sources of

the industrial activities pollutants. The results show that the concentrations of Chloride

were higher than 200 mg/l. Those concentrations are considered as a danger for human

health and may cause the disagreeable taste of water due to seawater intrusion (Ali et al.,

2014). Another study about Assessment of Water Quality Parameters was assessing

several physiochemical variables with WHO & BIS standard. The result showed that the

value of Chloride was Cl- (49-167 mg/L) while the standard was 250 mg/L (Gorde &

Jadhav, 2013).

[Link] Nitrate (NO3)

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 Nitrate is one of the common parameters which affect water quality and causes

several illnesses such as blue baby syndrome. The primary sources of Nitrate are nitrogen

cycle, industrial wastewater, and nitrogenous fertilizers. In this part, the study

concentrates on industrial wastewater as primary sources, the maximum allowable limit

recommended by the WHO in drinking water is 10 mg/l. The result of the study in

Bahawalpur City about Assessment of Drinking Water Quality and its Impact on

Residents Health ranges from 4.5-6.4 mg/l in Islamic colony, 3.4-3.5 mg/l in Satellite

town, and 3.2-3.6 mg/l in Shahdrah. The results indicate that the magnitude of Nitrate

was satisfactory except in the Islamic colony where the range of Nitrate was exceeding in

water and posing a threat to the health of populations (Mohsin & Sahib, 2013).

Nitrate is commonly found in drinking water sources, especially in agricultural

regions primarily due to nitrogen fertilizer use. The protective health concentration for

nitrate in drinking water has been a subject of public health interest for many years. The

current World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water guideline is 50 ppm (mg/l),

and the US Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) national drinking water standard

(maximum contaminant level, MCL) is 45 ppm (or 10 ppm nitrate-nitrogen) for nitrate

were established to prevent methemoglobinemia in infants. Nitrate is a stable form of

oxidized nitrogen, but it can be reduced by microbial action to Nitrite. Nitrite can be

reduced to various compounds or oxidized to nitrate by chemical and biological

processes. Sodium Nitrate is used as a fertilizer in a variety of industrial processes, curing

meat products, and cereal products (Fan, 2011).

[Link] Nitrite (NO2)

96
 Its toxic and undesirable element in water has an impact on human bodies like

kidney and lymph; Nitrite is formed by immediate oxidation of NH3. It is coming from

different sources such as sewage with rich in ammonia that can increase the

concentrations of NO2 in receiving waters. Hence, water bodies and rivers can be

contaminated if it contains a considerable amount of Nitrite. Nitrite is harmful and toxic

to aqueous life at comparatively little concentrations. In uncontaminated waters, it is

commonly low (<0.01 mg/l N) and commonly detected by using spectrophotometric

methods and reported as ppm or mg/l N or NO2. The study conducted on Benthic Nitrite

exchanges in the Seine River (France): An early diagenetic modeling analysis, the

experimental and modeling results show that the benthic exchange fluxes of Nitrite in

upstream were 5.3 and 15 in downstream (Akbarzadeh et al., 2018).

[Link] Sodium (Na)

Commonly, natural waters contain some amount of Sodium. Sodium is one of the

most available elements on the Earth surface and is a necessary constituent for living

organisms. It can be found in the ionic form (Na+), plant, and animal matter. Human and

animal activities significantly rely on local geological conditions and wastewater

discharges; they have a significant role in increasing Na concentrations in natural waters.

The standard values can range from 1- 105 mg/l or more in natural brines. The WHO

specification limit for Sodium in drinking water is 200 mg/l, and Sodium can be

measured in multiple sources such as agricultural and irrigation (Meng et al., 2019).

2.6 Water quality index (WQI)

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 Water Quality Index is a mathematical tool used to transform large quantities of

water quality data into a single number. The obtained single number can emphasize

drinking water quality status. In a drinking water quality evaluation, the decision making

based on water quality data is considered to be a crucial issue. Usually, Water Quality is

calculated by two steps: the first step is by selecting water quality parameters as raw

analytical results, and the second step is by producing a WQI value. The quality

assessment to those substances is essential for providing healthy drinking water with

specific concentrations in the water source (Prasanna & Madhurambal, 2017).

WQIs have been used in some approaches to evaluate the quality of water. A

combined score of nine chemical and physical tests (pH, Nitrate, Phosphate, DO, BOD,

Turbidity, Fecal Coliform, TSS and Temperature) indicate the overall quality of a

particular body of water; the higher the score, the better the water quality is (Dhany et al.,

2018). WQIs have been used in some approaches to evaluate the quality of water. A

combined score of nine chemical and physical tests (pH, Nitrate, Phosphate, DO, BOD,

Turbidity, Fecal Coliform, TSS and Temperature) indicate the overall quality of a

particular body of water; the higher the score, the better the water quality is (Dhany et al.,

2018). WQI methods combine many environmental parameters and effectively convert

them into a single value that can be reflecting the status of water quality. Thus, instead of

comparing the different assessment results of various parameters, the WQI method is a

practical approach to water quality assessment and management and provides integrated

information regarding the overall water quality (Wu et al., 2018).

The study conducted in Sudan about Assessment of Drinking Water Quality

According to Turbidity in Rabak Town, White Nile State showed that the turbidity level

98
in drinking water ranged between 38- 76 NTU; this level is considered as very high. The

guideline value of turbidity for drinking water must be less than 5 NTU. The author

observed that the level of turbidity was too high, and the ability of the plant to remove the

turbidity was meager. The calculation of the Water Quality Index is

Where Qi is water quality rating

Va = Actual value of the parameters present in the water sample.

Vs = Standard value

Vi = ideal value

Wi = K/Sn

Where Wi = Unit weightage

K [constant] = ( ) ( ) ( )

Another study about Environmental and health risks is associated with reuse of

wastewater for irrigation conducted in Iraq. The assessment method of the study is the

Comprehensive Pollution Index (CPI). CPI is evaluated by using a measured

concentration of parameters concerning their permissible limit in irrigation wastewater

quality prescribed by Iraqi Fact standard to classify the wastewater quality status and its

suitability for irrigation and human use (Devi et al., 2010).

n: parameters number. The water quality is ranked in the following categories:

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Clean: (values of 0–0.2);

Sub clean: (values of 0.21–0.4),

Slightly polluted: (values of 0.41–1.0),

Moderately polluted: (values of 1.01–2.0), and severally polluted: (values of 2.01).

Organic pollution index (OPI):

The measured concentration of BOD, COD, Nitrate, and Phosphate is used to evaluate

OPI concerning their permissible limit in irrigation wastewater quality prescribed by Iraqi

Fact standard, to classify the organic pollution due to organic compounds in the treated

wastewater.

The water quality is ranked in the following categories: excellent: (OPI values of

< 0);

Good: (OPI values of 0–1);

Being to be contaminated: (OPI values of 1–2);

Lightly polluted: (OPI values of 2–3);

Moderately polluted: (OPI values of 3–4), and

Heavily polluted: (OPI values of 4–5).

Application of the hazardous irrigation data :

Numerous water quality guidelines have been developed by many researchers on

the water in irrigation under different conditions. However, the classification of US

Salinity Laboratory (USSL) is the most commonly used. Parameters such as electrical

conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Sodium (Na+), Sodium Adsorption

100
Ratio (SAR), Soluble Sodium Percent (SSP), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), and

Chloride (Cl) were used to assess the suitability of wastewater for irrigation purposes.

The result of irrigating wastewater can be both positive and negative. The positive effects

are related to food security in impoverished areas. Adverse effects are due to the presence

of pathogens and toxic chemical compounds in wastewater (Shakir et al., 2016).

Associated with the water quality index in Sudan, this study will check the

physiochemical characteristics and calculate the water quality index based on human

health index in Sudan (WQI- HHA). WQIs is one of the most common approaches used

to evaluate the quality of water. The combined score of nine chemical and physical tests

(pH, Nitrate, Phosphate, DO, BOD, Turbidity, Fecal Coliform, TSS, and Temperature)

indicate the overall quality of a particular body of water; the higher the score, the better

the water quality is (Dhany et al., 2018). Water quality index is defined as a technique of

rating that provides the composite influence of individual water quality parameters on the

overall quality of water. It reduces a large amount of water quality data to a single

numerical value (Vasanthavigar et al., 2010). Calculation of Water Quality Index

Where:

Qi is water quality rating

= Actual value of the parameters present in water

sample.

Vs = Standard value

Vi = ideal value

Wi = K/Sn

Where:

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Wi = Unit weightage

WQI has been

classified into five classes according to arithmetic method in the following table:

Table ‎2.1. Water Quality Index Structures

Values Scales
91-100 Excellent water quality
71-90 Good water quality

51-70 Medium water quality

26-50 Fair water quality

0-25 Poor water quality

Source: Maruthi Devi et al., 2010

The final output in the study will categorize the water quality classes, as seen in

Table 2.1. The study can identify the water quality, and also can declare whether if it is

suitable for drinking so that the study can understand the consequence on human health.

A study conducted in Sudan about the Assessment of Drinking Water Quality in Samrab

and Dardog showed that drinking water quality in both Samrab and Dardog is suitable for

human consumption since its physiochemical characteristics are falling the permissible

limits recommended by the national, regional and international standards and guidelines.

However, drinking water in Hattab community is highly saline; therefore, it was not

suitable for human consumption. Bacteriological contamination is evident in drinking

water in three communities. Roughly 55% of the investigated drinking water samples

were found to be contaminated with coliform bacteria as there are random vendors in the

study area distributed drinking water. Therefore, it is imperative to connecting these

communities to the municipally treated non-saline drinking water network supply. In

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order to avoid microbial contamination, distribution network pipes should be installed

throughout the three communities (Abdelmagid, 2017).

Another study was conducted in Iraq about Water quality index for Al-Gharraf

River, Southern Iraq. The study evaluated the water quality of Al-Gharraf River, the main

branch of the Tigris River in the south of Iraq. From the physiochemical analysis

parameters with WQI calculation, the result confirmed the low water quality o the river

(Hussein & Ali, 2017).

2.7 The consequences of wastewater on human health

Wastewater has massive consequences on human health, the effect can be direct,

and other ramifications are indirect; both of them constitute a massive impact on human

health. The world today is suffering from environmental health problems that translocate

by wastewater. In this part, the study will address the impact through the recent studies

that have been done previously — also a study on human health risk assessment to

evaluate the symptoms related to wastewater.

2.7.1 Human Health

The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined human health in a broader

sense in its 1948 constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-

being and not merely the absence of ailment, sickness, or infirmity (Munawer, 2017).

The field of human health is defined as the study of etiological role of various

environmental toxicants in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic human diseases, to

determine adverse effects of environmental toxicants on humans, and to design effective

103
prevention and anticipation for reducing and the risks of human disease linked to

environmental toxicants exposure (Flandroy et al., 2018).

A study conducted in Japan about Phosphate, a poison for humans and is the main

chemical component used in the purification of sugar juice. Maintenance of phosphate

balance is essential for life, and mammals have developed a sophisticated system to

regulate phosphate homeostasis throughout evolution. Due to the dependence of

phosphate elimination on the kidney, humans with modified kidney function are likely to

be in a positive phosphate balance. The first is Kidney disease progression and followed

by acute hypophosphatemia. Those problems can be encountered in patients with

phosphate-containing enemas; it can cause acute or sub-acute kidney injury, referred to as

acute phosphate nephropathy. The second is the bone disease; hypophosphatemia is one

of the major contributors to the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism. Thus, an

excess Phosphate can cause high-turnover bone disease through the stimulation of PTH

secretion. Also, an increasing number of kidney disease or injury in the society

emphasizes the potential importance of this issue. Further work is needed to characterize

phosphate toxicity more thoroughly and to establish the optimal therapeutic strategy for

managing phosphate in patients with chronic kidney disease (Komaba & Fukagawa,

2016).

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Figure ‎2.3. Phosphate homeostasis in normal physiology
Source: Komaba & Fukagawa 2016.

Figure ‎2.4 Compensatory mechanisms to maintain phosphate balance in early to

moderate chronic kidney disease (CKD)
Source: Komaba & Fukagawa 2016

Phosphate has adverse effects on human health and natural ecosystems both for

the short and long-term. The Engineered/designer for recovery of aqueous phosphate can

be done using typical adsorbents, such as zeolite, montmorillonite, iron oxides, pumice,

coir pith, and red mud. Although those adsorbents performed reasonably well for

phosphate removal, they could be used under certain environmental conditions only. The

environmental phenomenon, rainfall, can cause varying amounts of phosphates

transported from farm soils into nearby waterways. Phosphate stimulates the growth of

plankton and aquatic plants and provides food for fish; this may cause an increase in the

fish population and improve the overall water quality. However, if an excess of

phosphate enters the waterway, algae and aquatic plants will grow wildly, choke up the

waterway and use up large amounts of oxygen; this condition is known as eutrophication.

105
The rapid growth of aquatic vegetation eventually dies, and as it decays, it uses up

oxygen. This process, in turn, causes the death of aquatic life because of the lowering of

dissolved oxygen levels. Phosphates are not toxic to people or animals unless their

presence at very high levels. Digestive problems could occur from extremely high levels

of phosphate (Vikrant et al., 2017).

A study was conducted in Iraq regarding the environmental and health risks

associated with reuse of wastewater, confirmed that wastewater has risks on human

health due to the existence of pathogens and toxic chemical compounds in wastewater.

The subsequent is a bit explanation of the potential wastewater risks used in irrigation

that poses several potential dangers to human health through consumption or exposure to

pathogenic microorganisms, viruses, heavy metals, and harmful organic chemicals. The

result through laboratory analysis was used in the assessment of different parameter to

classify wastewater pollution. The first parameter is the Organic Pollution Index (OPI); it

measures chemical variable or the concentration of BOD, COD, Nitrate, and Phosphate.

It is also used to evaluate OPI and to classify the organic pollution due to organic

compounds in the treated wastewater. The second parameter is the Comprehensive

Pollution Index (CPI); the principle is using Iraqi Fact standard to classify the wastewater

quality status and its appropriateness for irrigation and other human use (Shakir et al.,

2016).

Another study was done in Mexico City related to health risks from the exposure of

untreated wastewater. The study confirms that there are numerous of illness came from

wastewater. This study compared between 556-850 households users of untreated

wastewater and 470-930 households users of rainwater. In two-week, there were reports

106
on diarrheal occurrence and infection with Ascaris lumbricoides, G. lamblia, and

Entamoeba shistolytica. The study found that untreated wastewater was associated with a

higher prevalence of bacteria. Sample appears that wastewater contained nitrate, implying

possible leaching and infiltration from the agricultural fields into groundwater. In

general, the study found higher risks of infection or illness associated with wastewater

reuse (Contreras et al., 2017).

There is another study declaring that wastewater with pathogenic microorganisms

like viruses, bacteria, and parasites can cause illness and impact human health. Also,

other kinds of microorganisms, such as Protozoa and helminth eggs, are virulent; they are

troublesome to be removed by treatment processes. They are often associated with

several infectious and gastrointestinal diseases in developing countries and the

investigations on public health effects of wastewater in the Middle East. Untreated

wastewater released a higher risk and side effects to children and elderly. A higher

occurrence of ascariasis and hookworm infections among children can occur because of

the contamination of water sources with a higher risk of diarrhea in infants. The pollution

of potable water storage in-house is likely to develop immunity to pathogens in the

house. Investigations on the determinants of diarrhea disease in Jakarta also support these

findings. High concentrations of heavy metals in wastewater also pose a health risk when

it is ingested in high quantities. Transfer of metals to humans through the food chain may

have serious public health consequences. A review of epidemiological studies on

pathogenic disease transmission due to wastewater reuse is available, but there is no

comprehensive risk assessment of heavy metals to public health (Hanjra et al., 2012).

107
 Most of the studies confirm that the wastewater has a side effect on human health

and other kinds of environment components. Over 100 virus groups that are pathogenic to

humans can be found in wastewater. Human AdVs and another kind of viruses have been

detected in sewage around the world (Libera & Rosa, 2017).

A study conducted in China associated with the impact of urban wastewater,

confirms that pathogenic microbes characterize the urban wastewater; the majority of

them belong to the kingdom of bacteria which poses a direct threat to human health in

different diseases such as dermatitis, skin infections, diarrhea, and respiratory tract

infections (Wang et al., 2017). Many tools have been used to recognize the side effects of

polluted water on human health; nevertheless, this study confined on health risk

assessment because it is one of the most critical tools to evaluate the risk of human

health.

2.7.2 Health risk assessment

A human health risk assessment is the process to estimate the nature and

probability of adverse health effects in humans. There are four steps of hazard

identification: dose assessment, response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk

characterization (EPA, 2017). A study conducted in China about the Industrial water

pollution, water environment treatment, and health risks, evaluated the risk based on

water pollution data, health outcomes and demographic data, mental health, self-reported

physical health and Individual, and family characteristics. The result showed that water

pollution intensity had a significant and independent effect on health outcomes. As

expected, the effects of water environment treatment on health outcomes were favorable.

Water treatment led to improve mental health by 0.07 and decreased the likelihood of

108
adverse physical health by 0.8 percent in the absence of water pollution (Wang & Yang,

2016).

Most of the environmental matter come from the polluted water surface,

especially the water that has been used directly. The main reason behind that is absent

from the regulations and policies that have the power to organize the water usage and

protect from the consequences. The waster surface should be used based on the

regulations to avoid the consequences on human health. Health risk assessment can be

used to understand the consequences on human health.

2.8 The regulation of surface water in Sudan:

The regulation of the water resources differs between the countries; therefore, the

study will focus on the policies of the Nile River water in the Nile basin countries (NBC).

Those countries are Burundi, Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan,

Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. These countries differ in terms of their dependence on the

Nile water, where Egypt is the most reliant on it. Thus it was reasonable to extend the

concept of water security to the primary sources In the Nile Basin. Overall the policies of

water resources in Sudan encompass in several items under the Surface Water Quality

Management umbrella, which constitute the role of water management in Sudan.

The surface water resources development should be integrated to achieve equity

among different water users and to maximize socio-economic benefits, sustainability, and

economic return. Efficient utilization of surface water resources call for research,

exchange of information technology, and experiences can increase the efficiency of the

systems and awareness of the users. A reliable database and information system is a

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prerequisite for sound assessment, planning, management & development of surface

water resources. This database will entail the strengthening of existing water resources

entities through training and motivating staff, ensuring the availability of necessary

equipment and tools, and the rehabilitation of hydro-met stations. The operation and

maintenance of surface water systems should be based on cost recovery. To ensure

continuity of services, water users (for irrigation, industry, domestic supply) should pay

for the actual cost of the service, including operation, maintenance, and replacement cost.

Economical use of water and the use of appropriate technology would raise the ability to

pay. The storage capacity has to be increased to meet the increasing demand for water.

Optimum and equitable use of surface water should be promoted through cooperation

between the national water users. The Government has a regulatory function to ensure

that the water suppliers and users meet the appropriate standards of service quality,

sustainability, and environment-friendliness.

In the policies of the Nile Basin countries, there is no specific paragraph related to

water pollutants mentioned in the agreement. Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) aims to enhance

cooperation on the use of the ―common Nile Basin water resources.‖ Under the auspices

of the NBI, the riparian states began to work on what they believed as a permanent legal

and institutional framework for governing the Nile River Basin. The Cooperative

Framework Agreement (CFA), as this agreement is called, formally introduced the

concept of equitable water allocation into discussions about Nile governance, as well as a

complicated concept called ―water security‖ (Mwangi et al., 2015).

2.9 The spatial analysis

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 The spatial analysis is one of the scientific techniques that play a role in decision-

maker processing to identify the consequences and pollutants of the industries through

specific criteria and characteristics as criteria of industries site selection. Also, it can be

used as a sustainable development indicator to conserve the environment and compliment

the purpose of development. For the most part, the spatial analysis is dealing with the

spatial phenomena that inherently with economic, social, and environmental processes to

give deep consideration into the spatial dimensions. The most crucial part of

understanding the relationship between man and the environment is a reference to a

particular location because of the accurate description for the environment through

understanding the topological relationships among physical substrate (Taylor & Francis,

2006).

The spatial analysis is a technique to measure the spatial relationships between the

phenomena and interpretation. The interpretation of spatial relationships can understand

the causes of the phenomena on the Earth surface and predict the behavior of those

phenomena in the future (Sharaf, 2008).

2.9.1 Spatial analysis interpolation

The interpolation can predict values for cells in a raster from a limited number of

sample data points, unknown values for any geographic point data (elevation, rainfall,

chemical concentrations, and noise levels). For example, to make a precipitation (rainfall)

map for any country, you will not find evenly enough spread weather stations to cover the

entire region. Hence, spatial interpolation can estimate the temperatures at locations by

using the recorded temperature at nearby weather stations. This type of interpolation is

often called as a statistical surface. Elevation data, precipitation, snow accumulation,

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water table, and population density are other types of data that can be computed using

interpolation.

2.9.2 Functions of the spatial analysis

From the model as mentioned above, the study took it as an example of GIS-

based multi-criteria analysis for industrial site selection. The primary purpose is to

emphasize and explain the functions of the spatial analysis; therefore, the function of it

presented in the most suitable site with desired conditions. Geospatial and geographical

data are necessary for most kinds of studies because it has been estimated that 80% of

data used by managers and decision-makers in nature are geospatial and geographical

(spatial). Spatial decisions are multi-characteristics and criteria in nature (Rikalovic et al.,

2014). The spatial analysis of the data is usually done in GIS program as defined as

follows:

2.9.3 Definition of GIS

GIS software is considered as one of the important scientific technologies used for

industries and can predict future ramifications as well as the influence of the factories

through special techniques (Francis, 2006). Geographic Information System (GIS) is a

software program with a methodological and conceptual approach that can connect the

spatial data or any data based on a physical and natural space (Parker & Asencio, 2009)

Modern technology with different techniques like Spatial Analysis and Digital

Elevation Model (DEM) is the best way of selecting the right position of factories in

order to avoid the consequences caused by the factory wastes. If factories are well-sited,

it will bring good both for economic and environmental (Athanassiadis et al., 2017).

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is suitable to exhibit the continuous change of the earth

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topography. It is the primary data source for terrain analysis and spatial applications. It

can be used for studies related to science and engineering. The function of the DEM is

supported by the widespread availability of digital topographic data (Thompson et al.,

2001). A study was written by Yazidi et al. (2017) about the contribution of GIS to

evaluate surface water pollution by heavy metals and nutrients in Casenof Ichkeul Lake

(Northern Tunisia). Surface water samples collected from three locations. The finding

was Nitrite ranged from 0.14 to 0.4 mg/l. Nitrates presented a concentration from 7 to 15

mg/l. The concentrations of dissolved phosphates are between 1.83 and 2.39 mg/l. The

pollution indices the massive metal pollution located at the mouths of wadis and an

increase of heavy metal concentrations as a result of uncontrolled releases of domestic

and industrial wastewater. Moreover, the study revealed that heavy metals in lake waters

have two origins; natural and anthropogenic. The first one is from rock leaching and

another one from urban domestic and industrial wastewater (Thompson et al., 2001).

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