Chapter One

Internet and
Fundamental of Data and Signal
 Network Type

• By size :
• Personal Area Network
• Local Area Network
• Metro Area Network
• Wide Area Network
• Connection:
• Wired
• Wireless
• Ownership:
• Private
• Public

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 22
 Personal Area Network-to-Workstation
Layout (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 33
 Local Area Network-to-Local Area Network
Layout (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 44
 Local Area Network-to-Metropolitan Area
Network Layout (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 55
 Local Area Network-to-Wide Area Network
Layout (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 66
INTERNET OF THINGS

7
 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
End-user

Core network
Gateway e.g. Internet

Sink
Gateway Computer services
node

- The networks typically run Low Power Devices

- Consist of one or more sensors, could be different type of sensors (or actuators)

8
 People Connecting to Things

ECG sensor

Internet

Motion sensor

Motion sensor
Motion sensor

9
Things Connecting to Things

- Complex and heterogeneous

resources and networks

10
CLOUD COMPUTING

11
 What is Cloud Computing?

Simply put, cloud computing provides a variety of

computing resources , from servers and storage to
enterprise applications such as email, security,
backup/DR, voice, all delivered over the Internet. The
Cloud delivers a hosting environment that is immediate,
flexible, scalable, secure, and available – while saving
corporations money, time and resources.

The Next Frontier - On Demand Solutions For Your Business

Cloud
Web
Client-Server Computing
Personal Computers
Mainframe
12
 Traditional Infrastructure Model

Forecasted
Infrastructure
Demand

Capital

Time

13
 Acceptable Surplus

Forecasted
Infrastructure
Demand
Surplus Forecasted
Infrastructure
Capital Demand
Capital

Time Time

14
 “Actual” demand

Capital
Capital

Actual
Actual
Infrastructure
Infrastructure
Demand
Demand

Time
Time

15
 Unacceptable Surplus

Surplus
Surplus
Capital
Capital

Time
Time

16
 Unacceptable Deficit

Deficit

Capital

Time

17
Utility Infrastructure Model with Cloud

Capital

Capital
Actual
Infrastructure
Actual
Demand
Infrastructure
Demand

Time
Time

18
Secret of Cloud Computing

(a) Physical System (b) Virtual System 19

20
Do you Use the Cloud?

21
THE CORE TECHNOLOGY

22
 Network Architectures

• A reference model that describes the layers of

hardware and software necessary to transmit
data between two points or for multiple devices /
applications to interoperate
• Reference models are necessary to increase
likelihood that different components from
different manufacturers will converse
• Two models to learn: TCP/IP protocol suite and
OSI model

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 23
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Note: Some authors show only four layers, combining the two
bottom layers.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 24
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite (continued)

• Application layer
– Where the application using the network resides
– Common network applications include web browsing,
e-mail, file transfers, and remote logins
• Transport layer
– Performs a series of miscellaneous functions (at the
end-points of the connection) necessary for
presenting the data package properly to the sender or
receiver

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 25
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite (continued)
• Network (Internet or internetwork or IP) layer
– Responsible for creating, maintaining and ending network
connections
– Transfers data packet from node to node (e.g. router to router)
within network
• Network access (data link) layer
– Responsible for taking the data and transforming it into a frame
with header, control and address information, and error detection
code, then transmitting it between the workstation and the
network
• Physical layer
– Handles the transmission of bits over a communications channel
– Includes voltage levels, connectors, media choice, modulation
techniques
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 26
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 27
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Model

Note: The fifth layer (Physical) is missing in this figure.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 28
 Logical and Physical Connections

• A logical connection is one that exists only in the

software, while a physical connection is one that
exists in the hardware
• Note that in a network architecture, only the
lowest layer contains the physical connection,
while all higher layers contain logical
connections

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 29
 Logical and Physical Connections
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 30
 Network Layouts in Action

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 31
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite in Action

• Note the flow of data from user to Web browser

and back
• At each layer, information is either added or
removed, depending on whether the data is
leaving or arriving at a workstation
• The adding of information over pre-existing
information is termed encapsulation

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 32
 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite in Action
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 33
TRENDS

34
35
Cellular communication trends

36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Download Bandwidth Ranking 2013 (1)

[Link]

43
Download Bandwidth Ranking 2013 (2)

2014: Indonesia rank no 141, BW 4.86 Mbps 44

 Information Revolution

Digitization: using the same tool (computers) to

store, manipulate and transmit information in
form of speech, text, data, and video more
cheaply and faster than every before.
Networking: distributed, fast digital networks
wired and wireless
Convergence: refers to merging of what were
three separate industries: telecommunications,
computing, and electronics or broadcasting

45
 Convergence

The Internet

Wireless Fixed
Technologies Telecom.

Convergence
Information
Broadcasters
Technologies

Others Cable TV 46
 Trend of Telecom Convergence
- Forces from computer and media industries

Telecom Industry (communication)

mobility
xDSL 3G/Wireless Internet
Wireline Wireless/Cellular
ISDN Intranet/Internet
PSTN PC-WAN Carrier class
Computer Industry (computer) PC-LAN
PC/Servers
desk top computing
main frames

electronic
Media Industry (content) publishing and
entertainment

47
 How are the networks changing?

Extensions
More nodes, more connections, IPv6, 6LowPan,...
Any TIME, Any PLACE + Any THING
M2M, IoT
Billions of interconnected devices,
Everybody connected.
Expansions
Broadband
Enhancements
Smart networks
Data-centric and content-oriented networking
Context-aware (autonomous) systems

48
Future Networks

49 49
49
DATA AND SIGNAL

50
 Introduction to Data and Signals

• Data are entities that convey meaning (computer

files, music on CD, results from a blood gas
analysis machine)
• Signals are the electric or electromagnetic
encoding of data (telephone conversation, web
page download)
• Computer networks and data/voice
communication systems transmit signals
• Data and signals can be analog or digital

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 51
 Data and Signals

• Data are entities that convey meaning within a

computer or computer system
• Signals are the electric or electromagnetic
impulses used to encode and transmit data

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 52
 Analog vs. Digital

• Data and signals can be either analog or digital

• Analog is a continuous waveform, with examples

such as (naturally occurring) music and voice
• It is harder to separate noise from an analog
signal than it is to separate noise from a digital
signal (see the following two slides)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 53
 Analog vs. Digital (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 54
 Analog vs. Digital (continued)

• Digital is a discrete or non-continuous waveform

• Something about the signal makes it obvious
that the signal can only appear in a fixed number
of forms (see next slide)
• Noise in digital signal
– You can still discern a high voltage from a low
voltage
– Too much noise – you cannot discern a high
voltage from a low voltage

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 55
 Analog vs. Digital (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 56
 Analog vs. Digital (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 57
 Fundamentals of Signals

• All signals have three components:

– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Phase

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 58
 Fundamentals of Signals – Amplitude

• Amplitude
– The height of the wave above or below a given
reference point
– Amplitude is usually measured in volts

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 59
 Fundamentals of Signals – Amplitude

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 60
 Fundamentals of Signals – Frequency
• Frequency
– The number of times a signal makes a complete cycle
within a given time frame; frequency is measured in Hertz
(Hz), or cycles per second (period = 1 / frequency)
– Spectrum – Range of frequencies that a signal spans from
minimum to maximum
– Bandwidth – Absolute value of the difference between the
lowest and highest frequencies of a signal
– For example, consider an average voice
• The average voice has a frequency range of roughly 300 Hz
to 3100 Hz
• The spectrum would be 300 – 3100 Hz
• The bandwidth would be 2800 Hz
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 61
 Fundamentals of Signals – Frequency

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 62
 Fundamentals of Signals – Phase

• Phase
– The position of the waveform relative to a given
moment of time or relative to time zero
– A change in phase can be any number of angles
between 0 and 360 degrees
– Phase changes often occur on common angles,
such as 45, 90, 135, etc.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 63
 Fundamentals of Signals – Phase

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 64
 Fundamentals of Signals

• Phase
– If a signal can experience two different phase
angles, then 1 bit can be transmitted with each
signal change (each baud)
– If a signal can experience four different phase
angles, then 2 bits can be transmitted with each
signal change (each baud)
– Note: number of bits transmitted with each signal
change = log2 (number of different phase angles)
– (You can replace “phase angles” with “amplitude levels” or
“frequency levels”)
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 65
 Decibels unit

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 66
 Decibels unit

• Formula for decibel (dB):

dB = 10 x log10 (P2 / P1)

where P1 is the beginning power level and P2 is the

ending power level

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 67
 Loss of Signal Strength (in dB)

• So if a signal loses 3 dB, is that a lot?

• What if a signal starts at 100 watts and ends at
50 watts? What is dB loss?
dB = 10 x log10 (P2 / P1)
dB = 10 x log10 (50 / 100)
dB = 10 x log10 (0.5)
dB = 10 x -0.3
dB = -3.0
• So a 3.0 decibel loss losses half of its power
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 68
 Converting Data into Signals

• There are four main combinations of data and

signals:
– Analog data transmitted using analog signals
– Digital data transmitted using digital signals
– Digital data transmitted using discrete analog
signals
– Analog data transmitted using digital signals
• Let’s look at each these

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 69
 1. Transmitting Analog Data with
Analog Signals
• In order to transmit analog data, you can
modulate the data onto a set of analog signals
• Broadcast radio and the older broadcast
television are two very common examples of this
• We modulate the data onto another set of
frequencies so that all the different channels can
coexist at different frequencies

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 70
 1. Transmitting Analog Data with
Analog Signals (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 71
 2. Transmitting Digital Data with Digital
Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes
• There are numerous techniques available to
convert digital data into digital signals. Let’s
examine five:
– NRZ-L
– NRZI
– Manchester
– Differential Manchester
– Bipolar AMI
• These are used in LANs and some telephone
systems
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 72
 2. Transmitting Digital Data with Digital
Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 73
 3. Transmitting Digital Data with
Discrete Analog Signals
• Three basic techniques:
– Amplitude shift keying
– Frequency shift keying
– Phase shift keying
• One can then combine two or more of these
basic techniques to form more complex
modulation techniques (such as quadrature
amplitude modulation)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 74
 Amplitude Shift Keying

• One amplitude encodes a 0 while another

amplitude encodes a 1 (a form of amplitude
modulation)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 75
 Amplitude Shift Keying (continued)

Note: here we have four different amplitudes, so we can encode 2 bits

in each signal change (bits per signal change = log 2 (amplitude levels)).

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 76
 Frequency Shift Keying

• One frequency encodes a 0 while another

frequency encodes a 1 (a form of frequency
modulation)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 77
 Phase Shift Keying

• One phase change encodes a 0 while another

phase change encodes a 1 (a form of phase
modulation)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 78
 Phase Shift Keying (continued)

• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

– Four different phase angles used
• 45 degrees
• 135 degrees
• 225 degrees
• 315 degrees

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 79
 Phase Shift Keying (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 80
 4. Transmitting Analog Data with
Digital Signals
• To convert analog data into a digital signal, there
are two techniques:
– Pulse code modulation (the more common)
– Delta modulation

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 81
 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 82
 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 83
 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

• The more snapshots taken in the same amount

of time, or the more quantization levels, the
better the resolution

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 84
 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 85
 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

• Since telephone systems digitize human voice,

and since the human voice has a fairly narrow
bandwidth, telephone systems can digitize voice
into either 128 or 256 levels
• These are called quantization levels
• If 128 levels, then each sample is 7 bits (2 ^ 7 =
128)
• If 256 levels, then each sample is 8 bits (2 ^ 8 =
256)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 86
 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

• How fast do you have to sample an input source

to get a fairly accurate representation?
• Nyquist sampling theorem says 2 times the
highest frequency
• Thus, if you want to digitize voice (4000 Hz), you
need to sample at 8000 samples per second
• Nyquist bit rate C = 2 B log22n
– C: bps
– B: Bandwidth (Hz)
– N: number of level
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 87
 Delta Modulation

• An analog waveform is tracked, using a binary 1

to represent a rise in voltage, and a 0 to
represent a drop

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 88
 Delta Modulation (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 89
 Four combinations of data and signals

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 90
Bandwidth and Bit-rate
 The Relationship Between Frequency and
Bits Per Second
• Higher Data Transfer Rates
– How do you send data faster?
• Use a higher frequency signal (make sure the
medium can handle the higher frequency
• Use a higher number of signal levels
– In both cases, noise can be a problem

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 92
 The Relationship Between Frequency and
Bits Per Second (continued)
• Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a
system in the presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
– C: capacity, bit rate
– B: Bandwidth
– SNR: Signal to Noise Ratio

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 93
 The Relationship Between Frequency and
Bits Per Second (continued)
• Maximum Data Transfer Rates
– How do you calculate a maximum data rate?
– Use Shannon’s equation
• S(f) = f x log2 (1 + S/N)
– Where f = signal frequency (bandwidth), S is the signal power
in watts, and N is the noise power in watts
– For example, what is the data rate of a 3400 Hz signal with
0.2 watts of power and 0.0002 watts of noise?
• S(f) = 3400 x log2 (1 + 0.2/0.0002)
= 3400 x log2 (1001)
= 3400 x 9.97
= 33898 bps

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 94
 Data Codes

• The set of all textual characters or symbols and

their corresponding binary patterns is called a
data code
• There are three common data code sets:
– EBCDIC
– ASCII
– Unicode

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 95
 EBCDIC

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 96
 ASCII

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 97
 Unicode

• Each character is 16 bits

• A large number of languages / character sets
• For example:
– T equals 0000 0000 0101 0100
– r equals 0000 0000 0111 0010
– a equals 0000 0000 0110 0001

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 98
 Summary
• Data and signals are two basic building blocks of computer
networks
– All data transmitted is either digital or analog
– Data is transmitted with a signal that can be either digital or
analog
• All signals consist of three basic components: amplitude,
frequency, and phase
• Two important factors affecting the transfer of a signal over a
medium are noise and attenuation
• Four basic combinations of data and signals are possible:
analog data converted to an analog signal, digital data
converted to a digital signal, digital data converted to a
discrete analog signal, and analog data converted to a digital
signal
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 99
 Summary (continued)

• To transmit analog data over an analog signal, the analog

waveform of the data is combined with another analog
waveform in a process known as modulation
• Digital data carried by digital signals is represented by digital
encoding formats
• For digital data to be transmitted using analog signals, digital
data must first undergo a process called shift keying or
modulation
– Three basic techniques of shift keying are amplitude shift keying,
frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 10
0
 Summary (continued)

• Two common techniques for converting analog data so that it

may be carried over digital signals are pulse code modulation
and delta modulation
• Data codes are necessary to transmit the letters, numbers,
symbols, and control characters found in text data
– Three important data codes are ASCII, EBCDIC, and Unicode

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 10
1
 Chapter Two

Connecting Media and Computer

interfaces
 Introduction

• The world of computer networks would not exist

if there were no medium by which to transfer
data
• The two major categories of media include:
• Conducted media
• Wireless media
• Interface between computers and media

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 2
 Twisted Pair Wire

• One or more pairs of single conductor wires that

have been twisted around each other
• Twisted pair wire is classified by category. Twisted
pair is currently Category 1 through Category 7,
although Categories 1, 2 and 4 are nearly obsolete
• Twisting the wires helps to eliminate electromagnetic
interference between the two wires
• Shielding can further help to eliminate interference

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 3
 Twisted Pair Wire summary

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 4
 Twisted Pair Summary

• Most common form of wire

• Relatively inexpensive
• Easy to install
• Carries high data rates (but not the highest)
• Can suffer from electromagnetic noise
• Can be easily wire-tapped
• Comes in shielded and unshielded forms

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 5
 Coaxial Cable

• A single wire wrapped in a foam insulation surrounded

by a braided metal shield, then covered in a plastic
jacket. Cable comes in various thicknesses
• Baseband coaxial technology uses digital signaling in
which the cable carries only one channel of digital data
• Broadband coaxial technology transmits analog signals
and is capable of supporting multiple channels

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 6
 Coaxial Cable (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 7
 Coaxial Cable Summary

• A single wire surrounded by a braided shield

• Because of shielding, can carry a wide
bandwidth of frequencies
• Thus is good with applications such as cable
television
• Not as easy to install as twisted pair
• More expensive than twisted pair

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 8
 Fiber-Optic Cable

• A thin glass cable approximately a little thicker

than a human hair surrounded by a plastic
coating and packaged into an insulated cable
• A photo diode or laser generates pulses of light
which travel down the fiber optic cable and are
received by a photo receptor

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 9
 Fiber-Optic Cable Summary

• Fiber optic cable can carry the highest data rate

for the longest distances
• Initial cost-wise, more expensive than twisted
pair, but less than coaxial cable
• But when you consider the superiority of fiber,
initial costs outweighed by capacities
• Need to fibers for a round-trip connection
• Not affected by electromagnetic noise and
cannot be easily wiretapped, but still noise
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 10
 Conducted Media

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 11
 Wireless Media

• Radio, satellite transmissions, and infrared light

are all different forms of electromagnetic waves
that are used to transmit data
• Technically speaking – in wireless transmissions,
space is the medium
• Note in the following figure how each source
occupies a different set of frequencies

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 12
 Electromagnetic wave Spectrum

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 13
 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

• Land-based, line-of-sight transmission

• Approximately 20-30 miles between towers
• Transmits data at hundreds of millions of bits per
second
• Signals will not pass through solid objects
• Popular with telephone companies and business
to business transmissions

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 14
 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 15
 Satellite Microwave Transmission

• Similar to terrestrial microwave except the signal

travels from a ground station on earth to a
satellite and back to another ground station
• Can also transmit signals from one satellite to
another
• Satellites can be classified by how far out into
orbit each one is (LEO, MEO, GEO, and HEO)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 16
 Satellite Microwave Transmission
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 17
 Satellite Microwave Transmission
(continued)
• LEO (Low-Earth-Orbit) – 100 to 1000 miles out
– Used for wireless e-mail, special mobile telephones, pagers,
spying, videoconferencing
• MEO (Middle-Earth-Orbit) – 1000 to 22,300 miles
– Used for GPS (global positioning systems) and government
• GEO (Geosynchronous-Earth-Orbit) – 22,300 miles
– Always over the same position on earth (and always over the
equator)
– Used for weather, television, government operations
• HEO (Highly Elliptical Earth orbit) – satellite follows an
elliptical orbit
• Used by the military for spying and by scientific
organizations for photographing celestial bodies
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 18
 Satellite Microwave Transmission
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 19
Satellite, Radar, Radio Bands
 Geo Stationary Satellites

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 21
 Overview of MEO LEO communications
Iridium Globalstar ICO Teledesic
# satellites 66 + 6 48 + 4 10 + 2 288
altitude 780 1414 10390 ca. 700
(km)
coverage global 70° latitude global global
min. 8° 20° 20° 40°
elevation
frequencies 1.6 MS 1.6 MS  2 MS  19 
[GHz 29.2  2.5 MS  2.2 MS  28.8 
(circa)] 19.5  5.1  5.2  62 ISL
23.3 ISL 6.9  7
access FDMA/TDMA CDMA FDMA/TDMA FDMA/TDMA
method
ISL yes no no yes
bit rate 2.4 kbit/s 9.6 kbit/s 4.8 kbit/s 64 Mbit/s 
2/64 Mbit/s 
# channels 4000 2700 4500 2500
Lifetime 5-8 7.5 12 10
[years]
cost 4.4 B$ 2.9 B$ 4.5 B$ 9 B$
estimation

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 22
 Cellular Telephones

• Wireless telephone service, also called mobile

telephone, cell phone, and PCS
• To support multiple users in a metropolitan area
(market), the market is broken into cells
• Each cell has its own transmission tower and set
of assignable channels

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 23
 Cellular Telephones (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 24
 Cellular Telephones (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 25
 Cellular Telephones (continued)

• 1st Generation
– AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) – first
popular cell phone service; used analog signals
and dynamically assigned channels
– D-AMPS (Digital AMPS) – applied digital
multiplexing techniques on top of AMPS analog
channels

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 26
 Cellular Telephones (continued)

• 2nd Generation
– PCS (Personal Communication Systems) –
essentially all-digital cell phone service
– PCS phones came in three technologies:
• TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
• GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 27
 Cellular Telephones (continued)

• 2.5 Generation
– AT&T Wireless, Cingular Wireless, and T-Mobile
now using GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
in their GSM networks (can transmit data at 30
kbps to 40 kbps)
– Verizon Wireless, Alltel, [Link], and Sprint
PCS are using CDMA2000 1xRTT (one carrier
radio- transmission technology) (50 kbps to 75
kbps)
– Nextel (Sprint, ptt phone) uses IDEN (integrated
digital enhanced network) technology

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 28
 Cellular Telephones (continued)

• 3rd Generation
– UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System) – also called Wideband CDMA
• The 3G version of GPRS
• UMTS not backward compatible with GSM (thus
requires phones with multiple decoders)
– 1XEV (1 x Enhanced Version) –3G replacement
for 1xRTT
• two forms:
– 1xEV-DO for data only
– 1xEV-DV for data and voice

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 29
 Cellular Telephones (continued)

• 4th Generation
– LTE (Long Term Evolution) – theoretical speeds
of 100 Mbps or more, actual download speeds
10-15 Mbps (Verizon currently has LTE)
– WiMax – introduced in a couple slides –
theoretical speeds of 128 Mbps; actual download
speeds 4 Mbps (Sprint and Clearwire)
– HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) – 14 Mbps
downlink, 5.8 Mbps uplink; is this 3.5G or 4G?
– HSPA+ – theoretical downlink of 84 Mbps, 22
Mbps uplink (T-Mobile) 3.5G or 4G?
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 30
 5G
• 5G is to be a new technology that will provide all the possible applications,
by using only one universal device, and interconnecting most of the already
existing communication infrastructures.
• The 5G terminals will be a reconfigurable multimode and cognitive radio-
enabled.
• It will have software defined radio modulation schemes. All the required
reconfigurable software should be downloaded from the Internet on the run.
• The 5G mobile networks will focus on the development of the user
terminals where the terminals will have access to different wireless
technologies at the same time and will combine different flows from
different technologies.
• Besides, the terminal will make the final choice among different
wireless/mobile access network providers for a given service.
• The 5G core is to be a Re-configurable, Multi-Technology Core.
• The core could be a convergence of new technologies such as
nanotechnology, cloud Computing and cognitive Radio, Artificial
Intelligence and based on All IP Platform.
31
 Evolution

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 32
 Infrared Transmissions

• Transmissions that use a focused ray of light in

the infrared frequency range
• Very common with remote control devices, but
can also be used for device-to-device transfers,
such as PDA to computer

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 33
 WiMax - Broadband Wireless Systems

• Delivers Internet services into homes,

businesses and mobile devices
• Designed to bypass the local loop telephone line
• Transmits voice, data, and video over high
frequency radio signals
• Maximum range of 20-30 miles and transmission
speeds in Mbps
• IEEE 802.16 set of standards

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 34
 WiMax (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 35
 Bluetooth

• Bluetooth is a specification for short-range,

point-to-point or point-to-multipoint voice and
data transfer
• Bluetooth can transmit through solid, non-metal
objects
• Its typical link range is from 10 cm to 10 m, but
can be extended to 100 m by increasing the
power

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 36
 Bluetooth (continued)

• Bluetooth will enable users to connect to a wide

range of computing and telecommunication
devices without the need of connecting cables
• Typical uses include phones, pagers, modems,
LAN access devices, headsets, notebooks,
desktop computers, and PDAs

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 37
 Wireless Local Area Networks
(IEEE 802.11)
• This technology transmits data between
workstations and local area networks using high-
speed radio frequencies
• Current technologies allow up to 100 Mbps
(theoretical) data transfer at distances up to
hundreds of feet
• Three popular standards: IEEE 802.11b, a, g, n
• More on this in Chapter Seven (LANs)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 38
 Free Space Optics and Ultra-Wideband

• Free space optics

– Uses lasers, or more economically, infrared
transmitting devices
– Line of sight between buildings
– Typically short distances, such as across the
street
– Newer auto-tracking systems keep lasers aligned
when buildings shake from wind and traffic

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 39
 Free Space Optics and
Ultra-Wideband (continued)
• Free space optics (continued)
– Current speeds go from T-3 (45 Mbps) to OC-48
(2.5 Gbps) with faster systems in development
– Major weakness is transmission thru fog
– A typical FSO has a link margin of about 20 dB
– Under perfect conditions, air reduces a system’s
power by approximately 1 dB/km
– Scintillation is also a problem (especially in hot
weather)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 40
 Free Space Optics and
Ultra-Wideband (continued)
• Ultra-wideband
– UWB not limited to a fixed bandwidth but
broadcasts over a wide range of frequencies
simultaneously
– Many of these frequencies are used by other
sources, but UWB uses such low power that it
“should not” interfere with these other sources
– Can achieve speeds up to 100 Mbps but for small
distances such as wireless LANs

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 41
 Free Space Optics and
Ultra-Wideband (continued)
• Ultra-wideband (continued)
– Proponents for UWB say it gets something for
nothing, since it shares frequencies with other
sources. Opponents disagree
– Cell phone industry against UWB because CDMA
most susceptible to interference of UWB
– GPS may also be affected
– One solution may be to have two types of
systems – one for indoors (stronger) and one for
outdoors (1/10 the power)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 42
 UWB Spectrum

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 43
 ZigBee

• Based upon IEEE 802.15.4 standard

• Used for low data transfer rates (20-250 Kbps)
• Also uses low power consumption
• Ideal for heating, cooling, security, lighting, and
smoke and CO detector systems
• ZigBee can use a mesh design – a ZigBee-
enabled device can both accept and then pass
on ZigBee signals

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 44
 Wireless Media (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 45
 Wireless Media (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 46
 Media Selection Criteria

• Cost: initial, maintenance, ROI

• Speed: propagation, data rate
• Right of way (esp. wired)
• Distance and expandability
• Environment: noises
• Security: threat and vulnerability

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 47
 COMPUTER INTERFACES

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's

Approach, Sixth Edition
Basic Concepts of Computer Hardware

Input/ Memory
Output
Units

CPU
Storage
Units (Central Processing Unit)

Peripheral Interfaces: Computer

devices Cards,
cable/media

The Computer Continuum 3-49

 Peripherals

Peripherals are any device that can be attached

to aComputer, e.g. hard disk, mouse, printer.
Peripherals are generally slow. They hold up the
CPU from carrying out its’ tasks.
For example - playing a game and it needs to
load the next level. The level is being read
from the CD and written to memory.
 Examples Peripherals

I/O: hardisk, CD/DVD(RW), SSD (Solid state

storage devices), flash disk, memory card
Inputs: Keyboard, mouse, Scanner
Output: CRT/monitors, projectors, printers

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 What is an interface?
The interface is the combination of
hardware and software needed to link the
CPU to the peripherals and to enable them
to communicate with the CPU despite all
their differing characteristics.
The hardware is the bit you connect the cable
into e.g. USB, parallel Firewire.
The software is the driver disk that you usually need
to install when you get the device, e.g. printer
driver.
 Why different interface
Computer peripherals all have different
characteristics. For example, they may:

Have different data transfer rates;

Use a wide variety of codes and control signals;
Transmit data in serial or in parallel form;
Even work at higher voltages than the CPU;
All operate at much slower speeds than the CPU.
 Interfaces main functions
The main functions of an interface that you need to know
about are:

Buffering;

Converting data to and from serial and parallel forms;

Converting data to and from analogue and digital forms;

Voltage conversion;

Protocol conversion; &

Handling of status signals.

 What is duplexity?
A half-duplex connection transmits data in both
directions but in only one direction at a time
A full-duplex connection transmits data in both
directions and at the same time
A simplex connection can transmit data in only one
direction

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 Asynchronous Connections
A type of connection defined at the data link layer
To transmit data from sender to receiver, an
asynchronous connection creates a one-
character package called a frame
Added to the front of the frame is a start bit, while
a stop bit is added to the end of the frame
An optional parity bit can be added which can be
used to detect errors

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 Asynchronous
Connections (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 57

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 Asynchronous Connections
(continued)
The term asynchronous is misleading here
because you must always maintain
synchronization between the incoming data
stream and the receiver
Asynchronous connections maintain
synchronization by using small frames with a
leading start bit

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 Synchronous Connections
A second type of connection defined at the data
link layer
A synchronous connection creates a large frame
that consists of header and trailer flags, control
information, optional address information, error
detection code, and data
A synchronous connection is more elaborate but
transfers data in a more efficient manner

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 Synchronous Connections
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 60

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 Isochronous Connections
A third type of connection defined at the data link
layer used to support real-time applications
Data must be delivered at just the right speed
(real-time) – not too fast and not too slow
Typically an isochronous connection must allocate
resources on both ends to maintain real-time
USB and Firewire can both support isochronous

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 Interface Standards
There are essentially two types of standards
Official standards
Created by standards-making organizations such as ITU
(International Telecommunications Union), IEEE
(Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers), EIA
(Electronic Industries Association), ISO (International
Organization for Standardization), and ANSI (American
National Standards Institute)
De facto standards
Created by other groups that are not official standards
but because of their widespread use, become “almost”
standards

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 Interface
Standards (continued)
There are four possible components to an
interface standard:
Electrical component: deals with voltages, line
capacitance, and other electrical characteristics
Mechanical component: deals with items such as the
connector or plug description
Functional component: describes the function of each
pin or circuit that is used in a particular interface
Procedural component: describes how the particular
circuits are used to perform an operation

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 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

The USB interface is a modern standard for

interconnecting a wide range of peripheral
devices to computers
Supports plug and play
Can daisy-chain multiple devices
USB 2.0 can support 480 Mbps (USB 1.0 is only
12 Mbps)
USB 3.0 can support 4.8 Gbps

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 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

The USB interface defines all four components

The electrical component defines two wires VBUS
and Ground to carry a 5-volt signal, while the D+
and D- wires carry the data and signaling
information
The mechanical component precisely defines the
size of four different connectors and uses only
four wires (the metal shell counts as one more
connector)

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 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
The functional and procedural components are
fairly complex but are based on the polled bus
The computer takes turns asking each peripheral if
it has anything to send
More on polling near the end of this chapter

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 USB daisy chain

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 USB type C

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 68

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Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 69
Approach, Sixth Edition
 Some newer interface standards

FIREWIRE, FIBRECHANNEL,
INFINIBAND, SCSI

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 FireWire (IEEE1394, Apple)
Low-cost digital interface
Capable of supporting transfer speeds of up to 800
Mbps
Hot pluggable
Supports two types of data connections:
Asynchronous connection
Isochronous connection

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 InfiniBand and Fibre Channel
InfiniBand – a serial connection or bus that can carry
multiple channels of data at the same time
Can support data transfer speeds of 2.5 billion bits (2.5
gigabits) per second and address thousands of devices,
using both copper wire and fiber-optic cables
A network of high-speed links and switches
Fibre Channel – also a serial, high-speed network that
connects a computer to multiple input/output devices
Supports data transfer rates up to billions of bits per second,
but can support the interconnection of up to 126 devices
only

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Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 73
Approach, Sixth Edition
 Fibre Channel Goals
Greater connectivity than
Full-duplex links with two
existing multidrops
fibers per link
channels
Performance from 100
Broad availability (i.e.,
Mbps to 800 Mbps on a
single link (200 Mbps standard components)
to1600 Mbps per link) Support for multiple
Support for distances up to cost/performance levels,
from small systems to
10 km
supercomputers
Small connectors
Ability to carry multiple
High-capacity utilization with existing interface
distance insensitivity command sets for
existing channel and
network protocols
Business Data Communications,
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 SCSI and iSCSI
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
A technique for interfacing a computer to high-speed
devices such as hard disk drives, tape drives, CDs,
and DVDs
Designed to support devices of a more permanent
nature
SCSI is a systems interface
Need SCSI adapter
iSCSI (Internet SCSI)
A technique for interfacing disk storage to a computer
via the Internet

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 SCSI Protocol Overview

SCSI Scheduled transport

SCSI Encapsulation protocol
Metro FCP
Data Communications and Computer
Serial ATA Tunneling ProtocolNetworks: A Business User's 76
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Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 77
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Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 78
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 Interface Trends
New interfaces are continually being developed.
One focus of development is to increase the
speed at which interfaces allows the peripheral
and computer to communicate.
Another aim is to allow wireless communication
(chapter 2, Conducted and Wireless) between
peripheral devices and the CPU.
I/O consolidation competition: iSCSI,
FibreChannel and Infiniband
 Increasing Interface Speeds

Interface speeds are measured in Megabits per

second (Mbps).
N.B. do not confuse Megabits and Megabytes

Manufacturers normally use Megabits per second

in their advertising as this allows them to print
larger numbers on their advertisements.
 Increasing Interface Speeds

One example of increasing interface speeds is

the development of the USB 2 and the
Firewire800 interfaces.

The USB 2 improves upon the maximum 12 Mbps

speed of the USB 1 interface by 40 times to
480 Mbps.

The Firewire 800 interface provides 800 Mbps,

double the speed of the Firewire400
interface.
 I/O CONSOLIDATION

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Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's 83
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 Why I/O Consolidation

More powerful CPU, multicore – multisocket

Server virtualization
High demand for I/O bandwidth
Reduction in cables, power
Limited number of interfaces
Current Competition:
iSCSI, FiberChannel over Ethernet, Infiniband
iSCSI and FCoE have better chance due to
Ethernet popularity (see next slides)

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Virtual to Physical I/O connection
Ethernet Example
 Making Computer Connections
In Action
A company wants to transfer files that are typically
700K chars in size
If an asynchronous connection is used, each
character will have a start bit, a stop bit, and
maybe a parity bit
700,000 chars * 11 bits/char (8 bits data + start +
stop + parity) = 7,700,000 bits

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 Making Computer Connections
In Action (continued)
If a synchronous connection is used, assume
maximum payload size – 1500 bytes
To transfer a 700K char file requires 467 1500-
character (byte) frames
Each frame will also contain 1-byte header, 1-byte
address, 1-byte control, and 2-byte checksum,
thus 5 bytes overhead

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 Making Computer Connections
In Action (continued)
1500 bytes payload + 5 byte overhead = 1505 byte
frames
467 frames * 1505 bytes/frame = 716,380 bytes, or
5,731,040 bits
Significantly less data using synchronous
connection

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 Chapter Three

Making Connections Efficient

(Multiplexing and Compression) and
Error Free
 Introduction

• Under simplest conditions, a medium can carry

only one signal at any moment in time
• For multiple signals to share a medium, medium
must somehow be divided, giving each signal a
portion of the total bandwidth
• Current techniques include:
– Frequency division multiplexing
– Time division multiplexing
– Code division multiplexing

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 2
 Definition

 Multiplexing: is sending multiple signals or

streams of information on a carrier at the same
time in the form of a single, complex signal and
then recovering the separate signals at the
receiving end.

 Compression means transmitting/storing the

same amount of information using less amount
of resources

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 3
 Definition (cont)

• Both Compression and Multiplexing are

attempts to make better use of resources: the
Communication Channel.

• Multiplexing attempts to make better use of a

potentially underused resources. On the Other
hand, Compression attempts to make better use
of a potentially overused resources.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 4
 Multiplexing Methods

• FDM : Frequency Division Multiplexing

– FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
• TDM : Time Division Multiplexing
– FDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
• CDM : Code Division Multiplexing
– CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 5
 Frequency Division Multiplexing

• Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to

each “user” or signal on a medium
– Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time,
each using different frequencies
• A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to
each device
• The multiplexor is attached to a high-speed
communications line
• A corresponding multiplexor, or de-multiplexor, is on the
end of the high-speed line and separates the multiplexed
signals
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 6
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 7
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (continued)

• Analog signaling is used in older systems;

discrete analog signals in more recent systems
• Broadcast radio and television, cable television,
and cellular telephone systems use frequency
division multiplexing
• This technique is the oldest multiplexing
technique
• Since it involves a certain level of analog
signaling, it may be susceptible to noise

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 8
 FDM concept

Frequency Band

Frequency Band

Frequency Band

Frequency Band

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 9
 FDMA Applications

 FDMA is used in a variety of applications such

as: telephone systems, radio systems, cable TV
at homes.
 The first generation of Mobile networks. FD,TD-
MA.
 GSM (Global System of Mobile
Telecommunication) uses FDMA in combination
with TDMA.
 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication
Systems-3G) in combination with other
multiplexing techniques
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 10
 Time Division Multiplexing

• Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing

available transmission time on a medium among
users
• Digital signaling is used exclusively
• Time division multiplexing comes in two basic
forms:
– Synchronous time division multiplexing
– Statistical time division multiplexing

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 11
 TDM concept

Slot 3
Slot 1

Slot 2

Slot 4

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 12
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

• The original time division multiplexing

• The multiplexor accepts input from attached
devices in a round-robin fashion and transmits
the data in a never -ending pattern
• T-1 and SONET telephone systems are common
examples of synchronous time division
multiplexing

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 13
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 14
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)
• If one device generates data at faster rate than
other devices, then the multiplexor must either
sample the incoming data stream from that
device more often than it samples the other
devices, or buffer the faster incoming stream
• If a device has nothing to transmit, the
multiplexor must still insert something into the
multiplexed stream

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 15
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 16
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 17
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)
• So that the receiver may stay synchronized with
the incoming data stream, the transmitting
multiplexor can insert alternating 1s and 0s into
the data stream

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 18
 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 19
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

• A statistical multiplexor transmits the data from active

workstations only
• If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted in the
multiplexed stream

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 20
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)
• A statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming
data streams and creates a frame containing the
data to be transmitted
• To identify each piece of data, an address is
included
• If data size varies, then length of data must be
included too

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 21
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)
• If the data is of variable size, a length is also included

• A more complete picture

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 22
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• Wavelength division multiplexing multiplexes multiple

data streams onto a single fiber-optic line
• Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit the
multiple signals
• Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a
different rate from the other signals
• Dense wavelength division multiplexing combines many
(30, 40, 50 or more) onto one fiber
• Coarse wavelength division multiplexing combines only a
few lambdas

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 23
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 24
 FDMA TDMA combination

• A combination of FDMA/TDMA can be used.

For example, in GSM systems. The traffic is
burst onto the channel at a specific periods.
• With this combination, more channels can be
used with less interference.
• How?

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 25
 FDMA+TDMA in GSM

0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577

ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms
0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577

ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms
0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577

ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms
0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577

ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms ms

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
Voice Channels 26
Signalling Channels

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Code Division Multiplexing

• Also known as code division multiple access

• An advanced technique that allows multiple
devices to transmit on the same frequencies at
the same time
• Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit
code
– To send a binary 1, transmits the unique code
– To send a binary 0, the inverse of the code
– To send nothing, a mobile device transmits zeros

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 27
 Code Division Multiplexing (continued)

• Receiver gets summed signal, multiplies it by

receiver code, adds up the resulting values
– Interprets as a binary 1 if sum is near +64
– Interprets as a binary 0 if sum is near -64

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 28
 Code Division Multiplexing (continued)

• For simplicity, assume 8-bit code

• Example
– Three different mobile devices use the following
codes:
• Mobile A: 11110000
• Mobile B: 10101010
• Mobile C: 00110011
– Assume Mobile A sends a 1, B sends a 0, and C
sends a 1
– Signal code: 1-chip = +N volt; 0-chip = -N volt

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 29
 Code Division Multiplexing (continued)

• Example (continued)
– Three signals transmitted:
• Mobile A sends a 1, or 11110000, or ++++----
• Mobile B sends a 0, or 01010101, or -+-+-+-+
• Mobile C sends a 1, or 00110011, or --++--++
– Summed signal received by base station: -1, +1,
+1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 30
 Code Division Multiplexing (continued)

• Example (continued)
– Base station decode for Mobile A:
• Signal received: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1
• Mobile A’s code: +1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1, -1
• Product result: -1, +1, +1, +3, +3, +1, +1, -1

– Sum of Products: +8
– Decode rule: For result near +8, data is binary 1

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 31
 Code Division Multiplexing (continued)

• Example (continued)
– Base station decode for Mobile B:
• Signal received: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1
• Mobile B’s code: +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1
• Product result: -1, -1, +1, -3, -3, +1, -1, -1

– Sum of Products: -8
– Decode rule: For result near -8, data is binary 0

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 32
 CDM concept

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 33
 CDMA Applications

• CDMA technique is used in UMTS (Universal Mobile

Telecommunication Systems) (Called also W-CDMA)
• CDMA provides better signal-to-noise ratio performance than the
conventional TDMA and FDMA. Which means that the required high
capacity can be approved!!
• Advantage: It is easy to accommodate variable user capacity as
long as the user does not increase the whole energy of the multi-
user signal.
• Disadvantage: The power control issue which limits the max.
number of users in the cell.
• There are different alternatives for CDMA in UMTS:
 W-CDMA
 TD-CDMA
 FD-CDMA

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 34
 Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 35
 Compression: Lossless versus Lossy

• Compression is another technique used to

squeeze more data over a communications line
– If you can compress a data file down to one half
of its original size, file will obviously transfer in
less time
– A VGA screen is 640 x 480 pixels
• 24 bits x 640 x 480 = 7,372,800 bits – Ouch!
• And video comes at you 30 images per second –
Double Ouch!

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 36
 Compression–Lossless versus Lossy
(continued)
• Compress a program file?
– You want lossless
• Compress a video image, movie, or audio file?
– Lossy is OK
• Examples of lossless compression include:
– Huffman codes, run-length compression, and
Lempel-Ziv compression
• Examples of lossy compression include:
– MPEG, JPEG, MP3

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 37
 Lossless Compression

• Run-length encoding
• Runs of data (that is, sequences in which the
same data value occurs in many consecutive
data elements) are stored as a single data value
and count.
wwwwaaadexxxxxx
w4a3d1e1x6

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 41
 Video compression

• Relative or differential encoding

– Video does not compress well using run-length
encoding
– In one color video frame, not much is alike
– But what about from frame to frame?
• Send a frame, store it in a buffer
• Next frame is just difference from previous frame
• Then store that frame in buffer, etc.
– Lossless

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 42
 Video Compression (continued)

5762866356 5762866356
6575563247 6576563237
8468564885 8468564885
5129865566 5139865576
First Frame Second Frame

0000000000
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 -1 0
0000000000
0010000010
Difference
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 43
 Lossy Image Compression

• Image Compression
– One image (JPEG) or continuous images
(MPEG)
– A color picture can be defined by red/green/blue,
or luminance/chrominance/chrominance which
are based on RGB values
• Either way, you have 3 values, each 8 bits, or 24
bits total (224 colors!)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 44
 Lossy Compression (continued)

• JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)

– Compresses still images
– Lossy
– JPEG compression consists of 3 phases:
1. Discrete cosine transformations (DCT). Convert
image into numerical values
2. Quantization: Map into discrete values
3. Run-length encoding. Change into string to get
the patterns

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 45
 Lossy Image Compression (continued)

• How do you get the image back?

– Undo run-length encoding
– obtain the quantized values
– Apply similar cosine calculations to get original
(reduced) image

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 46
 Error Free transmission

• Noise Source
• Error Prevention
• Error Detection
• Error Control
• Error Correction

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 47
 NOISE/ERROR SOURCE

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 48
 Introduction

• Noise is always present

• If a communications line experiences too much
noise, the signal will be lost or corrupted
• Communication systems should check for
transmission errors
• Once an error is detected, a system may
perform some action
• Some systems perform no error control, but
simply let the data in error be discarded

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 49
 White Noise

• Also known as thermal or Gaussian noise

• Relatively constant and can be reduced
• If white noise gets too strong, it can completely
disrupt the signal

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 50
 White Noise (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 51
 Impulse Noise

• One of the most disruptive forms of noise

• Random spikes of power that can destroy one or
more bits of information
• Difficult to remove from an analog signal
because it may be hard to distinguish from the
original signal
• Impulse noise can damage more bits if the bits
are closer together (transmitted at a faster rate)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 52
 Impulse Noise (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 53
 Crosstalk

• Unwanted coupling between two different signal paths

– For example, hearing another conversation while
talking on the telephone
• Relatively constant and can be reduced with proper
measures

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 54
 Echo

• The reflective feedback of a transmitted signal as the

signal moves through a medium
• Most often occurs on coaxial cable
• If echo bad enough, it could interfere with original signal
• Relatively constant, and can be significantly reduced

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 55
 Jitter

• The result of small timing irregularities during the

transmission of digital signals
• Occurs when a digital signal is repeated over and over
• If serious enough, jitter forces systems to slow down
their transmission
• Steps can be taken to reduce jitter

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 56
 Other noises

• Delay Distortion: Occurs because the velocity of

propagation of a signal through a medium varies
with the frequency of the signal
– Can be reduced
• Attenuation: The continuous loss of a signal’s
strength as it travels through a medium

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 57
 ERROR PREVENTION

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 58
 Error Prevention

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 59
 ERROR DETECTION

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 60
 Error Detection

• Despite the best prevention techniques, errors

may still happen
• To detect an error, something extra has to be
added to the data/signal
– This extra is an error detection code
• Three basic techniques for detecting errors:
parity checking, arithmetic checksum, and cyclic
redundancy checksum

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 61
 Parity Checks

• Simple parity
– If performing even parity, add a parity bit such
that an even number of 1s are maintained
– If performing odd parity, add a parity bit such that
an odd number of 1s are maintained
– For example, send 1001010 using odd parity
– For example, send 1001011 using even parity

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 62
 Parity Checks (longitudinal)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 63
 Parity Checks (summary)

• Both simple parity and longitudinal parity do not

catch all errors
• Simple parity only catches odd numbers of bit
errors
• Longitudinal parity is better at catching errors
but requires too many check bits added to a
block of data
• We need a better error detection method
– What about arithmetic checksum?

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 64
 Arithmetic Checksum

• Used in TCP and IP on the Internet

• Characters to be transmitted are converted to numeric
form and summed
• Sum is placed in some form at the end of the
transmission
• Example:
– 4 byte data: 56+72+34+48 = 210
– Manipulate sum: 2 + 10 = 12, send with the data
– Receiver perform same process and compare
• Still not good enough. What else?

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 65
 Cyclic Redundancy Checksum

• CRC error detection method treats the packet of data to

be transmitted as a large polynomial
• Transmitter takes the message polynomial and using
polynomial arithmetic, divides it by a given generating
polynomial
• Quotient is discarded but the remainder is “attached” to
the end of the message
• Receiver divide (msg+quotient) with the same
generating poly.
• If remainder is zero then no error

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 66
 Cyclic Redundancy Checksum (continued)

• Some standard generating polynomials:

• CRC-12: x12 + x11 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
• CRC-16: x16 + x15 + x2 + 1
• CRC-CCITT: x16 + x15 + x5 + 1
• CRC-32: x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 +
x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1
• ATM CRC: x8 + x2 + x + 1

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 67
 Cyclic Redundancy Checksum (continued)

• 14 bits of message
• 3-bit CRC
• polynomial x3 + x + 1.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 68
 Cyclic Redundancy Checksum (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 69
 Cyclic Redundancy Checksum (continued)

• The remainder should equal zero if there are no

detectable errors

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 70
 Cyclic Redundancy Checksum (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 71
 ERROR CONTROL

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 72
 Error Control

• Once an error is detected, what is the receiver

going to do?
– Do nothing (simply toss the frame or packet)
– Return an error message to the transmitter
– Fix the error with no further help from the
transmitter

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 73
 Do Nothing (Toss the Frame/Packet)

• Seems like a strange way to control errors but

some lower-layer protocols such as frame relay
perform this type of error control
• For example, if frame relay detects an error, it
simply tosses the frame
– No message is returned
• Frame relay assumes a higher protocol (such as
TCP/IP) will detect the tossed frame and ask for
retransmission

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 74
 Return A Message

• Once an error is detected, an error message is

returned to the transmitter
• Two basic forms:
– Stop-and-wait error control
– Sliding window error control

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 75
 Stop-and-Wait Error Control

• Stop-and-wait is the simplest of the error control

protocols
• A transmitter sends a frame then stops and
waits for an acknowledgment
– If a positive acknowledgment (ACK) is received,
the next frame is sent
– If a negative acknowledgment (NAK) is received,
the same frame is transmitted again

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 76
 Stop-and-Wait Error Control (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 77
 Sliding Window Error Control

• These techniques assume that multiple frames

are in transmission at one time
• A sliding window protocol allows the transmitter
to send a number of data packets at one time
before receiving any acknowledgments
– Depends on window size
• When a receiver does acknowledge receipt, the
returned ACK contains the number of the frame
expected next
• Used in TCP, but with more elaborate controls
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 78
 Sliding Window Error Control (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 79
 ERROR CORRECTION

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 80
 Correct the Error

• For a receiver to correct the error with no further

help from the transmitter requires a large
amount of redundant information to accompany
the original data
– This redundant information allows the receiver to
determine the error and make corrections
• This type of error control is often called forward
error correction and involves codes called
Hamming codes

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 81
 Correct the Error (continued)

• Hamming codes add additional check bits to a

character
– These check bits perform parity checks on various
bits
• Example: One could create a Hamming code in
which 4 check bits are added to an 8-bit character
– We can number the check bits c8, c4, c2 and c1
– We will number the data bits b12, b11, b10, b9, b7,
b6, b5, and b3
– Place the bits in the following order: b12, b11, b10,
b9, c8, b7, b6, b5, c4, b3, c2, c1

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 82
 Correct the Error (continued)

• Example (continued):
– c8 will perform a parity check on bits b12, b11, b10,
and b9
– c4 will perform a parity check on bits b12, b7, b6 and
b5
– c2 will perform a parity check on bits b11, b10, b7, b6
and b3
– c1 will perform a parity check on bits b11, b9, b7, b5,
and b3
• The next slide shows the check bits and their values

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 83
 Correct the Error (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 84
 Correct the Error (continued)

• The sender will take the 8-bit character and

generate the 4 check bits as described
– The 4 check bits are then added to the 8 data bits
in the sequence as shown and then transmitted
• The receiver will perform the 4 parity checks
using the 4 check bits
– If no bits flipped during transmission, then there
should be no parity errors
• What happens if one of the bits flipped during
transmission?
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 85
 Correct the Error (continued)

• For example, what if bit b9 flips?

– The c8 check bit checks bits b12, b11, b10, b9 and c8
(01000)
• This would cause a parity error
– The c4 check bit checks bits b12, b7, b6, b5 and c4
(00101)
• This would not cause a parity error (even number of 1s)
– The c2 check bit checks bits b11, b10, b7, b6, b3 and
c2 (100111)
• This would not cause a parity error

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 86
 Correct the Error (continued)

• For example, what if bit b9 flips? (continued)

– The c1 check bit checks b11, b9, b7, b5, b3 and
c1 (100011)
• This would cause a parity error
– Writing the parity errors in sequence gives us
1001, which is binary for the value 9
• Thus, the bit error occurred in the 9th position

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 87
 Business Multiplexing In Action

• XYZ Corporation has two buildings separated by

a distance of 300 meters
• A 3-inch diameter tunnel extends underground
between the two buildings
• Building A has a mainframe computer and
Building B has 66 terminals
• List some efficient techniques to link the two
buildings

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 88
 Business Multiplexing In Action (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 89
 Business Multiplexing In Action (continued)

• Possible solutions
– Connect each terminal to the mainframe computer
using separate point-to-point lines
– Connect all the terminals to the mainframe computer
using one multipoint line
– Connect all the terminal outputs and use microwave
transmissions to send the data to the mainframe
– Collect all the terminal outputs using multiplexing and
send the data to the mainframe computer using a
conducted line

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 90
 Terimakasih

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 91
Local Area Network and IP addressing
 Primary Function of Local Area Networks

• To provide access to hardware and software resources

that will allow users to perform one or more of the
following activities:
• File serving
• A large storage disk drive acts as a central storage
repository
• Print serving
• Providing the authorization to access a particular printer,
accept and queue print jobs, and providing a user access to
the print queue to perform administrative duties
• Video transfers
• High speed LANs are capable of supporting video image
and live video transfers

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 2
 Primary Function of Local Area Networks
(continued)
• To provide access to hardware and software resources
that will allow users to perform one or more of the
following activities (continued):
• Manufacturing support
• LANs can support manufacturing and industrial
environments
• Academic support
• In classrooms, labs, and wireless
• E-mail support
• Interconnection between multiple systems

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 3
 Primary Function of Local Area Networks
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 4
 Medium Access Control Protocols

• How does a workstation get its data onto the

LAN medium?
• A medium access control protocol is the
software that allows workstations to “take turns”
at transmitting data
• Two basic categories:
• Contention-based protocols (statistical)
• Round-robin protocols (Deterministic)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 5
 Contention-Based Protocols

• Essentially first-come, first-served

• Most common example is carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
• If no one is transmitting, workstation can
transmit
• If someone else is transmitting, workstation
“backs off” and waits

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 6
 Contention-Based Protocols (continued)

• If two workstations transmit at same time,

collision occurs
• When two workstations hear collision, they stop
transmitting immediately
• Each workstation backs off a random amount of
time and tries again
• Hopefully, both workstations do not try again at
exact same time
• CSMA/CD is an example of a non-
deterministic protocol

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 7
 CSMA/CD flow chart

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Round Robin based protocol

• Bagaimana cara kerjanya?

• Bandingkan mana yang lebih baik:
• Dari masa tunggu setiap workstation
• Dari kapasitas maksimum

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
LAN TOPOLOGY
 The First Local Area Network –
The Bus/Tree
• The original topology
• Workstation has a network interface card (NIC)
that attaches to the bus (a coaxial cable) via a
tap
• Data can be transferred using either baseband
digital signals or broadband analog signals

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 11
 Bus/Tree (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 12
 A More Modern LAN –
The Star-Wired Bus
• Logically operates as a bus, but physically looks
like a star
• Star design is based on hub
• All workstations attach to hub
• Unshielded twisted pair usually used to connect
workstation to hub
• Originally, hub takes incoming signal and
immediately broadcasts it out all connected links
• Hubs can be interconnected to extend size of
network

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 13
 Star-Wired Bus (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 14
 Star-Wired Bus (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 15
 Star-Wired Bus (continued)

• Modular connectors and twisted pair make

installation and maintenance of star-wired bus
better than standard bus
• Hubs can be interconnected with twisted pair,
coaxial cable, or fiber-optic cable
• Biggest disadvantage = when one station talks,
everyone hears it
• This is called a shared network
• All devices are sharing the network medium

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 16
 Switch
• Switches provide a unique network segment on each
port, thereby separating collision domains.
• Today, network designers are replacing hubs in their
wiring closets with switches to increase their network
performance and bandwidth while protecting their
existing wiring investments.
• Like bridges, switches learn certain information about
the data packets that are received from various
computers on the network.
• Switches use this information to build forwarding tables
to determine the destination of data being sent by one
computer to another computer on the network.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 17
 Switches: Dedicated Access
• Hosts have direct connection to A
switch
• Switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’ C’ B
simultaneously, no collisions
• Switches can be cascaded to
expand the network switch

B’ A’

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 18
 Switches

• The hub is a simple device that transmits an

incoming frame out all the other ports on the
hub
• The switch has intelligence and can filter out
and forward frames based on their NIC address
• A switch maintains internal port table(s) that
keep track of which frames arrived on which
ports
• Switches have eliminated many hubs

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 19
 SWITCH vs HUB

SWITCH
HUB

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Switches (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 21
 Switches (continued)

• A switch observes each frame that arrives at a

port, extracts the source address from the
frame, and places that address in the port’s
routing table

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 22
 Switches (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 23
 Switches (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 24
 Switches (continued)

• Workstations that connect to a hub are on a

shared segment
• Workstations that connect to a switch are on a
switched segment

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 25
 Switches (continued)

• The backplane of a switch is fast enough to support

multiple data transfers at one time
• A switch that employs cut-through architecture is passing
on frame before entire frame has arrived at switch
• Multiple workstations connected to a switch use
dedicated segments
• This is a very efficient way to isolate heavy users from the
network
• Can allow simultaneous access to multiple servers, or
multiple simultaneous connections to a single server

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 26
 Switches (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 27
 Switches (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 28
 Isolating Traffic Patterns and
Providing Multiple Access
• Whether shared or dedicated segments are
involved, the primary goal of a switch is to
isolate a particular pattern of traffic from other
patterns of traffic or from the remainder of the
network
• Switches, because of their backplane, can also
allow multiple paths of communications to
simultaneously occur

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 29
 Isolating Traffic Patterns and
Providing Multiple Access (continued)
• Using a pair of routers, it is possible to
interconnect two switched segments, essentially
creating one large local area network

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 30
 Isolating Traffic Patterns and
Providing Multiple Access (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 31
 Full-Duplex Switches

• Allow for simultaneous transmission and

reception of data to and from a workstation
• This full-duplex connection helps to eliminate
collisions
• To support a full-duplex connection to a switch,
at least two pairs of wires are necessary
• One for the receive operation
• One for the transmit operation
• Most people install four pairs today, so wiring is
not the problem

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 32
 Full Duplex Switches (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 33
 Virtual LANs

• Virtual LAN (VLAN) – logical subgroup within a

LAN that is created via switches and software
rather than by manually moving wiring from one
network device to another
• Even though employees and their actual
computer workstations may be scattered
throughout the building, LAN switches and
VLAN software can be used to create a
“network within a network”

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 34
 Virtual LANs (continued)

• A relatively new standard, IEEE 802.1Q, was

designed to allow multiple devices to
intercommunicate and work together to create a
virtual LAN
• Instead of sending technician to a wiring closet
to move a workstation cable from one switch to
another, an 802.1Q-compliant switch can be
remotely configured by a network administrator

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 35
WIRED AND WIRELESS
 Wired Ethernet

• Most common form of LAN today

• Star-wired bus is most common topology but
bus topology still not totally dead yet
• Comes in many forms depending upon medium
used and transmission speed and technology

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 37
 Wired Ethernet (continued)

• Originally, CSMA/CD was 10 Mbps

• Then 100 Mbps was introduced
• Most NICs sold today are 10/100 Mbps
• Then 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) was introduced
• 10 Gbps is now being installed in high-end
applications

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 38
 Wired Ethernet (continued)

• 1000 Mbps introduces a few interesting

wrinkles:
• Transmission is full-duplex (separate transmit
and receive), thus no collisions
• Prioritization is possible using 802.1p protocol
• Topology can be star or mesh (for trunks)
• Used to separate Delay sensitive traffic (voice,
video) from loss sensitive traffic

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 39
 Wired Ethernet (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 40
 Wired Ethernet (continued)

• One of the latest features is power over

Ethernet (PoE)
• What if you have a remote device that has an
Ethernet connection?
• It will require a power connection
• What if you don’t have an electrical outlet
nearby?
• Use PoE
• Power to drive Ethernet NIC is sent over wiring
along with usual Ethernet signals

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 41
 Wireless Ethernet

• Not really a specific topology

• Workstation in a wireless LAN can be anywhere
as long as it is within transmitting distance to an
access point
• Several versions of IEEE 802.11 standard
define various forms of wireless LAN
connections
• Workstations reside within Basic Service Set,
while multiple basic service sets create an
Extended Service Set

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 43
 Wireless Ethernet (continued)

• Two basic components necessary:

• Client radio
• Usually a PC card with an integrated antenna installed in a
laptop or workstation
• Access point (AP)
• An Ethernet port plus a transceiver
• AP acts as a bridge between the wired and wireless
networks and can perform basic routing functions
• Workstations with client radio cards reside within Basic
Service Set, while multiple basic service sets create an
Extended Service Set

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 44
 Wireless Ethernet (continued)

• Using ISM (industrial, scientific and medical )

band, 900 Mhz, 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
• IEEE 802.11
• June 1997
• Original wireless standard, capable of
transmitting data at 2 Mbps
• IEEE 802.11b (Wireless Fidelity or WiFi)
• Sep 1999
• Second wireless standard, capable of
transmitting data at 11 Mbps

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 45
 Wireless Ethernet (continued)

• With directional antenna designed for point-to-

point transmission (rare), 802.11b can transmit
for more than 10 miles (16 km)
• With an omni-directional antenna on typical AP,
range may drop to as little as 100 feet (30 m)
• Max transmission distance of 802.11b: up to
300 feet (90m) with 2.4 GHz frequency

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 46
 Wireless Ethernet (continued)

• IEEE 802.11a, introduced in 2002

• One of the faster standards
• Capable of transmitting data at 54 Mbps
(theoretical) using the 5-GHz frequency range
• Max transmission distance of 802.11a: up to
90 feet (27m)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 47
 Wireless Ethernet (continued)

• IEEE 802.11g
• Another fast standard, introduced in 2002
• Also capable of transmitting data at 54 Mbps
(theoretical) but using the same frequencies as
802.11b (2.4-GHz)
• Is backwards compatible with 802.11b

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 48
 Wireless Ethernet (continued)

• IEEE 802.11n is the latest standard to be

approved:
• Theoretical max data rate: 600Mbps
• Actual data rate: 100 to 145 Mbps
• 802.11n uses MIMO technology (multiple input
multiple output)
• Sender and receiver have multiple antennas for
optimum reception

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 49
 Wireless CSMA/CA

• CA (Collision avoidance)
• Protocol does not listen and detect collisions
• Instead, tries to avoid collisions before they happen
• How does CSMA/CA do this?
• All devices, before they transmit, must wait an
amount of time called an inter frame space (IFS)
• Some applications have a short IFS, while others
have a long IFS
• If two applications want to transmit at same time, the
application with shorter IFS will go first
• *IFS values are technology dependent

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 50
 CSMA/CA algorithm

SIFS: Short IFS

PIFS: Point coordinated IFS
DIFS: Distributed IFS

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Wireless LAN problem: Hidden Terminal

A and C are hidden

from each other. Both
might try to send to B
And collide.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Solution (partial) : RTS/CTS
RTS: Request To Send
CTS: Clear To Send
RTS CTS

C
A B

CTS
STEPS CTS
•A sends RTS to B
•B replies with CTS
•A can send data
•Any other nodes receiving CTS or RTS Hidden: CTS, no RTS
•should refrain for some time D Exposed: RTS, no CTS

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Exposed Terminal Problem

The sender (S2) mistakenly think the

medium is in use, so that it
unnecessarily defers the
transmission.
S1 S2
R1 R2

R1 CTS

1 2 3
S1 RTS DATA

S2 Find medium in use

R2 Wait until medium is clear time

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 RTS CTS Frame Sequence

Station AP
RTS

CTS

Data

ACK

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 2.4GHz band channels

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Frequency Planning

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 Wireless Standard

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
 802.11 a, b and g

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
IP ADDRESS AND
SUBNETTING
 IP Addresses and subnetting

• All devices connected to Internet have either a

32-bit IPv4 address or a 128-bit IPv6 address
• Think of the IP address as a logical address
(possibly temporary), while the 48-bit address
on every NIC is the physical, or permanent
address
• Computers, networks and routers use the 32-
bit (or 128-bit) binary address, but a more
readable form is the dotted decimal notation

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 61
 IP Addresses (continued)

For example, the 32-bit binary address

10000000 10011100 00001110 00000111
translates to
[Link]
in dotted decimal notation

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 62
 IP Addresses (continued)

• When IP addresses were originally created,

they were called class-full addresses
• That is, each IP address fell into particular class
• A particular class address has a unique network
address size and a unique host address size
• There are basically five types of IP addresses:
Classes A, B, C, D and E

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 63
 IP Addresses (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 64
 IP Addresses (continued)

• When you examine the first decimal value in the

dotted decimal notation:
– All Class A addresses are in the range 0 - 127
– All Class B addresses are in the range 128 - 191
– All Class C addresses are in the range 192 – 223
– All Class D addresses are in the range 224 – 239
– All Class E addresses are in the range 240 - 255

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 65
 IP Addresses (continued)

• IP subnet masking
• Sometimes you have a large number of IP
addresses to manage
• By using subnet masking, you can break the
host ID portion of the address into a subnet ID
and host ID
• Example – subnet mask [Link] applied
to a class B address will break the host ID
(normally 16 bits) into an 8-bit subnet ID and an
8-bit host ID

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 66
 IP Addresses (continued)

• Today, IP addresses are considered classless

addresses
• With classless addressing, companies (users)
do not apply for particular class of addresses
• Instead, company will get its IP addresses from
an Internet service provider (ISP)
• Most ISPs have already applied for a large
number of IP addresses and are willing to lease
those addresses to companies

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 67
 IP Addresses (continued)

• Example – instead of applying for two Class C

addresses, a company could contact an ISP, which
would lease 500 IP addresses to the company
• The addresses are not identified by any class – they
are simply a contiguous block of IP addresses
• Classless addressing has led to a much more
efficient allocation of the IP address space
• A company can lease only as many addresses as it
needs

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 68
 Subnetting

• Division of a network into subnets

• For example, division of a Class B address into
several Class C addresses
• Some of the host IDs are used for creating
subnet IDs

©
 Need for Subnetting

• Classes A and B have a large number of hosts

corresponding to each network ID
• It may be desirable to subdivide the hosts in
Class C subnets
• Often, there is a limitation on the number of
hosts that could be hosted on a single network
segment
• The limitation may be imposed by concerns related to
the management of hardware
• Smaller broadcast domains are more efficient
and easy to manage
©
 Subnetting Principle

• Use parts of the host IDs for subnetting purpose

• A subnet mask is used to facilitate the flow of
traffic between the different subnets and the
outside network (hops)
• A hop is the distance a data packet travels form
one node to the other

©
 Using Host IDs to Subnet

Subnetted Class B Network

140 15 1 0
Subnet 1
Full Class B Network

140 15 2 0
140 15 0 0
Subnet 2

140 15 3 0
Subnet 3
Third octet is borrowed to be used for subnet IDs
 Subnet Configuration

Subnet ID (Network Address)

140 15 1 0

140 15 1 1 ….. 140 15 1 254

First Host ID Last Host ID

140 15 1 255

Broadcast ID
 Slash notation

• An IP address in slash notation has all the info we

need about the block of addresses assigned to a
user/company
• For example, one address in a block of addresses
is [Link]/27
– 27 bits belong to the network ID, and 5 bits belong to the
host ID (IPv4 addresses have 32 bits)
– The network mask has 27 1s followed by 5 0s. In dotted
decimal notation that is [Link].
– The number of addresses in the block is 25 = 32

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 74
 First and last address

• To find the first address (network address), AND the

address ([Link]) with the network mask
([Link])
Address: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
Mask: 11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
Result: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
Which in decimal is [Link]/27

The last address (broadcast) is 31 addresses past the first,

or [Link]/27
Broadcast: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 75
 Examples(1)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 76
 Examples(2)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 77
 IPv6

• The next version of the Internet Protocol

• Main features include:
–Simpler header
–128-bit IP addresses
–Priority levels and quality of service parameters
–No fragmentation

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 78
 IPv6 (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 79
IPv6 Addressing
• IPv6 Addressing rules are covered by multiples RFC’s
• Architecture defined by RFC 3513 (obsoletes RFC 2373)
• Address Types are :
• Unicast : One to One (Global, Link local, Site local,
Compatible)
• Anycast : One to Nearest (Allocated from Unicast)
• Multicast : One to Many
• Reserved
• A single interface may be assigned multiple IPv6
addresses of any type (unicast, anycast, multicast)
• No Broadcast Address -> Use Multicast
IPv6 Address Representation
• 16-bit fields in case insensitive colon hexadecimal
representation
• 2031:0000:130F:0000:0000:09C0:876A:130B

• Leading zeros in a field are optional:

• 2031:0:130F:0:0:9C0:876A:130B

• Successive fields of 0 represented as ::, but only once in

an address:
• 2031:0:130F::9C0:876A:130B
• 2031::130F::9C0:876A:130B
• 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 => ::1
• 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 => ::
• IPv4-compatible address representation
• 0:0:0:0:0:0:[Link] = ::[Link] = ::C0A8:1E01
IPv6 Addressing Examples

LAN: 3ffe:b00:c18:1::/64

Ethernet0

interface Ethernet0
ipv6 address 2001:410:213:1::/64 eui-64
MAC address: 0060.3e47.1530

router# show ipv6 interface Ethernet0

Ethernet0 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::260:3EFF:FE47:1530
Global unicast address(es):
2001:410:213:1:260:3EFF:FE47:1530, subnet is 2001:410:213:1::/64
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1:FF47:1530
FF02::1
FF02::2
MTU is 1500 bytes
Ipv6 Address

World surface 260 m2

IPv6 - So what’s really changed ?!
• Expanded Address Space
• Address length quadrupled to 16 bytes
• Header Format Simplification
• Fixed length, optional headers are daisy-chained
• IPv6 header is twice as long (40 bytes) as IPv4 header
• without options (20 bytes)
• No checksumming at the IP network layer
• No hop-by-hop segmentation
• Path MTU discovery
• 64 bits aligned
• Authentication and Privacy Capabilities
• IPsec is mandated
• No more broadcast
 IPv4 & IPv6 Header Comparison

IPv4 Header IPv6 Header

Version IHL Type of Service Total Length
Version Traffic Class Flow Label

Fragment
Identification Flags
Offset
Next
Payload Length Hop Limit
Header
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source Address
Destination Address
Source Address
Options Padding
Legend

- field’s name kept from IPv4 to IPv6

- fields not kept in IPv6 Destination Address
- Name & position changed in IPv6
- New field in IPv6
IPv6

Transition Mechanism

No fixed day to convert; no need to convert all at

once.

Transition Options:
Dual Stack
IPv6-IPv4 Tunnel
IPv6-IPv4 Translation
IPv6

Transition Mechanism
IPv6

6/4 Dual Stack Hosts and Network

This allows all the end hosts and intermediate
network devices (like routers, switches, modems
etc.) to have both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and
protocol stack.

If both the end stations support IPv6, they can

communicate using IPv6; otherwise they will
communicate using IPv4.

This will allow both IPv4 and IPv6 to coexist and

slow transition from IPv4 to IPv6 can happen.
IPv6

6/4 Dual Stack Hosts and Network

IPv6

6/4 Dual Stack Hosts and Network

IITK_KNPR_CMTR_DIA#sh run
Building configuration...

interface GigabitEthernet0/1
description Connected to IITK
ip address [Link] 255.
ipv6 address 2001:DF0:92::1/64
ipv6 enable
!

interface GigabitEthernet0/2
description Airtel IPv6 Connectivity
ip address [Link] [Link]
ipv6 address 2404:A800:2:D::2/64
ipv6 enable
!
IPv6

Tunneling IP6 via IP4

This allows encapsulating IPv6 packets in IPv4
packets for transport over IPv4 only network.
This will allow IPv6 only end stations to
communicate over IPv4 only networks.
IPv6

IP6-IP4 Translation
This allows communication between IPv4 only and
IPv6 only end stations.

The job of the translator is to translate IPv6 packets

into IPv4 packets by doing address and port
translation and vice versa.
IPv6 Technology Scope

IP Service IPv4 Solution IPv6 Solution

32-bit, Network 128-bit, Multiple
Addressing Range
Address Translation Scopes
Serverless,
Autoconfiguration DHCP
Reconfiguration, DHCP

Security IPSec IPSec Mandated,

works End-to-End

Mobility Mobile IP Mobile IP with Direct

Routing
Differentiated Service, Differentiated Service,
Quality-of-Service
Integrated Service Integrated Service

IP Multicast IGMP/PIM/Multicast MLD/PIM/Multicast

BGP BGP,Scope Identifier
IPv6 Standards

• Core IPv6 specifications are IETF Draft Standards

=> well-tested & stable
• currently have 5 Draft Standards, 32 Proposed
• started to compile an IPv6 Node Requirements spec
• Some important auxilliary standards are less
mature
• e.g., mobile IPv6, MIBS, scoped addressing,…
• for an up-to-date status: [Link]/ipv6
• 3GPP UMTS Rel. 5 cellular wireless standards
mandate IPv6; also being considered by 3GPP2
 IPv6 Current Status - Standardisation

• Several key components now on Standards Track:

Specification (RFC2460) Neighbour Discovery (RFC2461)
ICMPv6 (RFC2463) IPv6 Addresses (RFC2373/4/5)
RIP (RFC2080) BGP (RFC2545)
IGMPv6 (RFC2710) OSPF (RFC2740)
Router Alert (RFC2711) Jumbograms (RFC2675)
Autoconfiguration (RFC2462)

IPv6 over: PPP (RFC2023) Ethernet (RFC2464)

FDDI (RFC2467) Token Ring (RFC2470)
NBMA(RFC2491) ATM (RFC2492)
Frame Relay (RFC2590) ARCnet (RFC2549)
IPv6

Current Status of IPv6 Deployment

THANK YOU
 Chapter Five

Routing, Internet Protocol and Services

 Types of Network Structures (1)
Circuit switched network - a sub-network in
which a dedicated circuit is established between
sender and receiver and all data passes over
this circuit. AT&T announced end of 2009 that
they will begin phasing out their switched
networks
Packet switched network - a network in which all
data messages are transmitted using fixed-sized
packages, called packets. More efficient use of a
telecommunications line since packets from
multiple sources can share the medium.
 Types of Network Structures (2)

One form of packet switched network is the datagram.

With a datagram, each packet is on its own and may
follow its own path.
Virtual circuit packet switched network create a logical
path through the subnet and all packets from one
connection follow this path.
Broadcast network - a network typically found in local
area networks but occasionally found in wide area
networks.
Connection-oriented versus Connectionless
(1)
The network structure is the underlying physical
component of a network. What about the
software or application that uses the network?
A network application can be either connection-
oriented or connectionless.
Connection-oriented versus Connectionless
(2)
A connection-oriented application requires both
sender and receiver to create a connection
before any data is transferred.
Applications such as large file transfers and
sensitive transactions such as banking and
business are typically connection-oriented.
A connectionless application does not create a
connection first but simply sends the data.
Electronic mail is a common example.
Connection-oriented versus Connectionless
(3)
Connection-oriented versus Connectionless
(4)
Connection-oriented versus Connectionless
(5)
A connection-oriented application can operate over
both a circuit switched network or a packet
switched network.
A connectionless application can also operate over
both a circuit switched network or a packet
switched network but a packet switched network
may be more efficient.
Summary of Network Structures
 Routing versus Forwarding
Routing = building maps
and giving directions
Forwarding = moving
packets between
interfaces according
to the “directions”

10
 Forwarding Table
Can display forwarding table using “netstat -rn”
Sometimes called “routing table”

Destination Gateway Flags Ref Use Interface

[Link] [Link] UH 0 26492 lo0

192.168.2. [Link] U 2 13 fa0
193.55.114. [Link] U 3 58503 le0
192.168.3. [Link] U 2 25 qaa0
[Link] [Link] U 3 0 le0
default [Link] UG 0 143454
 Forwarding Table Structure
Fields: destination, gateway, flags, ...

Destination: can be a host address or a network address. If

the ‘H’ flag is set, it is the host address.

Gateway: router/next hop IP address. The ‘G’ flag says

whether the destination is directly or indirectly connected.

U flag: Is route up ?

G flag: router (indirect vs direct)

H flag: host (dest field: host or n/w address?)

 Hub vs Switch vs Router
• Hubs do not have “forwarding tables” – they
simply broadcast signals at Layer 1. No filtering.
• Switch learn from host broadcast. Send packet only to
link/segment of destination. Switch have “L2 forwarding
tables,” and use dynamic learning algorithms to build it
locally. It can limit broadcasts and collisions to
collision domains. If address not found then do
flooding.
• Routers have “L3 forwarding tables,” and use a
distributed protocol to coordinate with other routers to
learn and condense a global view of the network in a
consistent and complete manner. Routers NEVER
broadcast or flood if they don’t have a route – they “pass
the buck” to another router.
 Design choices: Static vs Dynamic

Statically Dynamically
Administrator Routers exchange network reachability
manually configures information using ROUTING PROTOCOLS.
forwarding table entries Routers use this to compute best routes
+ More control + Can rapidly adapt to changes
+ Not restricted to in network topology
destination-based + Can be made to scale well
forwarding - Complex distributed algorithms
- Doesn’t scale - Consume CPU, Bandwidth, Memory
- Slow to adapt to - Debugging can be difficult
network failures - Current protocols are destination-based

Practice : a mix of these.

Static routing mostly at the “edge”
 Telephony routing (vs Internet)

Circuit-setup is what is routed. Voice then follows route,

and claims reserved resources.
 3-level hierarchy, with a fully-connected core
 AT&T: 135 core switches with nearly 5 million circuits
 LECs may connect to multiple cores
 Telephony Routing algorithm

 If endpoints are within same CO, directly connect

 If call is between COs in same LEC, use one-hop path
between COs
 Otherwise send call to one of the cores
 Only major decision is at toll switch
one-hop or two-hop path to the destination toll switch.

 Essence of telephony routing problem:

which two-hop path to use if one-hop path is full
(almost a static routing problem… )
 Features of telephone routing
 Resource reservation aspects:
Resource reservation is coupled with path reservation
Connections need resources (same 64kbps)
Signaling to reserve resources and the path
Stable load
Network built for voice only.
Can predict pairwise load throughout the day
Can choose optimal routes in advance
 Technology and economic aspects:
Extremely reliable switches
Why? End-systems (phones) dumb because
computation was non-existent in early 1900s.
Downtime is less than a few minutes per year =>
topology does not change dynamically
 Features of telephone routing
Source can learn topology and compute route
Can assume that a chosen route is available as the
signaling proceeds through the network
Component reliability drove system reliability and
hence acceptance of service by customers
Simplified topology:
Very highly connected network
Hierarchy + full mesh at each level: simple routing
High cost to achieve this degree of connectivity
 Organizational aspects:
Single organization controls entire core
Afford the scale economics to build expensive network
Collect global statistics and implement global changes

=> Source-based, signaled, simple alternate-path routing

 Internet Routing Drivers
Technology and economic aspects:
Internet built out of cheap, unreliable components as an
overlay on top of leased telephone infrastructure for
WAN transport.
Cheaper components => fail more often => topology
changes often => needs dynamic routing
Components (including end-systems) had computation
capabilities.
Distributed algorithms can be implemented
Cheap overlaid inter-networks => several entities could
afford to leverage their existing (heterogeneous) LANs
and leased lines to build inter-networks.
Led to multiple administrative “clouds” which needed
to inter-connect for global communication.
 Routing Classification

• intradomain routing : Interior gateway protocols (IGP)

Objective: shortest path
• interdomain routing : exterior gateway protocols (EGP)
Objective: satisfy policy of the AS
 Requirements for Intra-AS Routing
Should scale for the size of an AS.
Low end: 10s of routers (small enterprise)
High end: 1000s of routers (large ISP)
Different requirements on routing convergence after
topology changes
Low end: can tolerate some connectivity disruptions
High end: fast convergence essential to business
(making money on transport)
Operational/Admin/Management (OAM) Complexity
Low end: simple, self-configuring
High end: Self-configuring, but operator hooks for control
Traffic engineering capabilities: high end only
 Requirements for Inter-AS Routing

Should scale for the size of the global Internet.

Focus on reachability, not optimality
Use address aggregation techniques to minimize core
routing table sizes and associated control traffic
At the same time, it should allow flexibility in topological
structure (eg: don’t restrict to trees etc)

Allow policy-based routing between autonomous systems

Policy usually based on business deal.
In the case of routing, options include advertised AS-
level routes to address prefixes
Extensible to meet the demands for newer policies.
 Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
C.b Gateways:
B.a
• perform inter-
A.a AS routing
b A.c c amongst
a C a
b themselves
a B
• perform intra-
d c AS routers with
A b other routers in
their AS
network layer
inter-AS, link layer
intra-AS
routing in physical layer
gateway A.c
 Basic Dynamic Routing Methods
Source-based: source gets a map of the network,
source finds route, and either
signals the route-setup (eg: ATM approach)
encodes the route into packets (inefficient)

Link state routing: per-link information

Get map of network (in terms of link states) at all nodes
and find next-hops locally.
Maps consistent => next-hops consistent

Distance vector: per-node information

At every node, set up distance signposts to destination
nodes (a vector)
Setup this by peeking at neighbors’ signposts.
 Distance Vector
The subset of a shortest path is also the shortest path
between the two intermediate nodes.
Corollary:
If the shortest path from node i to node j, with distance
D(i,j) passes through neighbor k, with link cost c(i,k),
then:
D(i,j) = c(i,k) + D(k,j)

j
i
k
 Distance Vector (DV) Approach
Consistency Condition: D(i,j) = c(i,k) + D(k,j)
The DV (Bellman-Ford) algorithm evaluates this recursion
iteratively.
In the mth iteration, the consistency criterion holds,
assuming that each node sees all nodes and links m-
hops (or smaller) away from it (i.e. an m-hop view)
B 1 C 1
B B C
7 7 7
A 8 2 A A 8
1 1 1
E D E E D
2 2

Example network A’s 1-hop view A’s 2-hop view

(After 1st iteration) (After 2nd Iteration)
 Distance Vector (DV)…

Initial distance values (iteration 1):

D(i,i) = 0 ;
D(i,k) = c(i,k) if k is a neighbor (i.e. k is one-hop away);
and
D(i,j) = INFINITY for all other non-neighbors j.
Note that the set of values D(i,*) is a distance vector at
node i.
The algorithm also maintains a next-hop value (forwarding
table) for every destination j, initialized as:
next-hop(i) = i;
next-hop(k) = k if k is a neighbor, and
next-hop(j) = UNKNOWN if j is a non-neighbor.
 Distance Vector (DV).. (Cont’d)

After every iteration each node i exchanges its distance

vectors D(i,*) with its immediate neighbors.
For any neighbor k, if c(i,k) + D(k,j) < D(i,j), then:
D(i,j) = c(i,k) + D(k,j)
next-hop(j) = k
After each iteration, the consistency criterion is met
After m iterations, each node knows the shortest path
possible to any other node which is m hops or less.
I.e. each node has an m-hop view of the network.
The algorithm converges (self-terminating) in O(d)
iterations: d is the maximum diameter of the network.
 Distance Vector (DV) Example
A’s distance vector D(A,*):
After Iteration 1 is: [0, 7, INFINITY, INFINITY, 1]
After Iteration 2 is: [0, 7, 8, 3, 1]
After Iteration 3 is: [0, 7, 5, 3, 1]
After Iteration 4 is: [0, 6, 5, 3, 1]

B 1 C 1
B B C
7 7 7
A 8 2 A A 8
1 1 1
E D E E D
2 2

Example network A’s 1-hop view A’s 2-hop view

(After 1st iteration) (After 2nd Iteration)
 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
1
 node detects local link cost change Y
4 1
 updates distance table
X Z
 if cost change in least cost path, 5
notify neighbors

“good Time 0 Iter. 1 Iter. 2

news
algorithm
travels DV(Y) [ 4 0 1] [ 1 0 1] [ 1 0 1] terminates
fast”
DV(Z) [ 5 1 0] [ 5 1 0] [ 2 1 0]
 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
 good news travels fast
 bad news travels slow -
“count to infinity” problem!

Time 0 Iter 1 Iter 2 Iter 3 Iter 4 algo

goes
DV(Y) [ 4 0 1] [ 6 0 1] [606 0Y1] [ 8 0 1] [ 8 0 1] on!
4 1
DV(Z) [ 5 1 0] [ 5 1 0] X
[7 1500] [Z7 1 0] [ 9 1 0]
 Distance Vector: poisoned reverse
 If Z routes through Y to get to X : 60
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is Y
4 1
infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z) X Z
50
 At Time 0, DV(Z) as seen by Y is
[INF INF 0], not [5 1 0] !
algorithm
Time 0 Iter 1 Iter 2 Iter 3 terminates

DV(Y) [ 4 0 1] [ 60 0 1] [ 60 0 1] [ 51 0 1]

DV(Z) [ 5 1 0] [ 5 1 0] [ 50 1 0] [ 7 1 0]
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step set N D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)
0 A 2,A 5,A 1,A infinity infinity
1 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D infinity
2 ADE 2,A 3,E 4,E
3 ADEB 3,E 4,E
4 ADEBC 4,E
5 ADEBCF
DEST PORT
5 Result: A Local
3
Router A B 1
B C 5
2 table C 2
A 2 1 F
3 D 2
1 2 E 2
D E
1 F 2

The shortest-paths spanning tree rooted at A is called an SPF-tree

Link-state algorithm (SPF) input and output
Link-state DB x Shortest Path
(same for all For router X x
routers)
B
A B
A

C Dijkstra’s algorithm
C
D
E D
E

F
G F
H
G
H

Assume all links are Ethernet, with an OSPF cost of 10

 Misc: How to assign the Cost Metric?
Choice of link cost defines traffic load
Low cost = high probability link belongs to SPT (shortest
path tree) and will attract traffic
Tradeoff: convergence vs load distribution
Avoid oscillations
Achieve good network utilization
Static metrics (weighted hop count)
Does not take traffic load (demand) into account.
Dynamic metrics (cost based upon queue or delay etc)
Highly oscillatory, very hard to dampen (DARPAnet
experience)
Quasi-static metric:
Reassign static metrics based upon overall network load
(demand matrix), assumed to be quasi-stationary
 Summary: Distributed Routing
Techniques
Link State Vectoring

Topology information is flooded Each router knows little about

within the routing domain network topology
Best end-to-end paths are Only best next-hops are chosen
computed locally at each by each router for each
router. destination network.
Best end-to-end paths Best end-to-end paths result
determine next-hops. from composition of all next-
Based on minimizing some hop choices
notion of distance Does not require any notion of
Works only if policy is shared distance
and uniform Does not require uniform
Examples: OSPF, IS-IS policies at all routers
Examples: RIP, BGP
INTERNET PROTOCOLS
 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• TCP layer creates connection between sender

and receiver using port numbers
– The port number identifies a particular application
on a particular device (IP address)
• TCP can multiplex multiple connections (using
port numbers) over a single IP line

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 38
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• A transport layer protocol used in place of TCP

• Where TCP supports a connection-oriented
application, UDP is used with connectionless
applications
• UDP also encapsulates a header onto an
application packet but the header is much
simpler than TCP, hence faster
• Used for streaming, DNS, etc

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
339
 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
(continued)
• The TCP layer can ensure that the receiver is
not overrun with data (end-to-end flow control)
using the Window field
• TCP can perform end-to-end error correction
– Checksum
• TCP allows for the sending of high priority data
– Urgent Pointer

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 40
 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 41
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• ICMP
– Used by routers and nodes
– Performs error reporting for the Internet Protocol
• ICMP reports errors such as invalid IP address,
invalid port address, and the packet has hopped
too many times

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 42
 Multiprotocol Label Switching

• An additional layer often added below IP

• Used to move Internet packets more quickly
through routers
• By using the MPLS label, the router does not
have to “dig in” so deep to retrieve IP address
• The 20-bit Label field is the key identifier that
connects this packet with a particular flow of
packets

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
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 Multiprotocol Label Switching

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
444
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• When an IP packet has traversed the Internet

and encounters the destination LAN, how does
the packet find the destination workstation?
• Even though destination workstation may have
an IP address, a LAN does not use IP addresses
to deliver frames
– A LAN uses MAC layer address
• ARP translates IP address into MAC layer
address so frame can be delivered to proper
workstation
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
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 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)-cont

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
446
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
• An IP address can be assigned to a workstation
permanently (static assignment) or dynamically
– Dynamic IP address assignment is a more
efficient use of scarce IP addresses
– When DHCP client issues an IP request, DHCP
server looks in its static table
• If no entry exists, server selects an IP address
from available pool

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
447
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) (continued)
• The address assigned by DHCP server is
temporary
– Part of agreement includes specific period of time
• If no time period specified, the default is one hour
– DHCP clients may negotiate for a renewal before
the time period expires

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
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 Network Address Translation (NAT)

• NAT lets router represent entire local area

network to Internet as single IP address
– Thus, all traffic leaving LAN appears as
originating from global IP address
– All traffic coming into this LAN uses this global IP
address
• This security feature allows a LAN to hide all the
workstation IP addresses from the Internet

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
449
 Network Address Translation (NAT)
(continued)
• Since the outside world cannot see into LAN,
you do not need to use registered IP addresses
on inside LAN
• We can use the following blocks of addresses
for private use:
– [Link] – [Link]
– [Link] – [Link]
– [Link] – [Link]

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
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 Network Address Translation (NAT)
(continued)
• When a user on inside sends packet to outside,
the NAT interface changes the user’s inside
address to global IP address
– This change is stored in a cache
• When the response comes back, the NAT looks
in cache and switches the addresses back
– If not the packet is dropped
• Unless NAT has a service table of fixed IP address
mappings
– This service table allows packets to originate from
the outside

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
551
 NAT: network address translation

rest of local network

Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 [Link]

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

all datagrams leaving local datagrams with source or

network have same single destination in this network
source NAT IP address: have 10.0.0/24 address for
[Link],different source source, destination (as usual)
port numbers
5 4-52
 Tunneling Protocols and Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs)
• The Internet is not normally a secure system
• If person wants to use Internet to access
corporate computer system, how can a secure
connection be created?
– One possible technique is by creating a virtual
private network (VPN)
• VPN creates a secure connection through the
Internet by using a tunneling protocol

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
553
 The World Wide Web

• The World Wide Web (WWW) – immense

collection of web pages and other resources that
can be downloaded across the Internet and
displayed on a workstation via a web browser
and is the most popular service on the Internet
• Basic web pages are created with the Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML)
• Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) is protocol
to transfer a web page

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
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 Locating a Document on the Internet
(continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
555
 Domain Name System
The Domain Name System (DNS) is the “phone book
for the Internet”
Translates human-friendly hostnames into IP
addresses
Every domain name entry within a top-level domain
list (e.g., the .com “phone book”) must be unique
There is a single organization that controls each top-
level list and makes sure that no duplicates arise
E.g., the .com list is managed by the firm Network
Solutions

5
 Domain Name System

Lower-level domains are controlled independently.

For example, Microsoft “owns” hundreds of
thousands of IP addresses and host names
e,g,, Microsoft maintains its own list (and DNS) for
the [Link] domain name space, e.g.,
[Link]

5
 Root level

Domain Name System has

5
“tree structure”
 Top-level domains:
.com, .edu,
.gov, .net, .org, etc.

Domain Name System has

5
“tree structure”
 Second-level domains:
[Link], [Link],
[Link], etc.

Domain Name System has

6
“tree structure”
 DNS – Domain Name “Server”

There are servers throughout the Internet that keep track of all the
names and their associated “phone numbers” (read, IP
addresses).
Such a server is called a Domain Name Server
Or, simply: DNS – note reuse of same acronym
A DNS accepts requests from programs & other DNS to convert
domain names into IP addresses
Interesting aspect of the DNS system -- it is completely distributed
throughout the world on millions of machines, yet behaves like
a single, integrated database!
How does it work?
…How do you lookup a name in this global “Internet phone book?”
It starts with your local DNS.
Local DNS: The name server that is your machine’s first contact
when converting domain names to IP addresses.
6
Your PC’s domain name resolution process from
your apartment

Step 2: IP address of
Step 1: IP address of
[Link] ?
[Link]?
Root name
Step 3: IP address of server
[Link]?

Local name I don’t

Here’s the IP server Step 4: IP address of know but I’ll tell
[Link]?you the server that
address! handles .edu DNS’s
Response: I .edu name
don’t know server
but let me
look for it… Here is the I don’t know but I’ll tell
[Link] you the server that
webserver IPhandles [Link]
[Link] name
address! names 6
server
 Web server basics

A standard web-server needs:

1. A public IP address (one outside of the 3
aforementioned private-IP ranges);
…and, assuming the server will be accessible via a domain
name:
2. a corresponding domain name registered within the
Domain Name System
3. software that listens for and responds to requests for
web-page files

6
 Choosing a domain name
 Consider making your company’s website name…
 “extensible”
 e.g., what does [Link] have to do with books?
 Memorable, Short

 The top level domain (TLD) is very significant

 Country Code Domains (.uk, .de, .jp, .us, etc.)
 Generic Domains (.aero, .asia, .biz, .cat, .com,
.coop, .edu, .gov, .info, .jobs, .mobi, .int, .mil,
.museum, .name, .net, .org, .pro, .tel and .travel)
 “the marketplace has spoken” - .com is best

6
 Choosing a domain name

 Generally people advise avoiding:

 Trademarks
 Hyphens
 Numbers
 One may not be enough
 Multiple markets may imply multiple names/sites
 Choose/register the name(s) sooner rather than
later
 It’s a global market, with lots of names, but lots of interested
parties as well

6
 Buying the name

 Buying a domain name is referred to as “registering the

domain”
 It’s actually a lease, not a purchase

 You register the domain via a company called a

domain name registrar
 Lease timeframe generally ranges from 1 year to 10
years
 Price per year ranges from ~$5 to ~$20
 Research the registrar before you choose (avoid scams)

6
 Buying the name
 Current lessee has the option to renew name before end
of lease
 And, most good names are already being leased!
 How do you check if a name is available?
 Any registrar’s site will have a “WHO-IS” search capability that
searches the DNS for top-level domains

 How do you check details of lessee?

 Check registration details within “WHOIS” search
 Lessee can pay for private registration, in which case you won’t see
their details

6
 Managing domain names

When in a company, be aware of who is listed as the

contact person/registrant for the domain name
What if that person leaves the company or is fired?
If you don’t managed such transitions well, that person can make it
very difficult for you to get your domain name back under your
control
If you are thinking about having your own company, you
should registering your domains(s), not an IT person

6
 Let’s register our own domain names

We will visit [Link] to try the name

registration
Reputable, world’s largest registrar
Good pricing, sometimes discounts are significant
Aside: Use code LKSRTL295J to get .com name
for $3 (normally $11)
1 year registration is all that is required, no
additional features are needed (although Private
Registration is nice $8 option as it hides your
details from a WhoIs search)

6
 Agenda

Understand how the domain name system

functions, and how to acquire a domain name
Register your own domain name
Investigate webserver administration
Hosting account
Configure domain name to hosting account
Configure email addresses in hosting account
Install database-driven web application (ex.:
Wordpress)
File management and database admin tools
7
 Web hosting

To run a website via some webserver, you need to be able

to put your website files (.html or other) on that server’s
hard disk so the webserver software can send those
files out based on web-browsing requests
How do you put your web files on a web-servers hard
drive?
1. Use a server-side application (e.g., nano editor we used) to
directly create content on the server, or
2. Copy content from our local hard-drive to the server’s hard-
drive via FTP
Either approach will require that you have an account
on the webserver

7
 Web hosting

The two most popular webserver operating systems are

Unix and Windows
Unix is most popular
A web hosting company can give an account on their
server. E.g., BlueHost, DreamHost, Arvixe, TMDhosting
Typical price is around $10/month to get started, prices
increase with additional bandwidth/processing power
Free hosting is available, e.g. Duckid for Univ of Oregon
No warranty or service plans… but it’s free 
Username will be something like w13duckid
duckid will be replaced by your duckid

7
 Web hosting
A web hosting account has several initial key pieces of information
associated with it:
username (in this case, based on DuckID, as per last slide)
password (you will choose, can change later)
domain name with extension (e.g., .com)
email address (for confirmation)

Your username and password will actually be used to create two

accounts (both on the same remote server box):
• A web server account
• An FTP server account

7
 Web hosting

Once the accounts is set up…

…you can log in via FTP (e.g., FileZilla)
[Link]
…you can log in via HTTP (e.g., FireFox)
[Link] [Link]
Example of account quotas
File storage: 250MB
Bandwidth: 2.5GB/month
In this case audio/video and even large photo files should
be stored elsewhere
E.g., photos on flickr, video on Vimeo, etc.
Limits are enough for us to learn about server admin and
get a Wordpress blog going

7
 Web hosting

Logging in via:
[Link] [Link]
…shows your webserver
account “Control Panel”
Next use
GoDaddy to point
our new domain
name at our new
webhosting account

7
 Point domain name to web server
tell the Registrar (GoDaddy, in this case) what Domain Name
Server is the one that knows about our web hosting account
The Domain Name Server affiliated with our web hosting server
has the name:
[Link]
..and a back-up server: [Link]
go into GoDaddy account and configure our new domain name
with those two DNS server names
In GoDaddy:
All ProductsDomainsDomain Management
Click on your Domain Name and then click on
“Set Nameservers” near lower left
Then enter the two name servers listed above

7
Point domain name to web server

7
Point domain name to web server

7
 Access using browser

Not much will be there…

7
 Managing email accounts
Use cPanel to manage email accounts

8
Install database-driven software app: WP

cPanel includes some convenient scripts (coding) for installing

large software applications within your account
Wordpress is one popular app that can be installed easily
A “manual” install of Wordpress is said to take only 5 minutes, but it
usually takes longer, so let’s use the more automated approach
via the cPanel Wordpress installer
To begin the Wordpress install, click on Wordress icon under the
Scripts heading

8
WP admin interface

8
 cPanel file and database management

An FTP app such as

FileZilla provides the
fastest approach to
managing your files on
a server
If you have a web hosting
account with cPanel
access, then the
cPanel File Manager
app provides a nice
alternative (via an
HTTP browser, e.g.,
Firefox) 8
INTERNET SERVICES

8
 Internet Services
• The Internet provides many types of services, including
several very common ones:
– Electronic mail (e-mail)
– File transfer protocol (FTP)
– Remote login (Telnet)
– Internet telephony
– Listservs
– Usenet
– Streaming audio and video
– Instant Messaging

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
885
 The Internet and Business

• E-Commerce – the buying and selling of goods

and services via the Internet
• Many agree that e-commerce consists of four
major areas:
– E-retailing
– Electronic data interchange (EDI)
– Micro-marketing
– Internet security

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
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 Cookies and State Information

• A cookie is data created by a Web server that is

stored on the hard drive of a user’s workstation
– This state information is used to track a user’s
activity and to predict future needs
– Mostly for convenience in business transaction
• Information on previous viewing habits stored in
a cookie can also be used by other Web sites to
provide customized content
• Many consider cookies to be an invasion of
privacy

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
887
 Cookies and State Information

client server

ebay 8734
usual http request msg Amazon server
cookie file creates ID
usual http response
1678 for user create backend
ebay 8734
set-cookie: 1678 entry database
amazon 1678
usual http request msg
cookie: 1678 cookie- access
specific
usual http response msg action

one week later:

access
ebay 8734 usual http request msg
amazon 1678 cookie: 1678 cookie- Application Layer
specific
usual http response msg action
8 2-88
 Intranets and Extranets

• An intranet is a TCP/IP network inside a

company that allow employees to access the
company’s information resources through an
Internet-like interface
• When an intranet is extended outside the
corporate walls to include suppliers, customers,
or other external agents, the intranet becomes
an extranet

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition
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Internet Services in the Market

9
 INTERNET GOVERNANCE: Definition

Internet governance is the development and

application by governments, the private sector,
and civil society, in their respective roles, of
shared principles, norms, rules, decision making
procedures, and programs that shape the
evolution and use of the Internet

9
 Evolution of Internet Governance

• Early days [1960 – 1994]

• DARPA net initiated late 1960
• TCP/IP invented mid 1970
• IETF established 1986
• DNS war [1994 – 1998]
• 1994 DNS was subcon’d to Network Solutions by
NSF
• 1998 established ICANN

9
 Evolution .. (cont)

• World Summit on Information Society (2003-

2005)
• WSIS 2003 didnot resolve IG issues. WGIG
formed
• WSIS 2005 (Tunis) adopted WGIG report, and
established IG Forum
• Global IGHs and Continuous reviews on the
WSIS process [2006 – today]

9
Infrastructure and Standardizations

9
IP Address distribution mechanism

ICANN (US NPO) assigned by IANA (under IAB)

9
IP address administrators

9
 Registrar di Indonesia

• APJII (IDNIC, 1997) & id-TLD

• 2005 IPTEKNET
• 2006 PANDI: [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link],
[Link] dan [Link]
• Direktorat E-Government : [Link] & [Link]

9
9
9
1
1
Thank You

1
 A: 200 Mbps ID-Ren Ind
B: 200 Mbps ID-Ren Mora
Internet C: 5 Gbps IP-transit Ind
Internet
D: 5 Gbps IP-transit Mora
E: 1 Gbps Domestik OpenIXP

A C
B C E

1 Gbps Server
Router
Inherent UI 10 Gbps 10 Gbps Farm
Switch
Router BGP DMZ Router

Server
10 Gbps 10 Gbps Farm
Switch

Router UI

Trunk Switch
Wifi Router Router untuk PC dg
basis jaringan kabel
UTP
Fakultas 1 Fakultas 2 Fakultas 3 PAU
Trunk Switch

Jaringan Wifi Seluruh

UI

VLAN Fak 1 VLAN Fak 2 VLAN Fak 3 VLAN Fak 4 VLAN PAU

Aruba Controller
1
 Chapter Six

Network Security and Network Design

 After reading this chapter,
you should be able to:
 Recognize the basic forms of system attacks
 Recognize the concepts underlying physical
protection measures
 Outline the basic features of public key cryptography,
Advanced Encryption Standard, digital signatures, and
the public key infrastructure
 Cite the techniques used to secure communications
 Describe the differences between the frequency hopping
 Outline the steps to design a network

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 2
 Introduction

 While computer systems today have some of the

best security systems ever, they are more
vulnerable than ever before
 This vulnerability stems from the world-wide
access to computer systems via the Internet
 Computer and network security comes in many
forms, including encryption algorithms, access to
facilities, digital signatures, and using
fingerprints and face scans as passwords

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 3
 Security? What is that?
 MAIN IDEA: PREVENT ILLEGAL ENTRY
 NORMALLY THROUGH LOGIN OR PORTS
 Computers are complex programmable machines
 Whoever programs them controls them (and not you)
 No guarantees that there is no flaws
 No clear definitions of doors/walls/windows/roofs/etc
 Networks are ubiquitous
 Carries genuine/good as well as bad/malicious traffic
 Bottom line:
Complete computer security is unattainable,
it is a cat and mouse game
 Similar to crime vs. law enforcement
 Goals of Computer Security (CIA+)

 Confidentiality
 The information must just be accessible to the
authorized people
 Integrity:
 Guarantee that the data is what we expect
 Availability
 Guarantee that data can be accessed when needed
 Plus others: authenticity, Reliability, etc
 Authentication (ID Check)

 What you KNOW (password, etc)

 What you HAVE (token)
 What you ARE (bio metrics)

 At least ONE factor must be used

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 6
 Passwords and ID Systems

 Passwords are the most common form of

security and the most abused
 Simple rules help support safe passwords,
including:
 Change your password often
 Pick a good, random password (minimum 8
characters, mixed symbols)
 Don’t share passwords or write them down
 Don’t select names and familiar objects as
passwords

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 7
 Access Control

 Once Bob is authenticated by system, then the

system must restrict actions of Bob
 Bob can’t view Charlie’s account info
 Bob can’t install new software, etc.

 Enforcing these restrictions: authorization

 Access control includes both authentication
and authorization

8
 Access Rights

 Two basic questions to access rights:

 Who and how?
 Who do you give access rights to?
 No one, group of users, entire set of users?
 How does a user or group of users have
access?
 Read, write, delete, print, copy, execute?
 Most network operating systems have a
powerful system for assigning access rights

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 9
 Access Rights (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 10
 Computer Security Issues

 Vulnerability is a point where a system is

susceptible to attack. It must be found!
 A threat is a possible danger to the system. The
danger might be a person (a system cracker or
a spy), a thing (a faulty piece of equipment), or
an event (a fire or a flood) that might exploit a
vulnerability of the system.
 Assets: valuable information and services
 Countermeasures are techniques for protecting
your assets
The Hacking Cycle

Patch
Risk available

Vulnerability
widely known
Vulnerabilitiy fixed
(Patch installed)

Vulnerability
detected

Vulnerability React fast to reduce

Vulnerability announced time of high risk
not known Time
days …
days ... weeks
months
Anatomy of a Hack - Details
Footprinting (gather target information)
 names, addresses, system types, ...
Information Gathering

passive
Fingerprinting (identify topologies & systems)
 network layout, operating systems, services
Sniffing (collect network traffic) passive
 addresses, names, information (passwords, ...) or
Enumeration (collect access information) active
 list of user accounts, share names, …

Scanning (detect systems and services) active

 response from network stack, applications, ...

Gain Access (use passwords, vulnerabilities)

 make unavailable
 access to accounts, resources, ...

 read,
 write,
Escalate privileges (pilfering, vulnerab.)
 admin, root access, ...

Create Backdoors (install programs)

 batch jobs, remote control, services, sniffers, ...

Cover Tracks (clear logs, hide tools)

 no traces (root kits)
 Some Types of Attacks
 What are some common attacks?
 Network Attacks
 Packet sniffing, man-in-the-middle, DNS hacking
 DOS, DDOS
 Web attacks
 Phishing, SQL Injection, Cross Site Scripting
 OS, applications and software attacks
 Virus, Trojan, Worms, Rootkits, Buffer Overflow
 Social Engineering
 (NOT social networking)
 Not all hackers are evil wrongdoers trying to steal your info
 Ethical Hackers, Consultants, Penetration testers, Researchers
 Password Attacks
 Password Guessing
 Ineffective except in targeted cases
 Dictionary Attacks
 Password are stored in computers as hashes, and these hashes
can sometimes get exposed
 Check all known words with the stored hashes
 Rainbow Tables
 Trade off storage and computation – uses a large number of pre-
computed hashes without having a dictionary
 Innovative algorithm, that can find passwords fast!
 e.g. 14 character alphanumeric passwords are found in about 4-10
minutes of computing using a 1GB rainbow table

Need to know:
Data structures, algorithms, cryptography
 Social Engineering

*[Link]
 Social Engineering

 Why is this social engineering?

 Manipulating a person or persons into divulging confidential information

 I am not dumb, so does this really apply to me?

 YES! Attackers are ALSO not dumb.
 Social Engineers are coming up with much better and much more
elaborate schemes to attack users.
 Even corporate executives can be tricked into revealing VERY secret info

 What can I do to protect myself?

 NEVER give out your password to ANYBODY.
 Any system administrator should have the ability to change your
password without having to know an old password

Need to know:
How to win friends (victims) and influence (scam)
people (not CS).
 Social engineering

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 19
 Cyberwar: Stuxnet (2009)

 A worm that spreads via USB drives

 Exploits a previously unknown vulnerability in
Windows
 Trojan backdoor
that looks for a
specific software
created by Siemens
Stuxnet: Natanz, we have a problem.
 Stuxnet: How it works (I)
 An infected USB stick was infiltrated
into the plant either by malicious act
or through social engineering.
 Once inserted into a Windows PC, the stick
tried to compromize the O/S with up to
4(!) zero-day exploits (worth >$100k).
 There were 4-5 evolutions starting 6/2009.
 Infected 100.000 PCs (60% Iran,10% Indonesia).
 Using “rootkit” technologies and two stolen
certificates, it hid from being detected.
 It tried to infect other hosts and
establish a P2P connection “home”.

So far, nothing new:

A standard,
but expensive virus!
 Stuxnet: How it works (II)
 Stuxnet then checked the local
configuration looking for the presence
of Siemens PCS7/STEP7/WINCC
SCADA software.
 If so, it copied itself into the local
STEP7 project folder (to propagate
further).
 It replaced the S7 communication
libraries (DLLs) used for exchanging
data with a PLC.
 Stuxnet can now manipulate valuesistonow the
Stuxnet
be send to the PLC or displayed“Man in bythe
theMiddle”
SCADA. controlling the communication
between SCADA & PLC.
 Stuxnet: How it works (III)
 Next, Stuxnet was
“fingerprinting” connected PLCs.
 If right PLC configuration, it
downloaded/replaced code
between 17 and 32 FBs & DBs.

This code varied the rotational

speed of the centrifuges over
months wearing them out and
inhibiting uranium enrichment.

The “Man in the Middle”

made everything looked fine at
the SCADA level…
 Stuxnet: What we can learn

 High-profile government-sponsored malware

and attacks exist
 Deploy of Defense-in-Depth protection
 Establish security cells on your network
 Forbid usage of USB keys and other
media/shares
 Teach your experts about “Social engineering”
 Keep your systems up-to-date and protected
 Hacker Type
 White Hat: non-malicious intent A white hat that does vulnerability
assessments and penetration tests is also known as an ethical
hacker.
 Black Hat: has malicious intent His malevolent purposes can range
from all sorts cybercrimes such as piracy, identity theft, credit card
fraud, vandalism, and so forth.
 Grey Hat: A grey hat hacker is someone who exhibits traits from
both white hats and black hats.
 Elite Hacker: As with any society, better than average hacker
 Script Kiddie: A script kiddie is basically an amateur or non-expert
hacker wannabe who breaks into people's computer systems not
through his knowledge in IT security

Read more: [Link]

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 26
 VULNERABILITIES, ATTACKS, THREATS

SECURITY ISSUES
[Link]

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 27
 Physical Protection

 Protection from environmental damage such as

floods, earthquakes, and heat
 Physical security such as locking rooms, locking
down computers, keyboards, and other devices
 Electrical protection from power surges
 Noise protection from placing computers away
from devices that generate electromagnetic
interference

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 28
 Surveillance

 Proper placement of security cameras can deter

theft and vandalism
 Cameras can also provide a record of activities
 Intrusion detection is a field of study in which
specialists try to prevent intrusion and try to
determine if a computer system has been
violated
 Honeypot is an indirect form of surveillance
 Network personnel create a trap, watching for
unscrupulous activity

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 29
 NETWORK SECURITY

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 30
 Securing Communications

 Some coding techniques help secure the

transfer of data because it scrambles the signal
as it is being transmitted, i.e. spread spectrum
technology
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
 Direct sequence Spread Spectrum (e.g. CDMA)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 31
 Wireless Security

 How do you make a wireless LAN secure?

 WEP (Wired Equivalency Protocol) was the first
security protocol used with wireless LANs
 It had weak 40-bit static keys and was too easy to
break
 WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) replaced WEP
 Major improvement including dynamic key
encryption and mutual authentication for wireless
clients

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 32
 Wireless Security (continued)

 Both of these should eventually give way to a

new protocol created by the IEEE
 IEEE 802.11i, Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2)
 802.11i allows keys, encryption algorithms, and
negotiation to be dynamically assigned
 Also, Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
encryption based on the Rijndael algorithm with
128-, 192-, or 256-bit keys is incorporated

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 33
 Network Firewall
 Router/Bridge based Firewall
 A firewall running on a bridge or a router protects from a
group of devices to an entire network. Cisco has firewall
feature sets in their IOS operating system.
 Computer-based Network Firewall
 A network firewall runs on a computer (such as a PC or
Unix computer).
 Many free products are available including IPFilter , PF
(found on OpenBSD 3.0 and later) and IPTables (found on
Linux).
 Commercial products include: Checkpoint Firewall-1.
Apple OSX includes IPFW (part of OS).
 Why use Firewall
 Protect a wide range of machines from general probes and
many attacks including machines lacking in security.
34
 How does a firewall work?

Blocks packets based on:

Source IP Address or range of addresses.
Source IP Port
Destination IP Address or range of addresses.
Destination IP Port
Some allow higher layers up the OSI model.
Other protocols (How would you filter DecNET anyway?).
Common ports
80 HTTP
443 HTTPS
20 & 21 FTP (didn’t know 20 was for FTP, did you?)
23 Telnet
22 SSH
25 SMTP

35
 Sample rules:
Can you find the problem?
(For this example, when a rules matches a packet, rule processing stops.)

Pass in on $external from any proto tcp to [Link] port = 80

Pass in on $external from any proto tcp to [Link] port = 53
Pass in on $external from any proto udp to [Link] port = 53
Pass in on $external from any proto tcp to [Link] port = 25
Block in log on $external from any to [Link]
Block in on $external from any to [Link]/24
Pass in on $external from any proto tcp to [Link] port = 22
Pass out on $internal from [Link]/24 to any keep state

The SSH rule would never have a chance to be evaluated. All

traffic to [Link] is blocked with the previous two rules.

36
 SECURITY POLICY AND
MANAGEMENT
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 37
 Attackers Advantage
It is faster to attack than to discover!

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 38
 Can you achieve 100% security? Never!
 users have to practice “safe computing”
 Not downloading from unsafe websites
 Not opening attachments
 Not trusting what you see on websites
 Avoiding Scams
 Intruder succeed by chance  LUCK
 Good guys succeed by thoroughness (have to
protect everything all the time) HARD WORK
 Follow the standard (Cobit, ISO, etc)
 Awareness and Certifications
 Working together (CERTs, etc)
 Security Policy Design Issues

 What is the company’s desired level of security?

 How much money is the company willing to
invest in security?
 If the company is serious about restricting
access through an Internet link, what about
restricting access through all other entry ways?
 The company must have a well-designed
security policy.
 Balancing RISK vs PROTECTION

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 40
RISK > PROTECTION

41
 RISK < PROTECTION

Risk changed to losing the LOCK! 42

 Auditing

 Creating a computer or paper audit can help

detect wrongdoing
 Auditing can also be used as a deterrent/prevent
 Many network operating systems allow the
administrator to audit most types of transactions
 Many types of criminals have been caught
because of computer-based audits

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 43
 Auditing (continued)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 44
 CRYPTO TECHNIQUES

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 45
 Definitions

 Cryptography – study of creating and using

encryption and decryption techniques
 Plaintext – data before any encryption has been
performed
 Ciphertext – data after encryption has been
performed
 The key is the unique piece of information that is
used to create ciphertext and decrypt the
ciphertext back into plaintext

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 46
 What is Encryption?

 Transform information such that its true meaning

is hidden
 Requires “special knowledge” to retrieve the
information
 Examples
 AES, 3DES, RC4, ROT-13, …
 Types of Encryption Schemes

Ciphers

Classical Modern
Rotor Machines

Substitution Transposition Public Key Secret Key

Steganography
Stream Block
Monoalphabetic Substitution-Based Ciphers

 Monoalphabetic substitution-based ciphers

replace a character or characters with a different
character or characters, based upon some key
 Replacing: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
With (key): POIUYTREWQLKJHGFDSAMNBVCX
 The message: how about lunch at noon
encodes into EGVPO GNMKN HIEPM HGGH
 Strength (key space): 26 x 26
 Caesar cypher, 56 AD

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 49
 Steganography

 The art and science of hiding information inside

other, seemingly ordinary messages or
documents
 Unlike sending an encrypted message, you do
not know when steganography is hiding a secret
message within a document
 Examples include creating a watermark over an
image or taking “random” pixels from an image
and replacing them with the hidden data

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 50
 ENIGMA Technology (1930)

 Typewriter style cipher machine was

a major advance in ease of use and
cryptologic strength
 Innovation was the electro-
mechanical rotors
 Rotors turn odometer style, giving a
new cipher algorithm for each letter in
a message
 No printing capability
 Keyspace 3x10114 , better the 56bit
DES standard 2002
 Broken by Alan Turing

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 51
 ENIGMA Wiring Diagram ( example of A encoding to H )
Left Middle Right Entry
Reflector Rotor Rotor Rotor Drum

B
F
J M

P X O
N

Q W E R T Z U I O - B
A
T
Light Panel H T
A S D F G H J K E
R
P Y X C V B N M L + Y

Q W E R T Z U I O
Keyboard A S D F G J K
A H
P Y X C V B N M L

Q W E R T Z U I O
A S D F G H J K O
Plugboard
P Y X C V B N M L
The History and Technology of the Enigma Cipher Machine M 52
Copyright © 2016 [Link] and [Link]
 Data Encryption Standard
 Created in 1977 and in operation into the 1990s, the
Data Encryption Standard took a 64-bit block of data and
subjected it to 16 levels of encryption
 The choice of encryption performed at each of the 16
levels depends on the 56-bit key applied
 Even though 56 bits provides over 72 quadrillion
combinations, a system using this standard has been
cracked (in 1998 by Electronic Frontier Foundation in 3
days)
 Enhanced by 3DES (triple DES) in 1998, effectively
tripling key size. Heavy computation!
 Only used by legacy devices.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 53
 Advanced Encryption Standard

 Selected by the U.S. government to replace DES

 National Institute of Standards and Technology selected
the algorithm Rijndael (pronounced rain-doll) in October
2000 as the basis
 Has more elegant mathematical formulas, requires only
one pass, and was designed to be fast, unbreakable,
and able to support even the smallest computing device
 key space contains 2256 (or 1.1579 × 1077) possible keys.
Cracking time: 149T yrs (if the machine crack 1 DES
key/sec).

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 54
 Public Key Cryptography (PKC)

 Very powerful encryption technique in which two

keys are used
 First key (the public key) encrypts the message
 Second key (the private key) decrypts the message
 Not possible to deduce one key from the other
 Not possible to break code given public key
 If you want someone to send you secure data, give
them your public key, you keep the private key
 Secure Sockets Layer on the Internet is a common
example of public key cryptography

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 55
 Public Key Infrastructure

 Combination of encryption techniques, software,

and services that involves all the necessary
pieces to support digital certificates,
certificate authorities, and public key
generation, storage, and management
 A certificate, or digital certificate, is an
electronic document, similar to a passport, that
establishes your credentials when you are
performing transactions

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 56
 Public Key Infrastructure (continued)

 A digital certificate contains your name, serial

number, expiration dates, copy of your public
key, and digital signature of certificate-issuing
authority.
 Certificates are usually kept in a registry so other
users may check them for authenticity.

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 57
 Public Key Infrastructure (continued)

 Certificates are issued by a certificate authority

(CA)
 A CA is either specialized software on a company
network or a trusted third party
 Let’s say you want to order something over the
Internet
 The Web site wants to make sure you are legit,
so the Web server requests your browser to sign
the order with your private key (obtained from
your certificate)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 58
 Public Key Infrastructure (continued)

 Let’s say you want to order something over the

Internet (continued)
 The Web server then requests your certificate
from the third party CA, validates that certificate
by verifying third party’s signature, then uses that
certificate to validate the signature on your order
 The user can do the same procedure to make
sure the Web server is not a bogus operation
 A certificate revocation list is used to “deactivate”
a user’s certificate
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 59
 Registration authority (RA), validation authority (VA), a certificate
authority (CA)
 Certificate Management
Stakeholders

S3 S4
S1 S2

Certificate
Generator

C4(S4)
C1(S1)

C2(S2) C3(S3)

Certificate Servers

Certificate
manager Search based on resource Hash
name, user DN, and attribute Generator
 Alternative: Pretty Good Privacy

 Use “Web of Trust”

 Instead of a single root certificate authority, each
person has a set of keys they “trust”
 If public-key certificate is signed by one of the
“trusted” keys, the public key contained in it will
be deemed valid
 Trust can be transitive
 Can use certified keys for further certification

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 62
 Alternative: Kerberos

 Mediated authentication by KDC (Key distribution

Center), using tickets.
 Each user and service registers a secret (symmetric) key
with the KDC. Everyone trusts the KDC
 “Put all your eggs in one basket, and then watch that basket very
carefully” - Anonymous Mark Twain
 The user’s key is derived from a password, by applying a
hash function. The service key is a large random
number, and stored on the server
 Enhancements
 Two factors
 Public Key Crypto
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 63
Overview of Kerberos

64
 Kerberos Weaknesses and Solutions

If Ticket Granting Ticket is Only a problem until

stolen, can be used to ticket expires in a few
access network services. hours.

Subject to dictionary attack. Timestamps require

hacker to guess in 5
minutes.

Very bad if Authentication Physical protection

Server (KDC) compromised. for the server.
 Digital Signatures
 Document to be signed is sent through a complex
mathematical computation that generates a hash
 Hash is encoded with owner’s private key then
stored
 To prove future ownership, stored hash is decoded
using the owner’s public key and that hash is
compared with a current hash of the document
 If the two hashes agree, document belongs to the
owner
 U.S. accepts digitally signed documents as legal
proof (for some types of documents)

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 66
Interesting sites

1. DATA BREACH VISUALITATION

[Link]
breaches-hacks/

2. BLACKMARKET

[Link]
trade-stolen-data-malware-and-attack-services
 NETWORK DESIGN

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 68
 NETWORK DESIGN

 Design goals
 Design choices
 Design approaches
 The design process
 Capacity planning
 Design goals

 Good designs should:

 Deliver services requested by users
 Deliver acceptable throughput and response times
 Be within budget and maximise cost efficiencies
 Be reliable
 Be expandable without major redesign
 Be manageable by maintenance and support staff
 Be well documented
 Design Choices

 Balance of distribution
 Level of transparency
 Security
 Connectivity technology
 Green technology (esp. low power)
 Design approaches

 Two typical methods

 Traditional analytic design
 Building block approach
 Both use a similar iterative approach
 Design Stages - Agree requirements

 Engage end users

 Translate requirements
 Business objectives –> technical specification
 Phasing the requirements
 Right level of detail at each design stage
 Designing the requirements
Design Stages - Designing the requirements

 Aim for completeness

 Prioritise with a hierarchical system such as
 [M] - Mandatory
 [H] – Highly desirable
 [D] - Desirable
 [N] - Note
 Design Stages - Assessing requirements

 Consider all aspects

 E.g. support & maintenance, depreciation,
commissioning costs, project management fees, h/w
& s/w upgrade costs, b/w/ costs, consultancy charges
– over the lifetime of the network
 Weighted matrix multipliers
 M=100, H=10, D=1, N=0
 Produce scores and rank suppliers
 Design Stages - Information
gathering
 Need to find details of user behaviour, application use
and location information for example:
 User: location, numbers, services used, typical access
 Sites: number, location, constraints on traffic (security, political or
cost)
 Servers and services: location, level of distribution
 WAN/backbone predicted link traffic
 Protocol support: bridged, routed or switched – Gateways needed?
 Legacy support: equipment, protocols or services
 Specific availability needs? 24-hour/backup links etc
 Five-year plan – changes to population or business requirements
 Budgetary constraints
 Greenfield or existing site
 Information is refined and leads to a requirements database and
capacity plan
 Design Stages - Site constraints

 Greenfield or
 Greenfield sites have no legacy constraints but…
 It is difficult to determine the real network loads and stresses
 Needs more detail of application use and underlying protocols
 Could use simulation to predict performance
 Existing site
 Limited access
 Access to live network could be restricted but…
 Bottlenecks more obvious
 Can use traffic/network analysis tools
 Design Stages - Planning

 Uses information on
 Hosts, users, services, and their internetworking
needs
 Iterative process of
 Conceptual design
 Analysis
 Refinement
 Involving
 Brainstorming, design reviews, modelling tools
 Leading to final draft design
 Connectivity options

 Technology choices
 LANs (Ethernet, Token ring, ATM)
 MANs (MPLS, FDDI, SMDS, ATM, SONET/SDH)
 WANS (IP routing, Frame relay, ATM, ISDN, X.25,
PDCs, Satellite)
 Wireless (802.11, Bluetooth, GPRS, GSM)
 Dial-up lines
 Serial links
 Connectivity option determinants

 Packet, cell or circuit switching

 Wired or wireless
 Distance
 Performance
 Bandwidth
 Quality of Service
 Availability
Media and bandwidth choices
 Capacity Planning - Outline

 Concerned with
 User response times
 Application behaviour and performance
characteristics
 Network utilisation
 Needed to
 Minimise downtime
 Maximise service to customers
 Minimise costs of procurement and maintenance
 Avoid unscheduled maintenance or re-design
 Avoid costly upgrades and bad publicity
 Capacity Planning - Stages

 Form a discussion group (involve users etc.)

 Quantify user behaviour
 Quantify Application behaviour
 Baseline existing network
 Traffic profiles
 Make traffic projections
 Summarize input data for design process
 Assess other data (environmental, location
restrictions, deployment constraints etc)
 Capacity Planning – Step 1

 Form a discussion group (involve users etc.)

 Needs wide representation
 Users, network managers, application groups
 To elicit/figure out
 What uses find acceptable and unacceptable
 Map of services and users and details of user behaviour
 Quantify items using
 User and service sizing data
 Snapshots from data capture and network management tools
 Traces of key services using protocol analysers
 Pilot network implementation
 Capacity Planning – Step 2

 Quantify user behaviour

 Need to know population and and location of
users
 Summary of major user groups
 Application use by user group
 Site location data (country, grid ref., town,
postcode, telephone exchange)
 Planned changes
 Capacity Planning – Step 3

 Quantify Application behaviour

 Need to identify
 Applications that could affect performance
 Location and performance of servers and clients
 Key constraints on performance (response times, buffer sizes etc
 And define
 Application behaviour under fault conditions (lost data)
 Addressing mechanisms( broad/multi/unicast)
 Packet characteristics (frame sizes and direction)
 Routable and non-routable services (IP, NETBIOS)
 Undefined applications allow choice of distribution
balance
 Capacity Planning – Step 4

 Baseline existing network

 Baselining – a behavioural profile of the network obtained from
 Packet traces, transaction rates, event logs and stats
 Router ACLs, firewall rulebases
 Inventory of H/W and S/W revisions
 Traffic profiles -Capture data for a stable working network with
details of
 B/w utilization by packet type and protocol
 Packet/frame size distribution
 Background error rates
 Collision rates
 Various tools can be used
 Network and protocol analysers, SNMP data, RMON probes, OS
tools, traceroute, ping etc
 Capacity Planning – Step 5

 Make traffic projections using some, or all of:

 Hand calculation
 Commercial analytical tools to project network
utilisation
 Simulation tools (most detail)
 Capacity Planning – Step 6

 Summarize input data for design process

 Budget
 Database of sites, user populations,
 List of key applications and their behaviour
 Traffic matrix
 Need to consider
 Static or dynamic bandwidth allocation
 Max. Delay and Max. hops between sites
 Resilience, Availability, degree of meshing
 Design constraints and trade-off
 (e.g. delay v cost)
 Good design
 Is an iterative process of continuous refinement
 Is logical and consistent
 Should deliver acceptable performance and cost
metrics (trade-off)
 Is more than choosing the technology!
 End of Security and Design Chapter
Any Question?

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 91