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Applied Chapter 3

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Applied Chapter 3

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abeermunir922
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3.4 3 Reversibl e and Irreversible Processes a C previous chapters the energy equations for non-flow and flow processes re derived, the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility introduced, and the properties of vapours and perfect gases discussed. It is the purpose of this chapter to consider processes in practice, and to combine this with the work of the previous chapters. Reversible non-flow processes Constant volume process ~ In a constant volume process the working substance is contained in a rigid vescel, hence the boundaries of the system are immovable and no work can be done on or by the system, other than paddle-wheel work input. It will be assumed that ‘constant volume’ implies zero work unless stated otherwise. From the non-flow energy equation, (1.4), for unit mass, Q+Wauz-4 Since no work is done, we therefore have Qu ap of for mass, m, of the working substance Q=Ui-Uy (3.2) [All the heat supplied ima constant volume process goes to increasing the internal energy A vonstant volume process for a vapour is shown on a p-t diagram in Fig 31a) The initial and final states have been chosen to be in the wet FeBio® find superheat region respectively, In Fig. 3.1(b) a constant volume procs aoe eee a pt diagram for a perfect gas. For a perfect gas we have from equation (2.13) Q = me tT; - Ti) Reversible and irreversible Processes Fig 31 Constant ’ volume process for 8 vapout and a perlect Bs 2 an ” noe + wees Z Constant pressure process It can be seen from Figs 11a) and 3(b) that when the tarandary of the syste is inflexible a3 in a constant volume proass, then the pressure rises when heat is supplied. Hence for 2 comstant premure prowst the boundary must move against an external resistance as heat is supplied; lor inatanen 2 fivid in a cyfandber behind 2 piston can be mate ty undergo 2 coratant prowvats prowess. Since the piston is pushed through « certain distance by the forex exerted by the Said, then work is done by the fluid on ite vurrourdings. From equation (1.2) for unit mass Wa [ioe for any reversible proces Therelore, since p is constant, We -»{ dom — plo — 64) From the non-flow energy equation. (14), Q+W=u,-4; Hener for 2 reversible constant pressure procs Q m= (uz ~ uh + Ploy ~ 0, ) me (uy + peg) — Mu, + pos) Now from equation (19), enthalpy. hm w+ pe. hence, Dah, -h, (33) ot for mass, m, oh 2 fisid, Q=H,-H, GA) A cmnatant prewure process for 2 vapour is shown on 2 p-e diagram i= Fig 32a), The initial and final states have been choven to be in the wet rego 120 the superheat repion respectively. In Fig 32(b) 2 constant pressure process for a garlect gas it thown on a p-v diagram. For a perfect gas we have from Fig. 3.2 Constant pressure process for a vapour and a perfect gas ’ equation (212), Q=me,(T; - T;) Note that in Figs 32(a) and 3.2(b) the shaded areas represent the work done by the fluid, p(v, — v4). Example 3.1 A mass of 0.05 kg of a fluid is heated at a constani pressure of 2 bar until the volume occupied is 0.0658 m?. Calculate the heat supplied and the work done: (i) when the fluid is steam, initially dry saturated; (ij when the fluid is aie, initially at 130 Solution (i) Initially the steam is dry saturated at 2 bar, heace, 1, at 2 bar = 2707 kI/kg hy = Finally the steam is at 2 bar and the specific volume is given by 0658 by “- = 1.316 m3 /kg. Hence the steam is sup theated finaily. From superkeat tibles at 2 bar and 1.316 m?ykg the temperature of the steam 1s 300°C, and the enthalpy is hy = 3072 KI /ke. Then from equation (3.4) Q =H, — H, = m(h, ~ h,) = 0.05(3072 - 2707) 0.05 x 365 = 18.25 kJ The process is shown on a p-v diagram in Fig, 3.3, = W = p(v; — 0) = shaded area Now 0 =u, at 2 bar = 0.8856 m?/kg, and v; = 1.316m!/kg, Therefore W = —2 x 10%(1.316 ~ 0.8856) = — 86.080 N m/kg. ie. Heat suppl Reversible and Irreversible Processos Fig. 33 Process fora vapour for Example 3.1 ona p-v diagram Fig, 34 Process fora + perfect gas for Example 3.1 ona pre diagram 74 Pressure/(N/m?) LA 08856 1316 Specific volume /(m?/KB) i, Work done by the total mass present = 0.05 x 86080 = 4304 N m = 4.304 kJ) (ii) Using equation (2.6), yw Baa = 2% 10" x 00658, _ 917K 2 MR 0.05 x 0.287 x 10 For a perfect gas undergoing a constant pressure process We have, ftom equation (2.12), . Q=me,(Ts ie. Heat supplied = 0.05 x 1,005(917 — 403) where T, = 130 + 273 = 403 K, ie. ’ Heat supplied = 0.05 x 1,005 x 514 = 25.83 kJ ‘The process is shown on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.4, ic. =W = p(v; — ¥,) = shaded area From equation (2.5), pv = RT, therefore Work done = —R(T; — T,) = —0.287(917 — 403) kJ/kg. Work done by the mass of gas present = 0.05 x 0.287 x 514 = 738k) 2x 104 2 ‘Pressure /(N/m*) Fig. 3.5 Isothermal process for a vapour on a p-» diagram Example 3.2 Solution 3.1 Reversible non-flow processes Constant temperature or isothermal process fegion and superheat region respectively. From state | to State A the pressure remains at p,, since in the wet region the pressure and ‘emperature are the corresponding saturation values. It can be seen therefore that an isothermal process for wet steam is also at cgnstant pressure and equations (3.3) and (3.4) can be used (e.g. heat supplied from state I to state A per kilogram of steam = hy ~ h,), In the superheat region the pressure falls to pz as shown in Fig. 3.5, and the procedure is not so simple. When states 1 and 2 are fixed then the internal energies u, and u; may be obtained from tables. When the property entropy, s, is introduced in Chapter 4, a convenient way of evaluating the heat supplied will be shown, When the heat flow is calculated the work done can then be obtained using the non-flow energy equation, (1.4), for unit mass Q+W=u,-u, a > Len W Ps Yj T=% Va steam at 7 bar and dryness fraction 0.9 expands in a cylinder behind a piston the change of d reversibly to a pressure of 1.5 bar. Calculate t : ind the change of enthalpy per kg of steam. The heat supplied is found to be 547 kJ/kg, by the method of Chapter 4. kilogram of steam. ‘ Cale to ye 6. The saturation temperature corresponding to ae reteseC ‘Therefore the steam is superheated at state 2. The internal Q et vat state | is found by using equation 2.3, = 1 = 09) x 696 + (0.9 x 2573) isothermally an internal energy a! during the proces: je my = (x) tM ns Roversibte and Iereveraitia Procossey, Fig. 88 Loother at PrOOSS ON 4 diagram t 76 therefore wy OMG WT 2785.9 kB toterponauing fom superheat tales at 1.5 oar and 165°C, we have 1s 656 — 2580) = 2380 + 22.8 is uy = 26028 KI/Ag Therefore Gurnin internal erergy =u; = wy = 2602.8 - 23853 = UTS KI /ke hy = hy + hy = 697 + (2.9 x 2067) h therefore : hy = 697 + 1860.3 = 2557.3 kJ/kg Interpolating irom supecheat tables at 1.5 bar and 165 °C, we have hy = 27+ esr ~ 2713) = 2773 + 320 = 2803 kI/kg, He hy hy = 2803 ~ 25973 = 245.7 KI /kg Froni the non-fiow energy equation, (1.4), 2+Wau-u, therefore Ws (uy — uy) - Q = 217.5 — 547 = 329.5 kJ/kg Work done by the system = 329.5 kI/kg i ol! (The work,output is also given by the area on Fi 1p du; this could be evaluaftd graphically inthis care) no on Pe 36 SP ie. 4 Fig. 3.7 _ Isothermal process for a perfect gas on a p-v diagram 3.4 Reversible . ron-fiow An isotuetmal process for tar aani) . (or a porte isothermal process for a vapour cine neg MTE easily relating p. and T-and the intern energy ae" aves fe have, fr po=RT Mt wath than an Ms for a perfect gas ‘Om equation (25), Now when the temperat ire iS constant as in an isothermal pe = RT = constant perenne han Therefore for an isothermal process for a perfect pas constant . (35) ie, pyey = pyey In Fig. 3.7 an isothermal compression process for a perfect gas is shown on a p-v diagram, The equation of the process is pr = constant, which is the equation of a hyperbola. It must be stressed that an isothermal process is only of the form pr = constant fer a perfect yas, because it is only for a peufect pas that an equation of siate, pr = RF can be applied. From equation (1.2) we have for unit mass We - [pave shaded area in Fig. 3.7) - constant, or p = ¢/t, where c = constant. Therefore In this case, pu - [ee ete; = ein(*!) The constant ¢ can either be written as py, OF as p22, since Pye = e p2v2 = constant, ¢ i Wary wn(24) per unit mass of gas (3.6) ie. : "2 Ww 24) per unit mass of gas or w= potato!) ve 7 Reversible and Irreversible Processes For mass, m, of the gas Wenn (2) a) v3 ince p;0, = p22. then Su a P2 2 PL Hence, substituting in equation (3.6) W = p,v, In@ per unit mass of gas (3.8) ma or for mass, m, of the gas (3.9) ) Hence, substituting in equation (3.8) we rrin(2) per unit mass of gas (3.10) or for mass, m, of the gas w= metin(®) Gan Pa . ‘There are clearly a large number of equations for the work done, and no attempt should be made to memorize these since they can all be derived very simply from first principles. For a perfect gas from Joule’s U, — Uy = me,(T, — Tr) .w, equation (2.14), we have Hence for an isothermal process for a perfect gas, since T, = T,, then U,-U,=0 ie. the internal energy remains constant in an isothermal process for a perfect gas. From the non-flow energy equation (1.4) for unit mass O+Wau—u Therefore, since u; = u,, then Q+w=0 (3.12) for an isothermal process for a perfect gas. Note that the heat flow plus the work input is zero in an isothermal process for a perfect gas only. From Example 3.2 for steam it is seen that, although the Example 3.3 is Solution Fig. 38 Isothermal process on a p-v diagram for Example 3.3 _ 32 3.2 Reversible adiabatic non-flow processes Process is isothermal, the change in internal energy is 217.5 kJ/kg, and therefore the heat supplied plus the work done is not zero. 1 kg of nitrogen (molar mass 28 kg/kmol) is compressed reversibly and isothermally from 1,01 bar, 20°C to 4.2 bar. Calculate the work done and the heat flow during the process. Assume nitrogen to be a perfect gas. From equation (2.9), for nitrogen, a 8.3145 _ 0.297 ks /ke K ai 28 : The process is shown on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.8. 42 _-Pe = constant Pressure/(bar) Loi . From equation (3.10) * w= aria(22) Pa. where T = 20 + 273 = 293K. ie, Work input = 124 kJ/kg From equation (3.12), for an isothermal process for a perfect gas, 0.297 x 293 x (22) = 124 kS/kg, a+w=0 therefore . Q= -124kI/kg ie. Heat rejected = 124 kJ/kg Reversible adiabatic non-flow processes iabatic ss is one in which no heat is transferred to or from the fluid a 7 si paproces Such ‘a process can be reversible or irreversible. The reversible jurin, 5 cdiabatic non-flow process will be considered in this section. 79 s-s HbIe and ‘reversible Puc «From the non-tlow equation (1.4), Q+W= My and for un adiabatic process Q=0 Vherefore ve have Way /kg From equation (3.24) = {ue 0.01973) — (1 x 0.16) ~ i = 37300 Nm = 37.3kd Work done on the refrigerant = 37.3 kJ ie. ¢ heat transferred it is first necessary to evaluate the internal (ii) To find th id states, Using equation (1.9), 1 = u + pv, we have. energies at the en igs = Mgr — Par her 1 x 10° x 0.16 = 174.2 -(— uy = 158.2 kJ/kg 0.01973 m3/kg we have Interpolating from superheat tables at 10 bar, ry (0.01973 = 0018) , (54 _ 2038) hy = 2038 + 593 —g018) = 221.3 kJ/kg 87 Reveraible and Irraversibl rocesses Then using equation (1.9) uy = 213 -(" s 1 oer = 201.6 ki /kg, From equation (1.4) Q+ We (uy uy) therefore, Q = 37.3 + (201.6 — 158.2) = 6.1 kI/kg ic. the heat transferred from the cylinder walls to the refrigerant during the compression process is 6.1 kJ/kg. : Consider now the polytropic process for a perfect gas. From equation (2.5) po=RT or p=Ft Hence, substituting in the equation pe” = constant, we have RT al =constant or To*~! = constant (3.26) Also, writing v = RT/p, we have ) p{—) =constant or P p It can be seen that these equations are similar to the equations (3.47) and (3.18) for a reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas. In fact the reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas is a particular case of a polytropic process with the index, n, equal to 7. Equations (3.26) and (3.27) can be written as 7a = constant (327) on 2) (3.28) and Be (ey (329) 2 P2. Note that equations (3.26), (3.27), (3.28) and (3.29) do not apply to a vapour undergoing a polytropic process, since the characteristic equation of state, pv = RT, which was used in the derivation of the equations, applies only to @ perfect gas, | For a perfect gas expanding polytropically it is sometimes more convenient to express the work input in terms of the temperatures at the end states. From equation (3.24) W = (py02 = pon — 1) 88 3.3. Polytropie processes then, from equation (2.5), py», = RT; = _Xh=-%) : and p30; = RT}. Hence, Ww (3.30) or or mass, m, _ mT, - T,) Ww r= (31) Using the non-flow energy equation, (1.4), the heat fi eae ), low during the process ie = Q4+Wau,-u, R(T, = T) (n= 1) (Th -T) in + ATs -T;) From equation (2.21) __ ~@=1) Hence substituting R (G o=-0" Cy Q= ~~ Gayo _R- T= 1-740 =Nn—1) ie. g= Rr: TH therefore Now from equation (3.30), W = R(T; — T,)/(n — 1) per unit mass of gas, therefore (3.32) Equation (3.32) is a convenient and concise expression relating the heat supplied and the work input in a polytropic process, In a compression process Wark is done on the gas, and hence the term W is positive. Therefore it can be wren from equation (3.32) that when the polytropic index 1 is greater than 7, in a compression process, then the right-hand side of the equation is positive (ie. heat is supplied during the process). Conversely, when 7 is less than 7 in compression process, then heat is rejected by the gas. Similarly, the work input in an expansion process is negative, therefore when n is greater than 7. invan expansion process, heat is rejected; and when n is less than 7, in an txpansion process, heat must be supplied to the gas during the process. It was Shown in section 2.3 that 7 for all perfect gases has a value greater than unity, Reversible and Irravaraible Processos i r 1° according t Example 3.7 Lkg of « perfect gas is compressed from 1.1 bar, 2 gto a ° Jaw po! = constant, until the pressure is 6.6 bar. Calculate the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls: (i) When the gas is ethane (molar mass 30kg/kmol), which has cy = 2.10 kI/kg K. ; . (ii When the gas is argon (molar mass 40kg/kmol), which has cy = 0.520 kd /kg K. Solution From equation (3.29), for both ethane and argon, ; (= 10 Con B.(2) or no n(2) T \m Py het x =n $4) i where T, = 27 +273 = 300K. (i) From equation (2.9), R = R/ii, therfore, for ethane 83145 _ o277 ks /ke K 30 = 300 x 6°29! = 300 x 1.512 = 453.6 K Then from equation (2.17), ¢, — ey = Re therefore ¢, = 210 = 0.277 = 1.823 kI/ke K where ¢, = 1.75 k3/kg ’s for ethane. Then from equation (2.20) cp _ 2.20 yaa 21192 ye 183 From equation (3.30) R(T, — T,)_ 0.277 x (453.6 — 300) hs ; 0 nee = 1418 kJ/kg Then from cquation (3.32) n-y 13 - 1.152 o=(7—)\w=( = = @ *) (35 =) x us 138.1 kJ/kg , Heat supplied = 138.1 kJ/kg (ii) Using the same method for argon we have = SSNS = 0.208 kak 4g 0708 Kika K Also % =,0.520 — 0.208 = 0.312 kI/kg K Fig. 3.12, General polytropic processes plotted on a p-v diagram 3.3 Polytrople processes ‘Then the work input is given by R(T, ~ Th) _ 0.208 x (4: 300) SALA TAD 01208 (953.6 = 300) 106.5 1 not 3-1 eee Then, Q= st) - ae) =~ 58 n,Q (& Wm (A) 1065 = 58.61 ky ic. Heat rejected = 58.6 kJ/kg, In a polyttopic process the index n depends only on the heat and work quantities during the process. The various processes considered in sections 3.1 and 3.2 are special cases of the polytropic process for a perfect gas. When n= 0 . pv° = constant, ie. p = constant When n= co, po® = constant orp!» = constant, ie. v = constant When n= 1 po = constant, ie, T = constant since pv/T = constant for a perfect gas. When n= 7 pe’ = constant, ie. reversible adiabatic This is illustrated on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.12. Thus, state 1 to state A is constant pressure cooling (n = 0) state I to state B is isothermal compression (n = 1) state 1 to state C is reversible adiabatic compression (n = 7) state 1 to state D is constant volume heating (n = <0) 91 Reversible end Irreversible Processes Similarly, 1 to A’ is constant pressure heating; 1 to BY is isothermal expansion; 1 to C’ is reversible adiabatic expansion; 1 to D’ is constant volume cooling. Note that, since ; is always greater than unity, then process 1 to C must lie between processes | to B and | to D; similarly, process 1 to C’ must lie between processes | to B’ and | to D’. For a vapour a generalization such as the above is not possible. A vapour may undergo a process according to a law pr = constant. In this case, since the characteristic equation of state, pr = RT. does not apply to a vapour, then the process is not isothermal. Tables must be used to find the properties at the end states, making use of the fact that p,t, = pat’: Expansion of steam in a reciprocating engine is found to approximate to a hyperbolic expansion (pv = constant); such engines are rarely used nowadays. | 3.4 Reversible flow processes Although flow processes in practice are usually highly irreversible, itis sometimes convenient to assume the, a flow process is reversible in order to provide an ideal comparison. An coserver travelling with the flowing fluid would appear to see a change in tnermodynamic properties as in a non-flow process. For ex’ mple, ina rever:ible adiabatic process for a perfect gas, an observer travelling with the gas would appear to see a process pe? = constant taking place, but the'work inpst would not be given by —f p do, or by the change in internal energy as siven by equation (3.13), Some work is done by virtue of the forces acting between the moving gas and its surroundings. For example, for a reversible adiabatic flow process for a perfect gas, from the flow equation (1.10), for unit mass flow rate ct cP (n+G)+0+ w=(n,+2) Then since Q =0 W=(h,— Also, since the process is assumed to be reversible, then for a perfect gas, pv” = constant, This equation can be used to fix the end states. Note that even if the kinetic energy terms are negligibly small the work input in a reversible adiabatic flow process between two states is not equal to the work input in a reversible adiabatic non-flow process between the same states (given by equation (3.13) as*W =u; - uy). Example 3.8 A gas turbine receives gases from the combustion chamber at 7 bar and 650°C, with a velocity of 9 m/s. The gases leave the turbine at 1 bar with a velocity of 45 m/s, Assuming that the expansion is adiabatic and reversible in the ideal case, calculate the power output per unit mass flow rate. For the gases take y = 1.333 and c, = 1.11 kJ/kg K. Solution 3.5 3.5 Irreversible processes Using the flow equation for an adiabatic process [Link] (5S For a perfect gas from equation (2.18), h = c,T; therefore, We wife - n+(2 = To find T, use equation (3.21), th (ey . T \py , T, Gy" ie a(t 7 \i therefore 3 4/1333) tT _ 93 2 where T, = 650 +2 Hence substituting for unit mass flow rate 452 2x W = 1 x 1,11(567.7 — 923) + ( therefore W = —394.4 +097 = —393.4 kW ie. Power output per kilogram per second = 393.4 kW Note that in Example 3.8 the kinetic energy change is small compared with th enthalpy change. This is often the case in problems on flow processes, and th change in kinetic energy can sometimes be taken to be negligible. For a vapour undergoing a reversible adiabatic flow process the end stat is fixed by equating the initial and final entropies (see Ch. 4). Irreversible processes The criteria of réversibility are stated in section 1.4. The equations « sections 3.1, 3.2, and 33 can only be used when the process obeys the criter of reversibility to a close approximation. In processes in which a fluid is enclose in a cylinder behind a piston, friction effects can be assumed to be negligibl However, in order to satisfy criterion (c) in section 1.4 heat must never t transferred to or from the system through a finite temperature difference. Oni in an isothermal process is this conceivable, since in all other processes temperature of the system is continually changing during the process; in ord to satisfy criterion (c) the temperature of the cooling or heating medium extern Fig, 3.13 Two perfectly insulated interconnected vessels 94 to the system would be required to change correspondingly. Ideally a way of Achieving reversibility can be imagined, but in practice it cannot even be approached as_an_ approximation Nevertheless, if we accept inevitable irreversibilities in the surroundings, we can still have processes which are internally reversible. That is, the system undergoes @ process which can be reversed, but the surroundings undergo an irreversible change. Most processes occurring in a cylinder behind a piston can be assumed to be internally reversible to a close approximation, and the equations of sections 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 can be used where applicable. Certain processes cannot be assumed to be internally reversible, and the important cases will now be considered. Unresisted, or free, expansion ‘This process was mentioned in section 1.5 in order to show that in an irreversible process the work done is not given vy —{ p dv. Consider two vessels A and B, interconnected by a short pipe with a valve, and perfectly thermally insulated (sce Fig. 3.13). Initially let the vessel A be filled with a fluid at a certain pressure, and let B be completely evacuated. When the valve is opened the fluid in A will expand rapidly to fill both vessels A and B, The pressure finally will be lower than the initial pressure in vessel A. This is known as an unresisted expansion or a free expansion, The process is not reversible, since external work would have to be done to restore the fluid to its initial condition. The non-flow energy equation, (1.4), can be applied between the initial and final states, ie. Q+ Wau, uy Now in this process no work is done on or by the fluid, since the boundary of the system does not move, No heat flows to or from the fluid since the system is well lagged. The process is therefore adiabatic, but irreversible, ie uy =0 oF wan, In a free expansion thorefore the internal energy initially equals the internal energy finally. For a perfect gas, we have, from equation (2.14), u=oT ‘Therefore for a free expansion of a perfect gas Example 3.9 Solution Fig. 3.14 Irreversible 3.6 Irreversible processes That is, for a perfect gas undergo i i That is, ‘going a free expansion, the initial temperat is equal to the final temperature, =“ Air at 20 bar is initially contained in vessel A of Fig. 3.13, the volume of which can be assumed to be 1 m?, The valve is opened and the air expands to ill vessels A and B. Assuming that the vessels are of equal volume, calculate the final pressure of the air. For a perfect gas for a free expansion, T, = 7). Also from equation (2.6 p¥ = mRT, hence p, ¥; = pa¥ , a Now V, is the combined volumes of vessels A and B, ie. y= VytWyel+l=2m? and Y= 1m? Therefore we have v, Pa =P; X += 20 x $= 10 bar % ie, Final pressure = 10 bar . ‘The process is shown on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.14. State 1's fixed at 20 bar and 1m? when the mass of gas is known; state 2 is fixed at 10 bar and 2m* for the same mass of gas. The process between these states is irreversible and must be drawn dotted. The points I and 2 lie on an isothermal line, but the process between 1 and 2, cannot be called isothermal, since the intermediate temperatures are not the same throughout the process. There 1s no work done during the process, and the area under the dotted line does not represent work done. Pressure/{bar) Throttling [A flow of fluid is said to be throttled when there is some restriction to the flow. ‘phen the velocities before and after ghe restriction are either equal or neglibly "mall, and when there is a negligible heat loss to the surroundings. The restriction to flow ean be a partly open valve, an orifice, oF any other sudden reduction jin the cross-section of the flow. . 95 4 , Reversible and Irreversible Processes Fig. 315 Throttling process Example 3.10 ‘An exaimple of throttling 1s shown in Fig. 3.15. The fluid, flovving steadily , along a well-lagged pipe, passes through an orifice a section XX. Since the pipe is well lagged it can be assumed that no heat flows to or from the fluid. The flow equation (1.10) can be applied between any two sections of the flow, 2 ; 2 ie, a(n +S) 6 W=n(i+ 2) Now since Q = 0, and W’= 0, then When the velocities C, and C2 are small, or when C, is approximately equal to C;, then the kinetic energy terms may be neglected. (Note that sections 1-1 and 2-2 can be chosen well upstream and well downstream of the disturbance to the flow, so that this latter assumption is justified.) Then h, = ha. Therefore for a throttling process, the enthalpy initially is equal to the enthalpy finally. The process is adiabatic, but is highly irreversible because of the eddying of the fluid round the orifice at X -X. Between sections 1-1 and X-X the enthalpy decreases and the kinetic energy increases as the fluid accelerates through the orifice. Between sections X-X and 2-2 the enthalpy increases as the kinetic energy is destroyed by fluid eddies. . For a perfect gas, from equation (2.18), h = c,T; therefore, pT =CpT, or Ty =T; For throttling of a perfect gas, therefore, the temperature initially equals the temperature finally. The process of throttling can be used to find the dryness fraction of steam. A sample of steam is drawn off the steam main, passed through a mechanical Separator, then through a throttle valve, and finally through a condenser; the water separated rom the mechanical separator and the water {rom the condenser are weighed and the dryness fraction calculated as shown in the following example. The dryness fraction of wet steam in a main is determined using a separating and throttling calorimeter. The pressure in the main is 5 bar; after throttling. the steam pressure and temperature are 1.01325 bar and 120°C; the water collected from the separator is at the rate of 0.5 kg/h, and that from the condenser at the rate of 9 kg/h. Making suitable assumptions, calculate the dryness fraction of the steam in the main, 3.6 Irreversible processes ’ Fig. 3.16 Processes on a p-v diagram for Example 3.10 Pressure/(bar) 1.01325 The enthalpy after throttling is Oblajhed by interpolating from steam tables, '/~ (120 — 100) (150 = 100) = 2716.4 kJ/kg . / For an adiabatic throttling process neglecting kinetic energy changes. hy = hs, ~ therefore using equation (2.2) hy = hy = Ina + Xahige hy = 2676 + x (2777 — 2676) therefore 2716.4 640 = Ti6A — 0” = 0985 “= F109 where hrg = 640 KS /kg, and hyp = 2109 kJ/kg, are read from saturation tables “ ihe Mass flow rate of water in the steam at state 2 is therefore given ty titgy = (I — Xa) X (mass flow rate of condensate) 2=(l-% = (1 — 0.985) x 9 = 0135 kg/h e stean sample from the main ‘al mass flow rate of water in the steam samp Therefore the rae separation, sas the mass f wae is give s separated, given as 0.5 kg/h. 0.635 kg/h tity, = 0.135 + 04 > ie. Roversible and trraveratble Procom Fig. 3.17 process 98 Mixing 3.6 ‘The mass flow rate of diy vapour in the sample is therefore the total mass flow rate of (0.5 +9) kg/h minus tit,,,, (= 0.635 kp/h) ic. Mass flow rate of dry vapour in sample 05-4 9 ~ 0.635 = 8.865 ke/h “Then the «Iryness fraction in the main is the mass flow rate of dry vapour divided by the total mass fiow rate, . 8.865 “05 49) ies = 0933 Adiabatic mixing ‘The mixing of two streams of uid is quite common in engineering, practice, and can usually be assumed to occur adiabatically. Consider two streams of a fluid mixing as shown in Fig, 3.17. Let the streams have mass flow rates rh, and rity and temperatures T, and 7. Let the resulting mixed stream have a temperature Ty. There is no heat flow to or from the fluid, and no work done, hence from the flow equation, we have, neglecting changes in kinetic energy, hit hy tg hhy = tighy (333) Typ ty + ty T;/ For a pérfect gas, from equation (2.18), h = ¢,T; hence, ney T+ tisey, Be Orc, + Pep) Ts Or, assumning that the two streams | and 2 are of the same fui with the sam specific heat capacity, ding Ty bth Ty = (hy by) Ty (3.34) ‘The mixing process is highly irreversible due to the large arnount of eddyine and churning of the fluid that takes place. Nonsteady-flow processes There are many ca ge sin practice when the rate of mass flow crassin| houndary of a sys {inlet is not the same as the rate of mass flow cross" _d m the boundary o or by the fluid, ‘ Hansferredl 10 oF framn the system Teck Necessarily constant with time, Inn ew eneiuy uf the system within the bound, 48 101 IN i teatytlay, Process, but varies with tim: Let the total energy of the syst During a small time interval tet the the mass leaving the system be omy; during the same time be 5Q and lV” ary is no longer constant, \, within the boundary at any instant he & Mss sitering the system be un, and lop let the heat supplied and the wrk myput fespectively. Consider 4 similar syste in the one sitown in Fig. 1.22. Now, as shea in section LH (p. 19), Wark ty dune at inlet and outlet in introducing and expelling mass across the system boundaries, ie. at inlet Energy required = dm, p,v, and at outlet Energy required = 5m,p 0, Also, as before, the energy of unit mass of the flowing Mid is given by (uy + Ci/2 + Zyg) at inlet, and by (uy + C3/2 4 Z,y) at outlet, Hence Energy entering system = 60 + SW + dm,(u, + CF/2 + Za) + dm, p, and Energy leaving system = dm,(uy + C3/2 4 Zin + omyp,0, Then, applying the first lw, Energy entering ~ energy leaving = increase of energy of the aystem, Of, therefore 6Q + OW + dm,(u, + CI/2+ Zig + pry) — 6m, (uz + C3/2 + Zy + prvy) = 6E During a finite in et be inated is given by Y)40 « 0, and the veel the nial mass wih he system des Be at og a ee eee tee Therefore DE = mu" + Z%q) = mw + ZG) Therefore we have / 04 We Lom ty + prey + CF/2 + eae = Loma; + pavr + CH2 + 22001 a mult 2g) — miu + Z'9) Reversible and Irreversible Processes or Q+ W + Ldm,(hy + Ci/2+ Zy9) = Lémy(h; + C3/2 + Z29) + (mw — mu’) +(m"Z"g —m'Z'g) (3.36) Also, from continuity of mass, Mass entering — mass leaving = increase of mass within system boundary ie. Lom, — Ym, =m” — m' (337) One of the most commonly occurring problems involving the nonsteady-flow equation is the filling of a bottle or reservoir from a source which is large in comparison with the bottle or reservoir. Figure 3.18 shows a typical exemple. Itis assumed that the condition of the fluid in the pipeline is unchanged during the filling process. In this case there is no work done on the system boundary; also, no mass leaves the system during the process, hence m, = 0. Fig. 348 Filling a spcline andanp Reservoir oF bottle or reservoir from Repees: treet of battle a pipeline — 1 ' 1 Valve System boundary Applying equation (3.36), making the additional assumption that changes in potential energy are zero, and that the kinetic energy, C2/2, is small compared with the enthalpy, hy, we have Q+ L(dmyhy) = mu" 7 * Or, since, hy is constant during the process, Q + hy DL (dm,) = mu" — m'u’ In this case equation (3.37) becomes Lom, Hence substituting mu Q + hy(m" — m') = mu" — mw’ (338) Itis often possible to assume that the process is adiabatic, and in that case we have : Ay mn” =m!) = mtu" = mu! Or in words: . Enthalpy of mass which enters the bottle = increase of internal energy of the system Example 3.11 3.6 Nonst - dy-tlow processes A rigid Vessel of volume 10m? fraction 09 is oo Containing steam at 2.1 bar and di ones ANected to a pipeli 7 Iryness the pipeline into the vera; unt a atd steam is allowed t0 flow from the pressure and i are 6 bar and 200° i _ cmperature in the vessel 250°C threo? € respectively. The steam in the Pipeline is at 10 bar and Toughout the process, Vessel during the proves °° Ceulate the heat transfer to or freon * Solution Using the Notation Previously introduced we have Fig 3.19 Fluid escaping from a vessel = ui — 0.9) + (us x 0.9) = 511 x 0.1 + 2531 x 0.9 2329 kJ/kg Also, om’ £ V/y' = 10/0.9, 0/(0.9 x 0.8461) = 13.13 kg The steam is Superheated finally at 6 bar and 200°C, therefore U" = 2640 kJ/kg and” = 0.3522 m3/kg ie. m" = V/v" = 10/0.3522 = 28.4 kg The steam in the pipeline is superheated at 10 bar and 250°C, hence hy = 2944 kJ/kg Then using equation (3.38) Q + 2944(28.4 — 13.13) = therefore Q = 74980 — 30590~ 44940 = —Ss0KJ Heat rejected from vessel = 550 kJ 28.4 x 2640) — (13.13 x 2329) i -flow process is the commonly occurring example of the nonsteady- ; aia nich a vessel is opened to a large space and flui s allowed to escape (Fig. 119). There is no work done and in this case im, = 0 since no mass enters tied ‘Neglecting changes in potential energy and upplying equation (3.36) Q =D [dm(hz + C3/2)] + (m*u" — m'u') his analysis is that the state 2 of the mass leaving the Hanging, and hence itis impossible to evaluate the term aoe woximation can be made in order to find the mass given value. It cin ‘The difficulty arising i = fh vessel is continually cl and €}/2)). An appro made ino ao sien le vessel as the pressure drops of fiuid which leaves the * Reversible and Irreversible Processes 102 Example 3.12 Solution Example 3.13 be assumed that the fluid remaining in the vessel undergoes a reversible adiabay. expansion. This is a good approximation if the vessel is well lagged, ot i¢y duration of the process is short. Using this assumption the end state ofthe ug in the vessel can be found, and hence the mass remaining in the vessel, m°, cay be calculated. : An air receiver of volume 6 m? contains air at 15 bar and 405°C, 4. valve is opened and some air is allowed to blow out to atmosphere. The pressure of the air in the receiver drops rapidly to 12 bar when the valve is then closed Calculate the mass of air which has left the receiver. Initially 15 x 105 x 6 0.287 x 10° x 313.5 ‘Assuming that the mass in the receiver undergoes a reversible adiabatic process, then using equation (3.21) te (2 re ( rae 1.259786 = 1.066 tT" \e", 12 therefore T* = 313.5/1.066 = 294.1 K 5 Hence m” = p"v/RT" = 12% 10° x6 0.287 x 10° x 294.1 mm’ = p'V/RT" 100 kg = 85.3 kg. Therefore Mass of air which left receiver In the case of a vapour undergoing a reversible adiabati jon 10 i le adiabatic expansion 0 Of the pronah $$ 3.21), a6 used above, holds true. It is necessary to make Ue of the property entropy, s, which can be shown t t during & reversible adiabatic process, ie, s/ = ¢" eee ann comstant ur Then usi fy" ca be calculated and hence m” found (see Problem 49) the value © bbe adiabatic, For the indve’ ki /kg K and R = 0287 ks/ke® K and R = 0.296 kJ/kg K- . take c, = 0.718 v= 0.840 KI /kg Solution 3.6 Nonstescy-tlow processes Let swept volume be 1 and clearance volume be V. Then Compression ratio = = 8 (see p 138) be Kem Initially the residual gas occupies the volume. 7, therefore 008881, kg where T’ = 840 + 2 Also using equation (3 ne =m = Sn, and noting that in this ex. therefore m” = 0.91921, + QOLSH, = 0.9641, ke Changes in kinetic and potential energy can be neglected, and the process is adiabatic (ie. Q = 0), hence applying equation (3.36) we have ty hy + Ws mou = mw ‘Also, the temperature of the mixture in the induction manifold is constant throughout the stroke, ie. hy = ¢, 7, = constant. Therefore oT a) mye, Ty + Wes m'e,T =m The work input is given by IW = (mean pressure in cylinder during induction x swept volume) = 0.828 x 10° x V, = 828001, Nm = 823%, therefore W = -8285,4 For the mixture induced, c, = ¢, + R = 0.718 + 0.287 = 1.005 kJ/kg K. ‘Then substituting values in equation [1] (0.9192 x F; x 1.005 x 300) ~ 82.85, = (0.964¥, x 0.718 x T*) — (OO4481, x O84 x 1113) therefore T= MIBK = 683°C ie. Final temperature = 68.3°C 103 104 ible and Irreversible Pro an 3.2 3.3 34 as a6 a7 3.8 Then m’RT" _ 0.964V, x 0.287 x 341.3 x 10° eK) 8u/7 ie. Final pressure = 0.826 bar ee = 82623 Nj? Problems 1 kg of air enclosed in a rigid container is initially at 4.8 bar and 150°C. The contig is heated until the temperature is 200°C, Calculate the pressure of the air finally ax the heat supplied during the process. (5.37 bar; 359 €1/4y) A rigid vessel of volume 1m? contains steam at 20bar and 400°C. The vessel x cooled until the steam is just dry saturated. Calculate the mass of steam in the vee, the final pressure of the steam, and the heat rejected during the process. (6.62 kg; 13.01 bar; 23558) Oxygen (molar mass 32kg/kmol) expands reversibly in a cylinder behind a piston at a constant pressure of 3 bar. The volume initially is 0.01 m? and finally is 003 m'; the initial temperature is 17°C. Calculate the work input and the heat supplied during the expansion. Assume oxygen to be a perfect gas and take c, = 0.917 ki/kg K. (640; 21.18) Steam at 7 bar, dryness fraction 0.9, expands reversibly at constant pressure until ie temperature is 200°C. Calculate the work input and heat supplied per unit mass o steam during the process. ' Hy (—38.2 kJ/kg; 288.7 ki/ks) 0.05 m? of a perfect gas at 6.3 bar undergoes a reversible isothermal process 10 4 Pressure of 1.05 bar, Calculate the heat supplied. (564d) Dry saturated steam at 7 bar expands reversibly in a cylinder behind a piston vat the pressure is 0.1 bar. If heat i is supplied continuously during the process in order ta Keep the temperature constant, calculate the change of interne] energy per unit mas! of steam, (37.2 ks/ks) Tmally and reversibly from 1 bar and 30°C 19 Sba 1¢ heat stipplied 1 kg of air is compressed isother Calculate the work input and th (140 ky/kg; — 140 41/4) | kg of air at L bar. 15°C is compressed reversibly and adiabatically to a preslé of 4 bar. Caleulate the final temperature and the work input i. (155°C; 1005 s/ks) Nitrogen (molar mass 28kg/kmol) expands reversibly in a perfectly neal insulated vine fom 33 bar, 200°C to volume of 009m I he nil occupied was 0.03 m3, calculate the work input, Assume nitrogen to be a perf and take c, = 0.741 ki /kg K. “ ae Problems raeaed reversibly from 1 bar, 17°C to a pressure of S bar alated cylinder, the final temperature being 77°C. The ring the compression is 45 kJ/kg. Calculate 7, c,, R, and work done on the gas di the molar mass of the gas. 841 1kg of sic ‘at un (11325 0.75 kJ/kg K; 0.099 kJ/kg K; 84 kg/kmol) po"? © constant, te tes S,Compressed reversibly according to a law the heat supplied during the oe Calculate the work done on the air and : (133.46 kJ/kg; — 33.3 kJ/kg) 3.12 O; 7 cylinder oe mass 32 kg/kmol) is compressed reversibly and polytropically in a jaaai irom 1.05 bar, 15°C. to 4,2 bar in such a way that one-third of the work = —— as heat to the cylinder walls. Calculate the final temperature of the ‘ygen. Assume oxygen to be a perfect gas and take c, = 0.649 kJ/kg K. (113°c) 5.13 A mass of 005 kg of carbon dioxide (molar mass 44 kg/kmof}; occupying a volume of 0.03 m? at 1.025 bar, is compressed reversibly until the pressure is 6.15 bar. Calculate the final temperature, the work done on the CO;, and the heat supplied: (i) when the process is according to « law po!* = constant; (ii) when the process is isothermal; (iii) when the process takes place in a perfectly thermally insulated cylinder. Assume carbon dioxide to be a perfect gas, and take y = 1.3. (270°C; 5.135 kJ; 1.712 kJ; 525°C; $.51 kJ; —5.51 kJ; 219 5.25 kJ; OkJ) 3.44 A refrigerant is compressed reversibly in a cylinder according to a polytropic law from 2.62 bar, dry saturated, to 8.20 bar when the temperature is then 40°C. Using the refrigerant properties given as Table 3.2, calculate: (i) the polytropic index; . (ii) the work input during the compression process; ii) the heat transferred to or from the cylinder walls during the process. (1.073; 21.93 kJ/kg; 6.16 kJ/kg) Table 3.2 Properties of Superheat values at Pan Saturation values 8.2 bar, 40° De yo? h (bar) (dyke) (m/kg)—_(Kd/kg) 2.62 292.9 0.02615 322.6 js ted at 2bar and is compressed reversibly in a cylinder Bue ee : cy 7 constant to a pressure of 10 bar. Using the properties of according : ° ° le 3.3, calculate: ; br Bren, yoline ‘and temperature of the refrigerant: | (i) the final specif vorrime and temperature when the working substance is air, (ii) the final speci id from the same initial temperature. ressures an compressed between the same P (0.024 m3/kg, 24°C; 0.071 m?/kg,.~25°C) 105 Reversible and Irreversible Processes Table 33 Properties of refrigerant for Problem 3.15 Table 34 Properties of refrigerant for Problem 316 3.47 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 106 Pe ec) (bar) (m?/kg) “32M 24 10 0.024 A refrigerant leaves a condenser as a saturated liquid at a temperature of 25 Ca is throted t0.a pressure of 1.83 bar where i enters the evaporaior. Ustg th pr of refrigerant given as Table 34, calculate the dryness fraction of the Teheran, vapour entering the evaporator (0234) mh h hy CC) (bar) (kik ee 3 632 3971977 -15 183 23 1810 eee ie ressure in a steam main is 12 bar. A sample of steam is drawn of and passed {rough a throttling calorimeter, the pressure and temperature at exit from the calorimeter being [Link] and 140°C respectively. Calculate whe dryness fraction of te steam in the main, stating any assumptions made in the throttling process (0.96) Air at 69 bar, 260°C is throttled to 5.5 bar before expanding through a nozzle ta Pressure of 1.1 bar. Assuming that the air flows reversibly in steady flow through the nozzle. and that no heat is rejected, calculate the velocity of the air at exit (roa the nozzle when the inlet velocity is 100 m/s (636mi8) Air at 40°C enters a mixing chamber at a rate of 225 kg/s where it mixes with ait {5°C entering at a rate of $40 kg/s. Calculate the temperature of the air leaving tht chamber, assuming steady-flow conditions. Assume that the heat loss is resi (2. Sicam from a supgpheater at 7 bar, 300°C is mixed in steady auiabatic flow with ¥2t La At 7 bar dryness fraction 0.9. Caleulate the mast sh wet steam required Pe Kilogram of superheated steam to produce steam v¢7 bar, dry saturated, yy ( A ‘igid cylinder contains helium (molar mass 4 kg/kmol) at a pressure of 5 bat i a temperatu® of 15°C. The cylinder is now connected to a large source of a 3t lO bar and 15°C, and the valve connects 8 the cylinder is closed when the ling? Pressure has risen to 8 bar, Calculate the final temperature of the helium in Calinder assuming that the heat transfer during the process is negligibly small: for helium as 3.12 kI/ke K. (658°C) 3.22 3.23 3.26 Problems A well-lagged vessel of volume 1m, contais r Dene m?, containing 1.25kg of steam at a pressure of 1s a valve to a large source of steam at 20 bar. The valve is Opened and the pressure in the vessel is allowed to rise until the steam in the vessel is just dry saturated at 4 bar and the valve i z " fraction ofthe steam supple lve is then closed. Calculate the dryness (0.904) An ait receiver contains 10kg of air at 7 bar. A blow-off valve is opened in error closed again within seconds, but the pressure is observed to drop to 6 bar. Calculate the mass of air which has escaped from the receiver, stating clearly any assumptions made. Calculate also the pressure of the air in the receiver some time after the valve has been closed such that the air temperature has attained its original value (1.04 kg; 6.27 bar) A vertical cylinder of cross-sectional area 6450 mm? is open to the atmosphere at one end and connected to a large storage vessel at the other end by means of a pipeline and valve. A frictionless piston, of weight 100 N, is fitted into the cylinder and the initial cylinder volume is negligible. The valve is then opened and air is slowly admitted from the large storage vessel into the cylinder until the piston has moved very slowly a distance 0f 0.6 m, when the valve is shut. Ifthe temperature of the air in the cylinder is 30°C at the end of the operation and the temperature of the air in the large storage vessel is constant at 90°C, calculate: (i) the pressure of the air in the cylinder during the process: (ii) the work done on the air during the process; (iii) the work done on the piston; (iv) the heat supplied to the air in the cylinder during the process. Take the atmospheric pressure as 1.013 bar. (1.168 bar; ~452 N m; 60. Nm; ~0.31 kJ) 107

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