Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

Module – 3
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS:

INTRODUCTION:
The main advantage of alternating current over direct current is that it can be easily increased or
reduced as per requirement during the generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electric
power. This is made possible by means of transformers. For instance, high voltages may be generated and
stepped up by means of transformers to still higher voltages for the transmission lines. Other transformers
are employed at suitable points to step the voltage down to values suitable for motors, lamps, heaters and
other loads, The full-load efficiency of a medium sized transformer is of the order of 97-98 percent, so that
the loss at each point of transmission or distribution is small. As the transformer is a static apparatus, there
are no moving parts and so the maintenance of a transformer is easy and the amount of supervision is
negligible.
Transformers are associated not only with power system applications but with low power
applications (such as electronic circuits) as well. However, we shall discuss only the common power-system
transformer.

1) Explain principle of operation of a single phase transformer and Derive e.m.f equation of single
phase transformer.

A transformer operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction as explained by faraday’s

law. Mutual induction states that When two coils are inductively coupled and if current in one coil is
changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil.
This e.m.f. can drive a current,when a closed path is provided to it. it has magnetically
coupled coils .Energy transfer takes place From the primary winding to the secondary winding through
the magnetic circuit which couples the two windings. The winding which Receives electrical energy is
known as the primary. the winding which delivers electrical energy to the load is known as the secondary.
All primary quantities are indicated with subscript 1 and all secondary quantities are indicated with
subscript 2. The primary winding Has N1 number of turns while the secondary winding has N2 number
of turns as shown in fig.

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 1
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

E.M.F. EQUATION:
When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it circulates alternating
current, producing an alternating Flux ф. The primary winding has N1 number of turns .The alternating
flux ф linking with the primary winding itself induces an e.m.f in it denoted as E1.
The flux links with the secondary winding through the common magnetic core. It pproduces induced
E.M.F E2 in the secondary winding. This is mutually induced E.M.F. Let us derive the equations for E1 and
E2. The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux produced is also
sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of фm as shown in the Fig 9.2

The various quantities which effect the magnitude of the induced E.M.F are:
Ф = Flux
Фm =Maximum Value Of Flux
N1 = Number of primary Winding turns
N2 =Number of secondary Winding turns
f = Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 = R.M.S value of the primary induced E.M.F
E2 = R.M.S value of the secondary induced E.M.F

From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the average e.m.f induced in each turn is proportional to
the average rate of change of flux.
Average e.m.f per turn= Average rate of change of flux
Average e.m.f per turn= dф/dt
Now dф/dt= Change in Flux/Time required for change in flux
Consider the 1/4th cycle of the flux as shown in the fig 9.2. Complete cycle gets completed in
1/f seconds. In 1/4th time period, the change in flux is from 0 to фm.
dф/dt = фm-0/[1/4f] as dt for 1/4th time period is 1/4f seconds
= 4fфm Wb/sec
Average e.m.f per turn= 4 f фm volts

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 2
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

As ф is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal
in nature. For sinusoidal quantity ,
Form factor =R.M.S value/Average Value= 1.11
R.M.S value =1.11 * Average Value
R.M.S value for induced e.m.f per turn = 1.11 * 4 f фm
= 4.44 f фm
There are N1 number of primary turns hence the R.M.S value of induced e.m.f of primary
denoted as E1 is,
E1 = N1 * 4.44 f фm volts
While as there are N2 number of secondary turns the R.M.S value of induced e.m.f of
secondary denoted E2 is,
E2 = N2 * 4.44 f фm Volts
The expressions of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f equations of a transformer.
Thus e.m.f equations are,
E1 = 4.44 f фm N1 volts
E2 = 4.44 f фm N2 volts.
2. Derive expression for the efficiency of a single phase transformer and obtain the condition for
maximum efficiency?
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input power
supplied.
Power output = power input-Total losses
Power input= power output+Total losses
= power output +Pi+Pcu
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to the power input. So
for a transformer the efficiency can be expressed as,
η = power output
Power input
η = power output
Power output+Pi+Pcu
Now power output= V2 I2 COSф
Where COSф= load power factor
The transformer supplies full load of current I2 and with terminal voltage V2.
Pcu = Copper losses on full load = I22 R2e
η = V2 I2 COSф2
V2 I2 COSф2+Pi+ I22 R2e

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 3
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

V2 I2 = VA rating of a transformer

η = (VA rating)X COSф

(VA rating)XCOSф+Pi+ I22 R2e

% η F.L= (VA rating)X COSф

(VA rating)XCOSф+Pi+ I22 R2e x100 Full load efficiency

% η F.L= (VA rating)X COSф

(VA rating)XCOSф+Pi+ (Pcu)F.L x100 Full load efficiency

This is full load percentage efficiency with,

I2 = Full load secondary current
But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of various
quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
Let n=Fraction by which load is less than full load = Actual load
Full load
For example if transformer is subjected to half load then,
n= Half Load = (1/2) = 0.5
Full load 1
When load changes ,the load current changes by same proportion.
New I2= n (I2)F.L
Similarly as copper losses are proportional to the square of current
New Pcu = n2 (Pcu) F.L
So copper losses get reduced by n2

In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by,

% ήF.L= n(VA rating)X COSф
n(VA rating)XCOSф+Pi+ (Pcu)F.L x100
where n= Fraction by which load is less than full load.

Condition for maximum efficiency:

When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and frequency then efficiency
varies with the load . as load increases ,the efficiency increases at a certain load current, it achieves a

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 4
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing. The graph of
efficiency against load current I2.
The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted As I 2m
and maximum efficiency is denoted as η max.

Let us determine:
1. Condition for maximum efficiency
2. Load current at which η max occurs.
3. KVA supplied at maximum efficiency.
The efficiency is a function of load .load current I 2 assuming COSф2 constant.
The secondary terminal voltage V2 is also assumed constant. So for
Maximum Efficiency, dη = 0
dI2
η = V2 I2 COSф2
V2 I2 COSф2+Pi+ I22 R2e

, dη = d /dI2 [V2 I2 COSф2] =0

dI2 [ V2 I2 COSф2+Pi+ I22 R2e] dI2

(V2 I2 cos ф2+Pi+I22 R2e) d (V2 I2 COSф2) –

dI2
(V2 I2 COSф2) . d V2 I2 cos ф2+Pi+I22 R2e =0
dI2
cancelling (V2 COSф2) from both the terms we get
V2 I2 COSф2+Pi+ I22 R2e - V2 I2 COSф2 - 2 I22 R2e = 0
Pi - I22 R2e = 0
Pi = I22 R2e = Pcu
So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that,
Copper losses = iron losses = Pi = Pcu

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 5
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

3) Explain core type and shell type transformers.

Construction of Single-Phase Transformer:

The two windings (primary and secondary) of the transformer are insulated from each and from the
laminated steel core. The assembled core and the windings are enclosed in a suitable container. Appropriate
bushings, either of the porcelain or the capacitor type, are used for insulating and bringing out the terminals
of the windings from the enclosure.
The core is invariably constructed of transformer sheet laminations fitted together in such a way as to
ensure a continuous magnetic path, with a minimum of air gap. The steel used for these laminations has high
silicon content, which is sometimes heat-treated to ensure high permeability and low hysteresis loss at the
usual operating flux densities.
Lamination of the core minimizes eddy current loss. These laminations are insulated from each other
by a thin coating of a suitable varnish. The thickness of laminations ranges from 0.35 mm for a frequency of
25 Hz to 0.5 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz.
The lamination strips are assembled as shown in Fig. where the
joints are staggered to avoid narrow gaps all through the cross-
section of the core.
The two main type of transformers are
i) Core-type
ii) Shell-type
(i) Core-type Transformers :
In this type of transformer, a large part of the core is surrounded by the Windings. Fig. 7.2
shows the simplified representation of a core-type transformer, where the primary and secondary windings
have been shown wound on the opposite limbs. However, in actual practice, half the primary and half the
secondary windings are situated side by side on each limb, so as to reduce leakage flux, as shown in Fig.

The general form of the coils may be circular or oval rectangular. A rectangular core is used with
cylindrical coils for small transformers. However, in the case of large-size core-type transformers, round or
circular cylindrical coils are wound over a cruciform core section (as shown in Fig. 7.4), offering
considerable mechanical strength. These coils are wound in helical layers, each layer being insulated from

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 6
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

the other by using paper, cloth or cooling ducts. The net core cross-sectional area is reduced by about 10 %
because of paper and other materials.

(ii) Shell-type Transformers

In this type, the windings occupy a smaller portion of the core as shown schematically in Fig. The
primary and secondary windings are shown located on the central limb.
The coils are form-wound in this case too; they are multilayer disc type, in the shape of pancakes.
Each of these multilayer discs is insulated from the other by using paper. The entire winding comprises
stacked discs with insulation spaces between the coils, such spaces forming horizontal cooling and
insulating ducts. A commonly used shell-type transformer has a simple rectangular form, as shown in Fig.

4) Explain regulation of a transformer and transformation ratio?

Definition of Voltage Regulation :

Voltage Regulation of a transformer may be defined in various ways, as given below:
Constant Primary Voltage: When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage the secondary
voltage decreases* because of the ohmic resistances and leakage reactances of the windings,
Let Vo2 = secondary terminal voltage at no load
= E2 = K E 1 = K V 1,
because at no load the impedance drop is negligible
V2 = secondary terminal voltage on full-load.
The change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full load is = V02 - V2
This change divided by V 02 is called 'regulation down'. Thus,
Regulation down = V02 - V2
V02
% Regulation down = V02 - V2 x 100
V02
If this change is divided by V2 i.e., full load secondary terminal voltage, then it is known as 'regulation up'.

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 7
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

* Assuming lagging power factor. It will increase if power factor is leading.

Thus,
Regulation up = V02 – V2
V2
% Regulation up = Vo2 - V2 x 100
V2
Constant Secondary Terminal Voltage V2: When the transformer is loaded, the secondary terminal
voltage falls for lagging power factor or rises for leading power factor loads.
Therefore, to keep the secondary terminal voltage constant, the primary voltage is either increased or
decreased depending on the power factor of the load.
Suppose the primary voltage has to be raised from V 1 to V1 ', then
% Regulation = V’ 1 -V 1x 100
V1
Importance of Voltage Regulation :
In the previous Section we have defined voltage regulation under different conditions. The lesser the
value of percentage voltage regulation, the better the transformer, because a good transformer should keep
its secondary terminal voltage as constant as possible under all conditions of load. Such load could be
machinery or equipment which need constant voltage for proper operation. Hence the importance of voltage
regulation.

Transfer of Transformer Winding Parameters :In the diagram of a transformer in Fig. 7.9, the
resistances of the primary and secondary windings are shown as R 1 and R 2 respectively. We shall now
proceed to transfer the resistances of the two windings to anyone winding. This is done to make calculations
simple and easy, as we have to ideal with one winding only. The copper loss in the secondary is 122 R2• This
loss is supplied by the primary which takes a current of I). Thus R2' is the equivalent resistance in the
primary which would have caused the same loss as R2 in the secondary.

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 8
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 9
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

5) Explain various losses in a transformer and how to minimize those losses.

Power Losses in a Transformer

Being static, the transformer does not have friction or windage losses.
However, the only losses occurring are
Core or Iron Loss.
Copper Losses.
a) Core or Iron Losses : These losses consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses and occur due to the
alternating flux in the transformer core. Because the core flux remains practically constant for all loads
(its variation being }' to 3 % from no - load to full load), the core loss is practically constant at all loads.
Hysteresis Loss : Since the flux in a transformer core is alternating, therefore, power is required for the
continuous reversal of the molecular magnets, which comprise the core. This power is dissipaTed in the

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 10
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

form of heat and is known as hysteresis loss. It depends on the flux density in the core and the supply
frequency.
Hysteresis loss Wh = P Bmax 1.6 f watt
where Bmax.: Maximum Flux Density (Wb/m2)
f : Frequency (Hz)
P is a constant.
ii) Eddy - Current Loss: Due to the alternating flux in the core, eddy currents flow in the core. Power is
required to maintain these eddy currents. This power is dissipated in the form of heat and is called eddy
current loss. In order to ensure that these currents are small, a high resistance path is made out for them.
This can be done by making the core of thin laminations, the laminations being separated from each other by
varnish. The eddy current loss also depends upon flux density in the core and supply frequency .
. Eddy current loss We = Q Bmax 2 f2 watt Q is a constant.
From our above discussion, it is apparent that core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) depend
upon flux density in the core and supply frequency. As flux density in the core remains practically constant
from no-load to full load, and also supply frequency is constant, it follows that core losses too are
constant for a given transformer. These losses are independent of load which is why these
are generally termed constant losses.

Core losses can be minimised by using steel of high silicon content for the core and by using very thin
laminations.

b) Copper Losses or I2 R losses :

These losses occur due to the ohmic resistance in both the primary and secondary windings. If R] and
R2 are the primary and secondary resistances, and II' 12 are the primary and secondary currents respectively.
Total Cu loss = 112 R1 + 122 R2 = 112 R01 = I1 R02
It is obvious that copper loss is proportional to (current) 2 or (kVA)2. In other words, Cu loss
at half the full-load is one fourth of that at full-load.

6) . A 200 KVA, 10000 V/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has 100 turns on the secondary.
Calculate :
(i) the primary and secondary currents
(ii) the number of primary turns
(iii) the maximum value of flux.
Solution:

(i) Full-load primary current = 200 x 1000 = 20 A

10000
and full-load secondary current = 200 x 1000 = 500 A

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 11
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

400
(ii) No. of primary turns = 100 x 10000 = 2500
400
(iii) E2 = 4.44 x f N2 x фm
400 = 4.44 x 50 x 100 x фm
фm = 0.018 Wb
= 18mWb
7) Single-phase transformer with 10 : 1 turns ratio and rated at 25 kVA. 1200/120
V, 50 Hz, is used to step down the voltage of a distribution system. The low tension
voltage is to be kept constant at 120 V. Find the value of the load impedance on the
low tension side so that the transformer is fully loaded. Find also the value of
maximum flux, if the low tension side has 25 turns.
Solution:
Full-load current I2 = 25000/120 = 208.33 A
Z2 = V2 / I2 = 0.576 ohm
E2 = 4.44 x f x N2 x фm
120 = 4.44 x 50 x 25 x фm
фm = 120 = 0.021 Wb
4.44 x50x25
8. Find the number of turns required on the H.T. side of a 415/240 V, 50 Hz single-phase
transformer, if the area of cross-section of the core is 25 cm 2 and the maximum flux
density is 1.3 Wb/m 2•
Solution:
E 1 = 4.44 f N1 Bm A
The HT side e.m.f. = 415 V = E1
F = 50 Hz, Bm = 1.3 Wb/m2 A= 25 cm2 = (25 x 10-4) m2
. E 1 = 4.44 f N1 Bm A
415 = 4.44 x 50 x N1 x 1.3 x (25 X10-4)
N1 = 575
9. A 125 KVA transformer has a primary voltage of 2000 V at 60HZ .primary turns are 182 and the
secondary turns are [Link] losses, calculate:
i) no load secondary e.m.f.
ii) full-load primary and secondary currents.
iii) Flux in the core
Solution:
K= N2 /N1 = 40 /182 = 20/91

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 12
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

Full load current =I1 = 125000/ 2000 = 62.5 A

Full load current = I2 = I1 / K = 62.5x 91/20 = 284.37 A
No load secondary e.m.f.,E2=KE1=(20/91)*2000=439.6V
E 1 = 4.44 f N1 фm
2000=4.44x60x182x фm
фm=0.0412Wb

10. A 25KVA, single phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40 turns on the secondary
winding. The primary is connected to 3000V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (i)primary and secondary
currents on full load.(ii)The secondary e.m.f.(iii)the maximum flux in the core.
Solution:
Given rating=25KVA
Primary applied voltage V1=3000 Volts
Number of primary turns, N1=500
Number of secondary turns, N2=40
i) Full load primary current I1=(KVA ratingx1000)/(Rated primary voltage,V1)
I1= (25x1000)/ (3000) =8.33A
Turns Ratio,K=N2/N1
=40/500=0.08

We have,I1/I2=N2/N1 [Current ratio=1/K]

Or I2=I1(N1/N2)
Full load secondary current I2=8.33(1/0.08)
=104.125A
ii)Now E2/E1=N2/N1
Secondary Induced e.m.f. E2=E1 (N2/N1)
E2=3000x0.08=240 Volts

ii) The e.m.f equation of a transformer is E 1=4.44fN1 фm

Substituting the various given values,we get
3000=4.44x50x500x фm
фm=(3000)/(4.44x50x500)=0.027Wb

Thus, the maximum flux carried in the core=0.027Wb.

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 13
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

11. In a 25KVA,2000/200V transformer, the iron and copper losses are 350 watts and 400 watts
respectively . Calculate the efficiency at U.P.F. at half-full load.
Sol:ution:
Power factor = cos ф = 1
Output at half full-load = (25/2)x cos ф Kw = 12.5 x 1 = 12.5 kW
[Link] at half full-load = (1/2)2 x F.L Loss
= ¼ x 400 = 100 kW
Iron loss = 350 W
Total losses = 100 + 350 = 450 W =0.45 kW
Input = output + losses = 12.5 + 0.45 = 12.95 kW.
Efficiency = output/input = (12.5/ 12.95) x 100 = 96.52%

12. In a 25 KVA ,2000/200 V single phase transformer, the iron and full-load copper losses are 350
and 400 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at unity power factor on
a. full-load
b. Half full – load
Solution:
(a) Full-load :
Output at full-load = 25 cos ф kW
Power factor = cos ф = 1
Output at full –load = 25 x 1 =25kW
Iron losses = 350W
F.L copper losses =400W
Total losses = 750 W = 0.75 kW
Input = output + losses
= 25 + 0.75 = 25.75 kW
Efficiency = η1 = (25/ 25.75) x 100 = 97%

(b) Half full –load :

Output = (25/2) x cos ф kW = 12.5 x 1 =12.5 kW
Cu loss at half full –load = (1/2)2 x F.L Loss = ¼ x 400 =100 W
Iron loss =350 W
Total losses =100 +350 =450 W =0.45 kW
Input = Output +losses =12.50 +0.45 = 12.95 kW
Efficiency = η2 = (12.5/ 12.95) x 100 = 96.52%

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 14
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

13.A 50 KVA transformer has an efficiency of 98% at full –load ,0.8 p.f. and an efficiency of
96.9%. at ¼ full-load ,unity p.f. Determine the iron loss and the full –load copper loss.
Solution:
Full –Load :
Output at full –load = 50 cos ф = 50 x 0.8 = 40 kW
Input = Output +losses
= output + Full –Load copper losses +Iron losses
= (40 + Full –Load copper losses +Iron losses)kW
Efficiency = η1 = output = output
Input 40 +FLCL+I L
0.98 = 40/(40 + FLCL +I L)
40 + FLCL +I L =40.8 __________(i)

Quarter full-load:
Iron loss I L remains unchanged. P.f = 1
Output = (50/4) cos ф = 12.5 x 1 = 12.5kW
[Link] at quarter load ,= (1/4)2 x Full-Load Copperloss
= 0.0625 FLCL

Efficiency = η2 = 12.5 =
12.5 + 0.0625FLCL +I L
0.969 (12.5+0.0625 x FLCL+I L) =12.5
12.5 + 0.0625 FLCL +I L = 12.9_______________(ii)

equating (i) & (ii)

27.5 + 0.9375 FLCL = 27.9
FLCL =0.426kW = 426 watts
Substitute FLCL in eq (i)
40+ 0.426 + I L=40.8
I L = 0.374 kW
= 374 watts.
14.A 600 KVA single phase transformer has an efficiency of 92% both at full-load and half-load at
unity power factor .Determine its efficiency at 75% of full-load at 0.9 power factor lag.
Solution:

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 15
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

At full –load:
Output = 600 cos ф = 600 x 1 = 600 kW
Input = 600/0.92 = 652.2 kW
Total losses = 652.2- 600 = 52.2 kW
Let x = iron losses
y = Full Load .copper losses
x + y = 52.2
AT Half –load ,
Output = 300kW
Input = 300/0.92 = 326.1kW
Total losses =326.1 – 300 =26.1 kW
Copper loss becomes one-fourth of its full load value,
x + y/4 =26.1kW
x + y = 52.2
y = 34.8 kW , x= 17.4kW

At 75% Full-Load :
Copper losses = 0.752 x 34.8 = 19.6 kW
Iron losses = 17.4kW
Total losses = 17.4 + 19.6 = 37kW
Output = 600 cos ф x 0.75
= 600 x 0.9 x 0.75
= 405 kW
Efficiency = output
Output + losses
= 405
405+37
= 0.916 = 91.6%

[Link] the efficiency of a 150 kVA transformer at 50% full-load of 0.8 p.f. lag if the copper
loss at full-load is 1600w. and the iron loss 1400w.
Solution:
Power factor = 0.8 =cos ф
Copper losses at full-load Pc = 1600w = 1.6 kW

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 16
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

Copper losses at 50% full-load = (1/2)2 Pc

= ¼ x 1.6 = 0.4kW
Total losses =Iron losses + cu losses at 50% F.L
= 1.4 + 0.4 = 1.8 kW
Output power at 50% load = ½ x 150 x cos ф
= ½ x 150 x 0.8 = 60kW

Input power = 60 + 1.8 = 61.8 kW

η = output power x 100
input power
= 60 x 100 = 97%
61.8

16.A 240/ 440 v single phase transformer absorbs 35 watts when its primary winding is connected to
a 240v ,50 HZ supply . the secondary being on open [Link] theprimary is short circuited and a
10v ,50HZ, supply is connected to the secondary winding the power absorbed is 48w ,when the
current has the full-load value of [Link] the efficiency of the transformer at half-load,0.8 p.f.
lagging.
Solution:
Input power = iron loss =35 watts
Full –Load secondary current = 15 A
The primary winding is short –circuited and the rated full-load current passes through the secondary
winding.
Power absorbed = 48 W =Full-load copper loss
Output = V2 I2 cos ф = 400 x (1/2 x 15) x 0.8 =2400 Watts
Iron loss =35W
Copper loss at ½ Full-load = (1/2)2 x Full-load copper loss
= ¼ x 48 = 12 watts
Total losses = Iron loss + copper loss at ½ Full –load
= 35 + 12 = 47 watts
Input = output + Total loss
= 2400 + 47 = 2447 W
Efficiency = output power x 100
input power
= 2400 x 100 = 98%
2447

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 17
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

DOMESTIC WIRING:

1. Explain 3-way control of a lamp with truth table.

The domestic lighting circuits are quite simple and they are usually controlled from one point. But in
certain cases it might be necessary to control a single lamp from more than one point (Two or Three
different points).
For example: staircases, long corridors, large halls etc.
Three- way Control of lamp:
In case of very long corridors it may be necessary to control the lamp from 3 different points. In such
cases, the circuit connection requires two; two-way switches S1and S2 and an intermediate switch S3. An
intermediate switch is a combination of two, two way switches coupled together. It has 4 terminals ABCD.
It can be connected in two ways
a) Straight connection

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 18
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

b) Cross connection
In case of straight connection, the terminals or points AB and CD are connected as shown in figure
(a) while in case of cross connection, the terminals AB and C D is connected as shown in figure (b). As
explained in two –way control the lamp is ON if the circuit is complete and is OFF if the circuit does not
form a closed loop.

The condition of the lamp is given in the table depending on the positions of the switches S1, S2 and
S3.

Position of S3 Position of S1 Position of S2 Condition of the

lamp
1 3 ON
1 1 4 OFF
Straight 2 3 OFF
connection 2 4 ON
1 3 OFF
2 1 4 ON
Cross connection 2 3 ON
2 4 OFF

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 19
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

2. Explain two-way control of lamps with truth table.

The domestic lighting circuits are quite simple and they are usually controlled from one point. But in
certain cases it might be necessary to control a single lamp from more than one point (Two or Three
different points).
For example: staircases, long corridors, large halls etc.
Two-way Control of lamp:
Two-way control is usually used for staircase lighting. The lamp can be controlled from two
different points: one at the top and the other at the bottom - using two- way switches which strap wires
interconnect. They are also used in bedrooms, big halls and large corridors. The circuit is shown in the
following figure.

Switches S1 and S2 are two-way switches with a pair of terminals 1&2, and 3&4 respectively. When
the switch S1 is in position1 and switch S2 is in position 4, the circuit does not form a closed loop and there
is no path for the current to flow and hence the lamp will be OFF. When S1 is changed to position 2 the
circuit gets completed and hence the lamp glows or is ON. Now if S2 is changed to position 3 with S1 at
position 2 the circuit continuity is broken and the lamp is off. Thus the lamp can be controlled from two
different points.
Position of S1 Position of S2 Condition of lamp
1 3 ON
1 4 OFF
2 3 OFF
2 4 ON

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 20
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

3. Explain fuse &requirements of good fuse.

A fuse is the simplest device used in an electrical circuit to protect against overloading or fire
hazards due to short-circuits.
The electrical equipments are designed to carry a particular rated value of current under normal
circumstances. Under abnormal conditions such as short circuit, overload or any fault the current raises
above this value, damaging the equipment and sometimes resulting in fire hazard. Fuses are pressed into
operation under such situations. Fuse is a safety device used in any electrical installation, which forms the
weakest link between the supply and the load. It is a short length of wire made of lead / tin /alloy of lead and
tin/ zinc having a low melting point and low ohmic losses. Under normal operating conditions it is designed
to carry the full load current. If the current increases beyond this designed value due any of the reasons
mentioned above, the fuse melts (said to be blown) isolating the power supply from the load as shown in the
following figures.

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 21
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

CHARACTERISTICS OF FUSE MATERIAL:

The material used for fuse wires must have the following characteristics
1. Low melting point
2. Low ohmic losses
3. High conductivity
4. Lower rate of deterioration

4. Explain the following terms (i) rated current, (ii) fusing current and (iii) fusing factor.

Rated current: It is the maximum current, which a fuse can carry without undue heating or melting. It
depends on the following factors:
1. Permissible temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder and the
fuse material
2. Degree of deterioration due to oxidation

Fusing current: The minimum current at which the fuse melts is known as the fusing current. It
depends on the material characteristics, length, diameter, cross-sectional area of the fuse element and the
type of enclosure used.

Fusing Factor: It is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the rated current. It is always greater than
unity.

5. Explain necessity of earthing. & pipe earthing

Necessity of Earthing:
1. To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they come in contact with the
charged frame due to defective insulation.
2. To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
3. Protection of the equipments
4. Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines against lightning.

Pipe Earthing:
Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized) iron pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of 2m
(depending on the current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75m in a
permanently wet ground. To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cms)
surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal.. The efficiency of the earthing system is
improved by pouring water through the funnel periodically. The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 22
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

area are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at 60cms below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured
tightly at the top as shown in the following figure.

When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system can carry larger leakage currents as a
much larger surface area is in contact with the soil for a given electrode size. The system also enables easy
maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at the ground level.

6. Explain earthing of electrical apparatus

The main objective of earthing is to provide safety of operation. In case, the insulation of windings
placed inside the machine ever becomes weak, a part of the operating current gets diverted to the surface.
When a person touches such a machine, the surface current finds a path through his body to earth. If this
“leakage current” is high, the person gets shock which mat even cause death. By earthing the machine, the
shock hazard is avoided as the leakage current gets an outlet to earth.
Another objective of earthing, though not widely used now-a days, is to save conducting material.
The earth itself provides the return path for the current. This technique of providing return path for the
current through earth in case of automobiles and electronic instruments, not so much for saving the
conductor but for avoiding complications in laying the return wire.

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 23
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

Earthing also helps in protecting high-rise buildings from atmospheric lightning, A froked metal rod
or thick wire, called lightning conductor, sticks out from the top of the building, chimney, tower, etc. Its
other end is buried deep into the ground. Whenever lightning occurs, the electricity passes directly from the
top of lightning conductor to the earth, thereby protecting the building from any damage.

7. Explain safety precautions working with electricity.

a. Make sure that all metallic parts of the electrical equipments are effectively earthed.
b. Broken switches, plugs, etc., should be replaced immediately.
c. Before replacing a broken switch, plug or blown fuse, always switch off the main supply.
d. Never use equipments and appliances with damaged or frayed lead wires.
e. Never insert bare wires in the holes of a socket, for taking a connection. Always use a proper
plug.
f. Always use well insulated tools.
g. Use correct rating of fuse wire.
h. Never try to connect machines or equipments to a voltage supply other than the rated one.
i. While working on an electric pole or tower, use safety-belt and a rubber padded ladder.
j. Strictly follow all the precautions and instructions given on the ‘name plate’ of the machine you
are working.
k. Be careful that your body does not touch the wall or any other metallic frame having contact with
earth.

8. Explain Plate earthing with neat diagram.

In this method a copper plate of 60cm x 60cm x 3.18cm or a GI plate of the size 60cm x 60cm x
6.35cm is used for earthing. The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth of 3m and is
embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15 cm. In addition, water is poured for
keeping the earth electrode resistance value well below a maximum of 5 ohms. The earth wire is
securely bolted to the earth plate. A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy
regular maintenance.

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 24
 Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electrical Engineering – 18ELE13/23

Prepared by: Prof. Prashantha.k Dept. of EEE Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 25