MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

1.1. INTRODUCTION

The concept of set was first found by a mathematician named George Cantor (1845-
1918) while he was studying Theory of Infinite and it is basic to all of mathematics
and mathematical applications.

Definition 1:

A set is any collection of objects with similar characteristics.

Example:

i) set of positive integers.

ii) set of UiTM Terengganu students.

a. Normally a set is labeled by using capital Roman letter, such as: A, B, C, ......

b. A set is determined by its elements and not by any particular order in which the
elements might be listed, and duplication of elements is not counted.
Both of these sets are similar: A={1,2,3,4}, B={2,1,3,3,4}

c. Finite Set – The number of elements in that set is finite.

d. Infinite Set – The number of elements in that set cannot be counted, or the set is
infinitely large.

1.2 HOW TO DESCRIBE A SET

A set can be described by listing its elements (roster method) or by describing its
property (set builder notation), such as:

a. B = {6,7,8,9,10} @ B = { x: 5 < x < 11, x Î Z}

b. C = { a,i,e,o,u} @ C = { All vowel letters}

c. D = { 2, 4, 6,.......} @ D = { x | x Î positive even integers}

Some examples of sets are:

i) M = {Name of candidates offered for Program Latihan Khidmat Negara

ii) (PLKN) in 2005}
iii) C = {Subjects offered for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM)}.
iv) X = {All consonants in Roman letters}.

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

v) Prime numbers, natural numbers, whole numbers, integers, rational numbers,

irrational numbers and real numbers can be written as sets as shown in the
following table:

SETS OF NUMBER SYSTEM

Sy
mb Definition of Number Listing Elements Stating Characteristic
ol
A prime number is a
number that is only
divisible by 1 and
R itself with no P = {2, 3, 5, 7,11,...} P = {x : x is a prime number}
remainder. Note that
1 is not a prime
number.
N Natural numbers are N = {1, 2, 3, 4,...} N = {x : x is a natural number}
counting numbers.
Whole numbers are
W numbers consisting of 0 W = {0,1, 2, 3, 4,...} N = {x : x is a whole number}
and all counting
numbers.
Integers are numbers
consisting of negative
Z = {.... - 2, - 1, 0,1, 2,...} Z = {x : x is an int eger}
Z integers (Z ),
-
0, and
positive integers Z( )
+

A rational number is a
number that can be
written in the form of
p where p ì.. - 27, - 3 ,. - 1, 0,..ü
ï ï
Q = {x : x is a rational number}
2
Q q Q=í ý
1
ïî 3 ,1.25.. 25,.... ïþ
and q are integers and
q≠0 that terminates or
repeats in its decimal
representation.
An irrational number
is the number that does
not terminate and does ì.. - 9 , .. - 1.14285.., ü
ï ï
I not repeat in its decimal I=í 7
ý I = {x : x is an irational number}
representation. Most of ï
î 2...., 20 ï
þ
radicals are irrational
numbers.

ì.. - 27,- 9 , .. - 1.1485.., ü

ï 7 ï
A real number consists Rí ý
of î- 1, 0,.., 2...., 20,.. 100 ï
ï þ R = {x : x is a real number}
R
a set of all rational and
irrational numbers.

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

SUBSETS FOR THE REAL NUMBER SET

COMPLEX
NUMBER ( C)

REAL
NUMBER (R)

RATIONAL IRRATIONAL
NUMBER (Q) NUMBER (I)

INTEGER (Z) NONINTEGER

NEGATIVE OF POSITIVE OF
ZERO (0)
INTEGERS INTEGERS

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 1:

Describe the following sets or list down their elements. Are they finite?

a. A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

b. B = {....., -15, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10, 15, ..... }

c. C = { x | x2 – x – 12 = 0 }

1.3 SPECIAL SET

Definition 2 (Empty set):

An Empty/Null Set is a set without any elements.

This set is denoted by: { } or Æ. Note: { } ¹ { 0 }

Definition 3 (Universal Set):

A Universal Set is defined as the set consisting of all elements under

consideration.
Denoted by : U or x

1.4 NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

The number of elements in a set refers to the number of different elements in that
particular set, while repetition is not considered. It is denoted by n(A) or |A|.

Example 2:

Find the number of elements in the following sets:

a. A = { 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6}

b. B = { a, a, a, b, b, b, c}

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

1.5 SUBSET

A Subset is a set that contains none, some or all of the elements of the original set

Definition 4:

A subset B is defined as:

A Ì B if and only if when x Î A, then x Î B.

Type of subsets:

Given sets A and B.

a. A is an improper subset of B, and is denoted by A Í B if there is possibility

that A=B and A is totally included in B.

b. A is a proper subset of B or that A is properly contained in B, and is denoted

by A Ì B if and only if every element in set A is also in the set B, but there is at
least one element in set B that is not in set A.

c. If A is not a subset of B, we write A Ë B

For example: {1, 2}⊂ {1, 2,3},but {1, 2,3}.. Ë ...{1, 2, 4}. Also {1, 2} Í {1, 2}

1.6. NUMBER OF SUBSETS

a. An empty set is always a subset of any set A.

b. Number of subsets for set A= 2k, where n(A)=k

Definition 4 (Power Set):

Power set of A is the set of all subsets of A denoted by P (A).

Example 3:

Given A = {a, 1, 2}. Find the number of subsets for set A, and list all of them.
Which of the subsets are called improper subsets? How many of them?

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Theorem 1: Given set A with n elements. The number of subsets for set A
having r number of elements is = nCr.

Example 4:

Given: A = {1,2,3,6} and B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,9}.

i. Find n(A) and n(B).

ii. Find the number of subsets for set A and set B, respectively. Then list down
the subsets for A which contains three elements.

iii. The diagram below show the two sets in the same Venn Diagram

x
B
4 5 6
A
1 2
3 4

iv. Do you think A is a proper subset of B?

v. State whether the following statements about sets A and B are TRUE or
FALSE.

a. 1 Î A b. 1 Ì A
c. {1,2} Ì A d. A Ì A
e. ÆÌB f. AÌB

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 5:

Given A = { a, b, {c}, 0 }.

i. Find n(A) and the number of subsets for set A. List all of them.

ii. State whether the following statements about set A are TRUE or FALSE.

a. aÎA b. aÌA
c. {c} Ì A d. {{c}} Ì A
e. {0} Ì A f. {{c},0} Ì A
g. {a,b} Ì A i. { }ÌA

Example 6:

Given B = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g}.

i. Find the number of subsets for B. How many of these subsets contain

a. 4 elements (list two of them)

b. 6 elements.

ii. How many of these subsets contain odd number of elements?

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

1.7 EQUALITY OF SETS

Two sets A and B are equal if and only if A Í B and B Í A. In other words A and B
have the same elements.

1.8 SET OPERATIONS

a) Intersection (A Ç B)

The intersection of A and B is a set that contains all elements belonging to

both A and B.

Definition 5: A Ç B = {x: x Î A and x Î B }

Venn Diagram:

AÇB

Definition 6:
If two sets A and B have no elements in common, that is, if A Ç B = Æ.
Then A and B are called disjoint sets.

Venn Diagram: x A B

b) Union (A È B)

A union B is a set that consists of all elements belonging to either A or B (or

both).

Definition 7: A È B = {x: x is in A or x is in B}

x
Venn Diagram:

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 7

Given : A = {4,6,8,10}, B = { x | x= 4p, where p=1,2,3}

C = { x | x = √!, where n = 9, 36, 81, 100 }

List all the elements in:

i. AÇB=

ii. (A È B) Ç C=

iii. AÈC=

iv. AÇBÇ C=

-
c) Complement (A’ = AC = A )

A complement is a set that contains all elements in the universal set (x) that
are not in A.

Definition 8: A’ = {x | x is not in A}

Venn Diagram: x

d) Difference Of Set A From B ( A | B = A – B)

The difference of set A from B is a set that consists all elements in A, but not
in B.

Venn Diagram:

Definition 9:

A–B = {x| x is in A but not in B}

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 8:

Given: x = { x | 0 < x < 11, and x Î Z } A = { 2,4,6,9}

B = {2, 6, 7, 9, 10} C = {1, 4, 5, 7}

List the elements in the following sets:

i. (A Ç B)’ =

ii. (B – A)’ =

iii. A’–C=

iv. (A - B)’ Ç C’ =

Example 9:

For each of the following Venn Diagram, shade the region that represents
(i) A Ç B’ and (ii) A U B’ for the given sets.

x x b.

A B
A B

2. Shade the following sets using Venn diagram.

i) A È (B Ç C)

ii) (A Ç B) È (B Ç C)

iii) (A È B) Ç (A È C)

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

1.9 PROBLEMS OF FINDING NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

(By using the Venn Diagrams)

(i) Venn Diagram : Involving 2 sets

Example 10:

A survey was carried out on 220 students in UiTM(T). It was found out that 90 of
them have computers, 75 of them have motorcycles, and 25 of them have both
items.

a. Draw a Venn diagram to depict the above information.

M – Motorcycle
C M
C – Computer

b. How many students:

i. have at least one items?

ii. have only computer?

iii. have only motorcycle?

iv. have none?

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 11:

There are 900 students in a particular school. 480 students entered the drawing
competition. The number of students entering the reading competition was twice
compared to the number of students who did not participate. The number of students
entering the drawing competition was three times compared to the number of
students who did not participate.

Depict the above information in a Venn Diagram.

R H

Find the number of students who:

a. participated in at least one competitions.

b. participated in exactly one competition

c. participated in drawing competition only.

d. did not take part.

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

(ii) Venn Diagram : Involving 3 sets

Example 12:

A survey was carried out on 100 customers in hypermarket JJ and the

following data were obtained.
17 customers bought MILO (M) and VICO (V)
13 customers bought MILO (M) and NESCAFE (N)
15 customers bought VICO (V) and NESCAFE (N)
30 customers bought MILO (M) only
20 customers bought VICO (V) only
The customers who bought NESCAFE (N) only is three times the number of
customers who bought all the three types of packed-drinks
i. How many customers had bought all the three types of packed-drinks?

Solution:

num customer bought NECSCAFE only

= Total number of customer - num bought Milo only - num bought Vico only
= 100 - 20 - 30
= 50

\ Total customers that bought all the three types

17 - x + 13 - x + 15 - x + x + 3 x = 50
x = 50 - 45
x=5

ii. How many customers had bought at least one type of packed-drinks?
Solution:
= Total customers had bought at least one type of packed - drinks
= 30 + 20 + 15 + 12 + 8 + 10 + 5
= 100

iii. Hence, draw a Venn Diagram which represents the above information.

MILO NESCAFE
15
30 8

5
12 10

20
VICO

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 13:

There are 1250 workers working in Company XXX. The information about them are
given below.

650 have cars, 430 have motorcycles

290 have houses, 80 have cars and motorcycles
95 have cars and houses 60 have motorcycles and houses
45 have all those three items

Depict the above information in a Venn Diagram.

x
M

Find the number of workers who:

a. have at least one items. e. have at least two items.

b. have exactly one item. f. have exactly two items

c. have only house g. did not have any of those three items.

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 14:

A survey was carried out on 215 students in a particular college, in order to

determine the number of students who have reference books in mathematics,
economics and computers. The result was obtained below:

10 have all the three books

38 have mathematics and economics books
30 have only mathematics books
48 have only computer books
36 have only economics books
18 did not have any books

The number of students who have only economics and computer books was twice as
much as those students who have only mathematics and computer books.

Depict the above information in a Venn Diagram

C
M

Find the number of students who have

a) only computer and economics books

b) exactly two books

c) computer and economics books

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

1.10 ALGEBRAIC LAWS FOR SETS

1. DOUBLE COMPLEMENT i. ( A' )' = A = A

2. DE MORGAN’S LAW i. ( A È B)' = A' Ç B' @ A È B = A Ç B

ii. ( A Ç B)' = A' È B' @ A Ç B = A È B

3. COMMUTATIVE LAW i. AÈB=BÈA

ii. AÇB=BÇA

4. ASSOCIATIVE LAW i. A È (B È C) = (A È B) È C

ii. A Ç (B Ç C) = (A Ç B) Ç C

5. DISTRIBUTIVE LAW i. A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C)

ii. A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C)

6. IDEMPOTENT LAW i. AÈA=A

ii. AÇA=A

7. IDENTITY LAW i. AÈÆ=A

ii. AÇx=A

8. INVERSE/COMPLEMENT i. A È A’ = x

ii. A Ç A’ = Æ

9. DOMINATION LAW i. AÈx=x

ii. AÇÆ=Æ

10. ABSORPTION LAW i. A È (A Ç B) = A

ii . A Ç (A È B) = A

11. DIFFERENCE OF SETS i. A – B = A Ç B’

ii. B – A = B Ç A’

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

Example 15:

By using the algebraic laws of sets, show:

i. ( B È A)’ È ( B’ Ç A ) = B’

Solution:

From LHS:
= ( B È A)' È ( B' Ç A )
= ( B' Ç A' ) È ( B' Ç A ) De Morgan' s Law
= B'Ç ( A 'ÈA ) Distributi ve Law
= B'Ç x Inverse Law
= B' Identity Law

ii. A’ – B’ = B – A

iii. ( B – A )’ Ç ( B È A ) = A

iv. ( A’ Ç B ) – ( A È B ) = Æ

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

v. (A \ B) Ç (A \ C) = A \ (B È C)

Solution :
From LHS :
= (A Ç B¢) Ç (A Ç C¢) Difference of sets
= A Ç (B¢ Ç A ) Ç C¢ Assiociative
= A Ç (A Ç B¢) Ç C¢ Commutativ e
= (A Ç A ) Ç B¢ Ç C¢ Assiociative
= A Ç B¢ Ç C¢ Idempotent
¢
= A Ç (B È C) De Morgan
= A \ (B È C) Difference of sets

vi. (A \ B ) \ C = A \ (B È C)

vii. (A Ç B) \ (A Ç C) = A Ç (B \ C)

viii. [(A È C) Ç C¢] È éê(A Ç B)¢ Ç A ùú = A Ç (B Ç C)¢

ë û

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

TUTORIAL 1

1. Which of the following sets are similar?

a) { 1 , 2 , 3 } b) { 3, 2 , 1 , 3 }
c) { 3, 1 , 2 , 3 } d) { 1, {2,3}}

2. Given A = { 1 , 2 , { 2 }}.

i. Obtain the number of subsets for set A; and list down all of them.
ii. State whether the following statements are true or false.

a) 1 Î A b) {1} Î A c) {1} Í A
d) {{1}} Í A e) {2} Î A f) {2} Í A
g) {{2}} Í A h) {{2}} Ì A

3. List all of the elements in the following sets.

a) A = {1 + (-1)n ½ n = 0,1,2,3, …..}

b) B = { x : x2 –4x + 3 = 0, where x Î Z}

4. Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Find the number of:

a) subsets for set A.

b) proper subsets for set A.
c) subsets for set A containing 5 elements.
e) subsets for set A containing even number of elements.

5. Given A= {a, {b}, b, {a,c}}.

i. How many subsets are there for set A? List down two subsets for A
containing 3 elements.

ii. State whether the following statements are true or false.

a) a Î A b) b,c Î A c) {a , {b}} Î A
d) {b} Î A e) a,b Î A f) {a} Î A
g) {b} Ì A h) { } Ì A i) {{b}} Ì A
j) A Ì A k) A Í A l) b, {a,c} Î A

6. State whether the following statements are true or false. If false, show an example in
a Venn Diagram.

a) if x Î A and A Ì B, the x Î B.
b) If A Ì B and A Ì C, then B=C.

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

7. Given x = {1, 2, 3, ....., 10} , A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, 4, 8},

C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}. List all of the elements in the following sets.

a) (A È B) Ç C b) A È (B Ç C) c) C’ È B’

d) C Ç A’ e) (A È B) - C f) (B - C)’

8. Given A, B, C Í Z and each is defined as follows:

A = {2nïn Î Z} B = {3n ïn Î Z} C = {4n ïn Î Z}

State whether the following statements are true or false.

i) C Í A ii) A Í C iii) B Ç C ¹ Æ

9. Shade the following sets in each of the Venn Diagram.

a) (A\ B) È B’ b) (B\A) – B’

x x
B
A B
A

10. Given A,B and C are any sets (non-empty). Draw a Venn Diagram for the following
sets:

A Ì B, C Ì B and A Ç C = Æ

11. For each of the following Venn Diagram, name the set represented by the shaded
area.

a) x b) x
B B

A
A

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

12. By using the algebraic laws of sets, show:

a) (A È B)’ È (A Ç B’) = B’
b) (A - B) È (A Ç B) = A
c) (A\B) Ç B = Æ
d) (A È B) Ç (A Ç B’) = A - B
e) (P¢ \ Q)¢ È (P¢ È Q) = x
f) ( A - B) È ( A Ç B) = A

13. By using the algebraic laws of sets, simplify the following sets:

a) A Ç (B - A)
b) (A - B) È (A Ç B)
c) (A’ È B)’ È (A’ Ç B’)
Answer: Æ, A, B’

14. A particular shop sells two types of computer-inks, P and Q. In January 2000, 210
customers came to that shop. The number of customers who did not buy anything
was five times compared to the number of customers who bought both type of inks.
There were 40 customers who bought P and 50 customers who bought Q. Find the
number of customers who:

a. bought at least one type of ink.

b. bought both type of inks.

c. bought only type P.

d. did not buy any of the two inks.

Answer: 60, 30, 10, 150

15. There are 60 students in a particular class, of which 22 involved in sports, 34

involved in clubs, and 15 involved in both. Find the number of students who:

a) did not take part in clubs.

b) are involved in clubs or sports.

c) did not take part in clubs, but get involved in sports.

d) did not take part in sports, but active in clubs.

Answer: 26, 41, 7, 19

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MAT 210 CHAPTER 1: SET THEORY

16. In a particular week, Kedai Letrik Amin was visited by 136 customers. The following
information was obtained.

20 customers bought only refrigerators.

24 customers bought only washing machines.
10 customers bought only TV
14 customers bought only refrigerators and washing machines.
24 customers bought refrigerators and TV.
20 customers bought washing machines and TV

The number of customers who did not buy anything was 4 times compared to the
number of customers who bought those three items.
Find the number of customers who:

a) bought those three items

b) did not buy anything

c) bought only two items

d) bought at least two items

Answer: 8, 32, 42, 50

17. In a survey of 75 consumers, 12 indicated they were going to buy a new car, 18 said
they were going to buy a new microwave oven and 24 said they were going to buy a
new stove. Of these, 6 were going to buy both a car and a microwave oven, 4 were
going to buy a car and a stove and 10 were going to buy a stove and microwave
oven. One person indicated he was going to buy all the three items.

a) How many were going to buy none of these items?

b) How many were going to buy only car?

c) How many were going to buy only a stove?

d) How many were going to buy only a microwave oven?

e) How many were going to buy a stove and microwave oven, but not a car?

Answer: 40, 3,11, 3, 9

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