Third Edition

Stage
Rigging
HANDBOOK
Jay O. Glerum
Stage Rigging Handbook
Stage Rigging Handbook
Third Edition

Jay O. Glerum

Southern Illinois University Press

Carbondale
Copyright © 1987, 1997, 2007 by Jay O. Glerum
First edition published 1987. Third edition 2007
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America

10 09 08 07 4 3 2 1

Material from the catalog and data sheets of Nicopress® were re-
printed, with permission, in parts 1 and 6. Nicopress is a registered
trademark of the National Telephone Supply Company.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Glerum, Jay O.
Stage rigging handbook / Jay O. Glerum. — 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8093-2741-6 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8093-2741-4 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Stage machinery—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Stage manage-
ment—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Theaters—Safety measures—
Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Theaters—Stage-setting and scenery—
Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
PN2091.M3G54 2007
792.02´5—dc22 2006026865

Printed on recycled paper.

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of
American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of
Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992. ∞
To my granddaughters, Katie, Maddie, and Mae,
the next generation
 Contents

Preface to the Third Edition xvii

Preface to the Second Edition xix
Preface to the First Edition xxi
Symbols and Abbreviations xxiii

Part 1. Loads and Reactions 1

1.01. The 4 Ks 1
1.02. Knowing the Rigging System 2
A. Load and Force 2
B. Static Equilibrium 2
1.03. Supporting a Load 3
A. The Engineer and the Rigger 3
B. Seat-of-the-Pants Experience 4
C. Free-Body Diagram (FBD) 4
D. Summation of Forces 5
E. Moment of Force 7
F. Examples 9
G. Continuous Beams 12
1.04. Summation of Forces 13
A. Resultant Force 13
B. The Law of Sines 14
C. Table of Multipliers for Resultant Forces 15
D. Vectors 16
1.05. Bridle Analysis 17
A. Bridle-Length Calculation 18
B. Vertical and Horizontal Forces 19
C. Bridle Tension 21
D. Vector Analysis 22

vii
 E. Hanging Points of Different Heights 23
F. Ratio of Horizontal to Vertical Distance 26
G. Allowable Loads 28
H. The Effect of Bridles on Hanging Points 28
1.06. Strength of Materials 29
A. Types of Applied Forces 30
B. Stress, Strain, and Hooke’s Law 31
C. Yield Point and Elasticity 32
D. Breaking Point 33
E. Allowable Deflection 34
F. Torsion 35
G. Unpredictable Forces 35
H. Design Factor of Components 38
I. Determining the Design Factor 38

Part 2. Block-and-Tackle Rigging 42

2.01. Introduction 42
2.02. Anatomy of a Block-and-Tackle System 43
A. Wooden Blocks 44
B. Metal Blocks 44
C. Other Types of Blocks 45
2.03. Load Distribution on a Block 45
A. Static Load 45
B. Dynamic Load 47
2.04. Mechanical Advantage 49
A. Apparent Mechanical Advantage 49
B. Actual Mechanical Advantage 49
C. Calculating Lead-Line Pull 52
D. Mechanical Advantage of Common Systems 55
E. Calculating the Total Load on the System 57
F. Rope and Sheave Wear 57
G. Mechanical Advantage of Complex Systems 58
2.05. Lacing and Reeving of Blocks 59

viii
2.06. Inspecting a Block-and-Tackle System 61
2.07. Using a Block-and-Tackle System 62
A. User’s Checklist 62
B. Attaching 62
C. Operating 63
D. Storing 63

Part 3. Hemp Rigging 65

3.01. Introduction 65
3.02. The Hemp Systems 65
A. Single-Line System 65
B. Multiple-Line System 66
C. Sandbag and Arbor Attachment as Counterweight 68
3.03. The Rope 69
A. Considerations of Rigging Rope 69
B. Types of Natural-Fiber Rope 70
C. Synthetic-Fiber Rope 71
D. Tensile Strength or Breaking Strength 73
E. Strength and Allowable Working Load of Rope 73
F. Effects of Knotting 75
G. Care of Rope 75
H. Indications of Wear 79
I. Testing a Rope 80
J. Bo’sun’s Chair 81
K. Selecting the Right Rope for the Job 81
3.04. Blocks 82
A. Hemp-Rigging Blocks 82
B. Loads 85
C. Head Blocks 86
D. Loft Blocks 88
E. Spot Blocks 88
F. Mule Blocks 88
G. Idler Pulleys 88

ix
 H. Sag Bars 88
I. Snatch Blocks 88
3.05. Pin Rail 92
A. Fixed-Pin Rail 92
B. Loose-Pin Rail 92
C. Single-Pin Rail 92
D. Double-Pin Rail 92
E. Pins 92
F. Tying Off 94
3.06. Sandbags and Arbors 97
A. Attaching Sandbags and Arbors with a Sunday 99
B. Attaching Sandbags and Arbors with a Trim Clamp 100
3.07. Jack Line 101
3.08. Spot-Line Rigging 101
A. Positioning Loft Blocks 101
B. Positioning Head Blocks 102
C. Fleet Angle 102
D. Aligning Blocks 103
E. Running Rope 104
F. Attaching Weight to Rope 104
3.09. Operation of Hemp Rigging 104
A. Safety Inspection of All Components 104
B. Untying a Line Set 106
C. Attaching Loads 106
D. Removing Loads 107
E. Trim Marks 107
F. Lashing with Small Tie Line 108
G. Retrimming 109
H. Coiling and Dressing 109
I. Showtime Operation 110
3.10. Operation Summary 110
3.11. Historical Summary 110


Part 4. Counterweight Rigging 112
4.01. Introduction 112
4.02. Single-Purchase Counterweight System 113
4.03. Double-Purchase Counterweight System 114
4.04. Miscellaneous Hardware 115
4.05. Wire Rope 116
A. Properties of Wire Rope for Stage Rigging 116
B. Construction of Wire Rope 119
C. Grades of Wire Rope 120
D. Attaching to Batten and Arbor 124
E. Indications of Wear 130
4.06. Blocks 132
A. Material 132
B. Sizing 133
C. Head Blocks 134
D. Tension Block 135
4.07. Lock Rail 136
A. Rope Lock 136
B. Lock Adjustment 137
C. Load Limit and Identification 137
4.08. Arbor 137
A. Guide Systems 139
B. Pipe Weight 141
4.09. Hand Line 141
4.10. Loading Bridge 142
A. Storing Weights 142
B. Loading and Unloading Weights 142
C. Identifying Load Limits and Weights 144
D. Lead Weights 144
4.11. Loading and Unloading with a Loading Bridge 144
A. Crew Responsibilities 144
B. Communications 152

xi
 C. Runaway Set 152
D. Loading 153
E. Unloading 153
4.12. Loading and Unloading without a Loading Bridge 153
A. Partial Loads 153
B. Unbalanced Large Loads 154
4.13. Showtime Operation 159
A. Label Lock Rail 159
B. Use Trim Marks 159
C. Knuckle Buster 159
D. Preshow Testing 161
E. Cuing 161
4.14. Special Counterweight-Rigging Problems 162
A. Lighting Battens 162
B. Variable Load 162
C. Increasing Counterweight Capacity 163
4.15. Operation Summary 164

Part 5. Motorized Rigging 166

5.01. Introduction 166
5.02. Systems Descriptions 167
A. Motorized Counterweight Systems 167
B. Dead-Haul Winch Types 173
5.03. Motor Types 175
A. AC Electric Motor 175
B. DC Electric Motor 175
C. Servo Motor 175
D. Hydraulic Motor 175
5.04. Electric-Winch Components 177
A. Motor 177
B. Gear Reducer 178
C. Brakes 178
D. Drum 179

xii
 E. Controls 179
F. Rigging Components 183
5.05. Hydraulic-Winch Components 183
5.06. Hand Winch 184
5.07. Operation of Motorized Rigging 185
A. Safety Inspection of All Components 186
B. System Capacity 186
C. Loading and Unloading 186
D. Showtime Operation 187
5.08. Operation Summary 187
5.09. Safety-Inspection Summary 187

Part 6. Cutting and Terminating Rope, Attaching

Loads, and Dealing with Special Problems 189
6.01. Fiber Rope 189
A. Cutting 189
B. Knots 191
6.02. Wire Rope 192
A. Cutting 192
B. Unreeling and Uncoiling 195
6.03. Terminating 196
A. Wire-Rope Clips 196
B. Compression Sleeves 202
C. Trim Chains 214
6.04. Bolts 215
6.05. Attaching Loads 216
A. Curtains 216
B. Drops 217
C. Vertical Framed Scenery 218
D. Horizontal Framed Scenery 221
E. Point Loads 222
6.06. Special Problems 224
A. Breasting 224

xiii
 B. Tripping 225
C. Guiding 226
D. Dead Hanging 226
E. Flying People 226

Part 7. Inspection of Rigging Systems 229

7.01. Keep the Equipment in Safe Working Order 229
7.02. Frequency of Inspection 229
A. Daily 230
B. Scheduled 230
7.03. Preparation 231
A. Rail Log 231
B. Repair List 231
C. Inspection Checklist 231
7.04. What to Look For 232
A. Overstressed Components 232
B. Impact Loading 232
C. Fatigue 232
D. Loose or Missing Bolts 232
E. Defective Hardware 232
F. Corrosion 233
G. Incorrectly Installed Hardware 233
H. Wrong Hardware for the Job 233
I. Organic Degradation 233
7.05. Inspection Procedure 233
7.06. Fire-Curtain-Inspection Checklist 235
7.07. Hemp-System-Inspection Checklist 236
7.08. Counterweight-Inspection Checklist 237
7.09. Motorized-Inspection Checklist 240
7.10. Installation Checklists 241
A. Termination Instructions 242
B. Counterweight-System Checklist 242
C. Motorized-System Checklist 244

xiv
 D. Hand-Winch Checklist 245
E. Fire-Curtain Checklist 245
F. Brail–Fire-Curtain Checklist 246

Part 8. Operation and Training 248

8.01. ETCP Certification 248
8.02. Venue-Specific Training 249
8.03. General Subjects for All Rigging Systems 249
A. Paperwork 250
B. Rail-Operation Checklist 250
C. Operating a Line Set 250
D. Loading-Bridge Procedure 250
E. Mid-Rail (Jump-Rail) Operation 251
F. Motorized Rigging Operation 251
G. Runaway Procedure 251
H. Knot Tying 251
I. Fire-Curtain Operation 251
J. Grid Operation 252
K. Hemp-Set Operation 252
8.04. Keep Your Concentration 252

Part 9. Fire Curtains 253

9.01. Introduction 253
9.02. Codes and Regulations 254
A. Building Codes 254
B. Life Safety Code 255
C. Authority Having Jurisdiction 255
9.03. Water Curtains 256
A. Water-Deluge System 256
B. Water-Spray Curtain 256
C. Maintenance and Testing 256
9.04. Fabric Curtains 257
A. Types of Fabrics 257

xv
 B. Types of Curtains 257
C. Curtain Construction 259
9.05. Operation Devices 260
A. Release Lines 260
B. Manual-Release Devices 261
C. Automatic-Release Devices 262
D. Overbalance Systems 264
E. Deceleration Devices 270
9.06. Motorized Fire Curtains 272
9.07. Maintenance 272

Glossary 275
Selected Bibliography 279
Index 283

xvi
Preface to the Third Edition

The third edition contains a number of additions and changes

requested by readers and participants in the rigging master
classes and workshops that I have taught over the last ten years.
The additions also reflect some of the changes in the way that
the entertainment industry is approaching rigging. Stagehands,
technical directors, and venue managers are increasingly aware
of the dangers of unsafe rigging practices, and there is a con-
certed effort in the industry to do things correctly and safely. In
a number of venues, from legitimate theatres to theme parks
and Las Vegas spectaculars, a new attitude is emerging: The
show does not have to go on—unless it can go on safely. On
Broadway, stagehands no longer use Genie lifts without outrig-
gers, they keep maintenance logs on the rigging equipment,
and regular rigging-equipment inspections are part of the stan-
dard practice. The Entertainment Technician Certification Pro-
gram is up and running, and there are now nationally certified
flymen and riggers.
In an effort to help stage technicians more easily locate in-
formation they need on installing, maintaining, or operating equip-
ment, this third edition is indexed. It also contains new sections
with detailed checklists for rigging inspections, installing rigging,
and creating venue-specific training programs. The section on
fire curtains was added to help stagehands understand how ex-
isting fire curtains work and to keep the curtains operating ac-
cording to code.

As with the first and second editions, thanks are due to a num-
ber of people who willingly and generously shared their knowl-
edge with me to help make this edition more useful. Thank you
to Dan Culhane of SECOA for his drawings and counsel on fire
curtains and to Barry Grothause of Loos & Co. and John Quinn,
senior development engineer of National Telephone Supply Co.,
for answering my many questions and providing detailed infor-
mation on terminating wire rope. A special thanks to Craig Ryan
of Ver Sales for helping me understand the various standards
for wire rope as well as providing information and hardware
samples used in the termination section. Thanks also to Jerry
Gorrell, who provided much needed information on fire-curtain

xvii
fabric, and to Reid Neslage of H & H Specialty and Tom Young
of J. R. Clancy, who provided drawings and counsel during the
research process. To everyone above, I extend my grateful ap-
preciation. Also, I would like to thank the United States Institute
for Theatre Technology (USITT) for sharing information during
the research process.
To my wife, Sallie, I owe a debt that can never be repaid for
her editing skills, commentary, and support during the process
of creating and bringing this edition to print.
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the staff at South-
ern Illinois University Press who worked on this edition: Kristine
Priddy, assistant acquisitions editor; Mary Lou Kowaleski, copy
editor; Wayne Larsen, project editor; Erin Longwell, designer
and typesetter; Paula Durbin-Westby; and Barbara Martin, edi-
torial, design, and production manager. Without their profes-
sionalism and consistently enthusiastic, diligent, and good-hu-
mored support, the show could not have gone on.

xviii
Preface to the Second Edition

In the last twenty years, stage scenery has changed noticeably

with steel being used as a common building material and hard
covering replacing muslin on flats. Movement of scenery can be
exceedingly complex as directors and designers at all levels of
the entertainment industry strive to create new techniques and
production modes. With the dynamics of moving heavier scen-
ery, added strain is placed on building structures and rigging
systems. The technology used in such shows as Starlight Ex-
press, Phantom of the Opera, and Siegfried and Roy requires
an understanding of physics and engineering to the extent that
some production companies hire structural engineers to assist
in modifying the venue and to design the structure of the scenery.
With increased magnitudes of loads and complexity of move-
ment comes greater risk, as well as greater possibility, for injury.
The courts have found facility owners, managers, supervisors,
and riggers to be responsible for the maintenance and proper
use of their rigging equipment and for providing adequate train-
ing of those who use it. Gathering a group of stagehands around
the hemp lines to all pull together is no longer sufficient. Tech-
nology has progressed beyond that point.
This book is not a course in engineering. It is intended to
help you understand theatrical rigging equipment, how to in-
spect and maintain it, and how to use it. It is your responsibility
to use the equipment safely, and when the complexity of a rig-
ging problem is beyond your expertise, it is your responsibility
to find a reliable source to help solve the problem. Just as no
single stage technician could possibly be expected to have the
breadth and depth of knowledge required to understand all of
the intricacies of people flying and stage, arena, outdoor, con-
vention center, and ballroom rigging, neither does this hand-
book. It is a resource that touches on the scope of our profes-
sion but does not exhaust it.
The second edition of Stage Rigging Handbook includes
two new parts. The first is an expanded discussion of the forces
and loads on stage rigging components and the structure sup-
porting them. The second is devoted to block and tackle rigging.
Both of these parts are intended to increase your understanding
of the equipment you use. The remaining four parts contain many

xix
minor revisions that have come about from written comments
from readers and feedback from the rigging master classes that
have been held since the first edition was printed. This edition
does not include the “Recommended Guidelines for Stage Ma-
chinery and Stage Rigging” that constituted the appendix of the
first edition. At the time of this printing, the United States Insti-
tute For Theatre Technology and the Entertainment Services and
Technology Association are in the process of writing standards
to replace the recommended guidelines. And as in the first edi-
tion, the information on applying wire-rope clips, now in section
6.02.C-1, is adapted from the Wire Rope Users Manual, 2d ed.,
Copyright © 1981 by American Iron and Steel Institute, and is
used courtesy of the American Iron and Steel Institute.
Beyond the acknowledgments contained in the original pref-
ace, some additional thanks are due. I owe a debt of gratitude
to Randy Davidson for organizing the first master classes and
to David Lofton and Jerry Gorrell for making them happen. From
the teachers in the classes I learned much: Bob Beebe, Wally
Blount, Randy Davidson, Harry Donovan, Peter Foy, Steve Lang-
ley, Randy Longerich, Rocky Paulson, and Mike Wheeler. Thanks
also go to all of the participants who shared with me their knowl-
edge of rigging. Special thanks are due to Rocky Paulson and
John Burgess for critiquing early drafts of part 1. Credit is due
to Harry Donovan for algebraically deriving the formulas for
hanging points of unequal heights in section 1.05.E.
Thanks to Teresa White of Southern Illinois University Press
for shepherding the manuscript to its finished form and Kathryn
Koldehoff for her meticulous copyediting. As with the first edi-
tion, my wife, Sallie, spent hours editing and commenting on
the work in progress. This book could never have happened
without her.

xx
Preface to the First Edition

The single greatest cause of rigging accidents in the American

theatre is operator error. While some of this error is due to care-
lessness, much of it is due to lack of knowledge about rigging
systems and their safe operation.
Stage Rigging Handbook is intended as a source of written
information on the care and safe use of stage rigging equip-
ment. It is hoped that its availability will help to reduce operator
error–related accidents, thereby making the theatre a safer
place to work.
This book could not have been written without the knowl-
edge so generously shared by the people with whom I have
worked.
I wish to thank Charlie Ford and Jim Waring of Catholic Uni-
versity; Warren “Tyke” Lounsbury, John Ashby Conway, and the
late Lance Davis of the University of Washington; Floyd Hart
and the stagehands of Local 15, IATSE in Seattle; the stage-
hands of Local 18, IATSE in Milwaukee; and all the road crews
with whom I worked over the years.
I would also like to thank my colleagues in the stage rigging
industry, especially those at the Peter Albrecht Corporation:
Paul Birkle, President; the engineers and staff members.
The words could never had been put into print without the
understanding, encouragement and help of my family, particu-
larly my wife, Sallie.

For permission to quote from the Wire Rope Users Manual, 2d

ed., I thank the American Iron and Steel Institute. I also thank
the United States Institute for Theatre Technology for allowing
me to reprint their Recommended Guidelines for Stage Rigging
and Stage Machinery Specifications and Practices. For permis-
sion to reproduce a number of the illustrations, I gratefully ac-
knowledge the Peter Albrecht Corporation, the Macwhyte Com-
pany, and the American Iron and Steel Institute. And for illustration
reproduction, I thank Wes Jenkins.

xxi
Symbols and Abbreviations

∠ = angle
↑ etc. = a force
° = degree
' = foot
" = inch
× = multiplication
∑ = summation
a, b, c . . . = values
A = area
AF = applied force
AL = allowable load
ALL = allowable load limit
d = rope diameter
D = sheave diameter
D = distance
DF = design factor
DF = free-fall distance
DS = stopping distance
e = strain
FA = fleet angle
ft.-lb. = foot-pound
H = horizontal force
HF = horizontal tension force
in.-lb. = inch-pound
kip = kilopound
kip-ft. = kilopound-foot
kN = kilonewton
l = change in length
l = left
L = load
L = length
lb. = pound
lb.-ft. = pound-foot
lb./ft. = pound per foot
LIF = load increase factor
LL = lead line
LLP = lead line pull

xxiii
M = multiplier
M = moment
MA = mechanical advantage
N = newton
N = number
N-m = newton-meter
P = point load force
r = radius
r = right
R = ratio
R = reactive force
RP = radial pressure
S = stress
S1, S2, etc. = support line
SRF = strength reduction factor
SWL = safe working load
T = tension
UBS = ultimate breaking strength
V = vertical force
VF = vertical tension force
W = weight
WLL = working load limit
Y = yield point

xxiv
Stage Rigging Handbook
Part 1 Loads and Reactions

1.01 The 4 Ks
Rigging is a tool used in the theatre. It supports and provides
movement of overhead objects that are part of a production. If it
works as it should, it rarely calls attention to itself. If something
goes wrong, it may not only be noticeable but life threatening as
well. The functions of the rigging equipment and the rigger are
to do the job as the designer designed it, and the director direct-
ed it, and do it safely. In order to do that, there are four princi-
ples that a rigger needs to follow, called the 4 Ks of rigging.
1. Know the rigging system you are working with.
2. Keep the equipment in safe working order.
3. Know how to use it.
4. Keep your concentration.
Everything that follows in this book is an elaboration of these
four principles.


1.02 Knowing the Rigging System
A typical rigging system is made up of individual line sets. The
line sets may be hemp, counterweight, or motorized (or a com-
bination). Each line set is made up of individual components,
such as rope, a head block, loft blocks, and so on. Each line
set is a separate subsystem, that is, a group of components in-
terrelated and working together. Knowing the rigging system
means knowing three things.
1. The capacity of the equipment. You must know how much
weight each line set is designed to hold, the maximum speed
that motorized line sets are designed to travel, the maximum
weight that all of the line sets together can hold, and the maxi-
mum additional weight that the grid steel can support.
2. The capacity of the components. You should know the
maximum load that each component is designed to carry. A six-
line counterweight set may be designed with a total capacity of
1,500 lb. The individual loft blocks may be designed to support
only a load of 250 lb. each. The head-block support steel may
or may not be designed to support all of the line sets at full load.
3. The operating characteristics of the system. Each line set
is unique. It has its own sound and feel; it even has its own smell.
In order to know the system, the rigger should know the individu-
al peculiarities of each line set in the system. By knowing how a
line set operates normally, the rigger can detect abnormal op-
eration and possible problems.

A. Load and Force

A part of knowing the rigging system is understanding the forc-
es that an object places on each component of a rigging sys-
tem and the structural members supporting the components.
When an object—whether it is a piece of scenery, a lighting in-
strument, or an actor—is flown, it exerts a force on all of the el-
ements that support it. Within the confines of this book, the ob-
ject will be referred to as the load. The elements include all of
the components of the rigging system and the structural mem-
bers of the building supporting those rigging components. The
term force can be thought of as a strength or energy trying to
cause motion or change.

B. Static Equilibrium
Newton’s third law of physics states that for every action there
is an equal and opposite reaction. Applied to rigging, this means


 that the rigging components and supporting members resist the
applied force of the load with a reactive force exactly equal and
opposite to the applied force. For example, imagine yourself
holding a cup of coffee. The muscles in your arm and hand ap-
ply only enough force to support the weight of the arm and the
cup of coffee. If less force is applied, your arm bends down, and
the coffee spills. If more force is applied, the coffee is thrown up
in the air. A lighting instrument is hung on a batten. If the light is
steady and does not move, all of the supporting components—
the C-clamp, batten, lift lines, loft blocks, loft block support steel,
head block, head-block beams, arbor, rope lock, and lock rail—
are exerting exactly enough force to hold it in place.
Two distinct branches of mechanics, statics and dynamics,
apply to stage rigging. Statics is the study of forces and the ef-
fect of forces acting on rigid bodies at rest. Dynamics deals with
motion and the effect of forces acting on rigid bodies in motion.
A body is any object or component that can be isolated and an-
alyzed separately, and a rigid body is an object that essentially
retains its shape. An examination of some of the principles of
statics will help in understanding how the load affects the rig-
ging components and the support members. When there is no
movement of an object, it is in static equilibrium. There is a bal-
ance of all of the forces acting on the system. The force law of
equilibrium states that the algebraic sum of all forces acting on
an object in static equilibrium is zero. This means that all of the
forces acting on the body are equal and opposite.

1.03 Supporting a Load

A. The Engineer and the Rigger
The following discussion is for the purpose of helping riggers to
become aware of the forces acting on rigging systems and com-
ponents, to help you know the rigging system that is being used.
It is not intended to be a course in structural or mechanical en-
gineering. Of necessity, the information on forces and strength
of materials is condensed. The structural design of a building
and the mechanical design of a rigging component are both com-
plex procedures and require the expertise of a professional en-
gineer. When in doubt, consult one.
Until antigravity devices are perfected, the load and rigging
components must be supported by something. Frequently that
“something” is a beam made from steel, concrete, aluminum, or
other material. Each of these materials has its own strength char-


 acteristics that enable it to resist applied forces. Strength of ma-
terials will be discussed in section 1.06. First, we’ll look at ex-
actly how applied and resultant forces act on supporting members.

B. Seat-of-the-Pants Experience

Fig. 1.1. Two 200-lb.

stagehands on
a seesaw

One common experience with resultant forces is riding on a see-

saw (see fig. 1.1). This is a simple beam with a center pivot point,
or fulcrum. If you have been a rider on a seesaw, you have per-
sonal experience with beam loading and the strength of the beam
material. The seesaw works best if both people are about the
same weight. It is easier to balance and easier to operate. For
purposes of this discussion, assume that the seesaw is not mov-
ing, that it is a perfectly balanced plank 16´ long supporting two
stagehands, each weighing two hundred pounds, sitting on the
ends. The components of the system are a 16´ beam (the see-
saw), a section of pipe (the fulcrum), and two pipe legs support-
ing the fulcrum.

C. Free-Body Diagram (FBD)

Fig. 1.2. Free-body

diagram (FBD) of
forces on a seesaw
beam, with R indicat-
ing reactive forces

Analyzing the forces acting on a body can be quite complicated

at times. A good technique to follow is to make a drawing of the
object isolated, or free, from all of its support members, show-
ing all of the applied and reactive forces acting on it. This type
of diagram is called a free-body diagram (FBD). Figure 1.2 is an
example of using an FBD to show the forces acting on the see-
saw beam. Forces are indicated by arrows. Reactive forces are
indicated by R. The diagram used for analysis should contain


 • the lengths of all supporting members and the distances
among forces
• the magnitudes of all of the known forces
• the points of application of all forces
• the directions of all of the forces
• the senses of all forces
The length of a supporting member is self-explanatory. The
magnitude is the amount of force acting on the object. It can be
expressed in units of
pound (lb.)
1,000 lb. or a kilopound (kip)
2,000 lb. (ton)
Metric units are expressed in units of
newton (N)
1,000 N or a kilonewton (kN)
The point of application is the place on the object where the
force is being applied. The direction indicates the line of force at
the point of application, such as an up-and-down direction. The
sense indicates if the force is positive or negative, that is, up or
down. Sometimes the sense is not always obvious; this will be-
come clearer in a later example.

D. Summation of Forces

Fig. 1.3. Positive and

negative forces

Earlier, it was indicated that a body is in equilibrium when the

algebraic sum of all the forces acting on it is zero. All forces have
sense, and the following conventions will be used in this book.
Forces up and to the right are positive. Forces down and to the
left are negative (fig. 1.3). The positive or negative direction of a
force is its sense.
The symbol used to indicate sum or summation is the Greek
capital letter sigma, ∑. When the forces acting on an object are
in equilibrium, the equation can be written as ∑F = 0. That is,
the sum of all of the forces acting on the object equals zero. For
purposes of analysis, it is usually necessary to determine all of


 the horizontal and vertical forces acting on an object. The equa-
tions for those forces are ∑H = 0 for the horizontal forces and
∑V = 0 for the vertical forces.

Fig. 1.4. FBD with

negative and
positive forces

Ignoring the weight of the seesaw for the time being and la-
beling the forces in figure 1.4, there is on the left (l) a downward
(thus negative) force of −200 lb., on the right (r) a negative force
of −200 lb., and an unknown upward (thus positive) reaction, R.
These are the vertical applied forces. There are no horizontal
forces in this example. We will use the letter P to indicate all
applied point load forces and the letter R to indicate all reactive
forces. The equations are:

∑V = 0
∑V = Pl + Pr + R
R + Pl + Pr = 0
R + −200 lb. + −200 lb. = 0
R = 400 lb.

The fulcrum is supporting a load of 400 lb. and therefore must

be reacting with a force of 400 lb.

Fig. 1.5. FBD of

pipe legs

This is only part of the equation. The pipe legs supporting

the fulcrum still must be analyzed. Isolating the fulcrum in figure
1.5, the FBD shows the applied force on the fulcrum and the re-
actions of the pipe legs. The total applied load on the fulcrum is
400 lb. (or 200 lb. from each stagehand). Using the same formula
but reflecting this figure, the equations are:


 ∑V = 0
∑V = Rl + Rr + P
P = –400 lb.
Rl + Rr – 400 lb. = 0
Rl + Rr = 400 lb.
Each R = 200 lb.

When the beam is supported at each end, and the load is in

the center of the beam, the formula can be simplified to V = P/2,
meaning the vertical reaction at each end is one-half the load.

E. Moment of Force

Fig. 1.6. Moment

of force

Fig. 1.7. Moment

diagram of
seesaw

The moment of force is the force’s tendency to produce rotation

of the object on which it acts. This rotation is about some axis
or point of rotation. The point of rotation is called the center of
moments, and the distance between the applied force and the
axis is called the lever arm, or moment arm. The length of the
lever arm is measured from a line drawn through the axis perpen-
dicular to the line of action of the force (fig. 1.6). Units of measure-
ment of a moment are expressed in force and distance, that is,
pound-inch (lb.-in.), pound-foot (lb.-ft.), kilopound-foot (kip-ft.),
and newton-meter (N-m.). (Sometimes, the order of the units is
reversed, such as foot-pound (ft.-lb.), but the meaning is the
same.) In the seesaw example (fig. 1.7), the seesaw is 16´ long.
The fulcrum, or axis, is in the center, 8´ away from the applied


 force of the 200 lb. stagehand. To calculate the moment of force
applied by a stagehand, multiply the length of the lever arm (8´)
by the weight of the stagehand (200 lb.). The result is 1,600 lb.-ft.
The law of equilibrium applies to moments as well as to ver-
tical and horizontal forces. It is written ∑M = 0. Since the moment
on the right end of the beam is 1,600 lb.-ft. in a clockwise direc-
tion, the moment on the left is also 1,600 lb.-ft. in the counter-
clockwise direction. That is, the moments must be equal and op-
posite in direction. Think of it as clockwise being positive and
counterclockwise being negative.

Fig. 1.8. FBD of

seesaw with
unequal loads

Some seesaws have movable pivot points. This is to accom-

modate people of unequal weights. By moving the beam off
center, the length of the moment arm is changed, and the bal-
ance can be maintained. For example, if one stagehand weighs
225 lb., and the other weighs 175 lb., the distances from the ful-
crum would have to be adjusted to keep the seesaw balanced.
Figure 1.8 is an FBD showing the applied forces and the length
of the beam. By simple addition, ∑V = 0, the reaction at the ful-
crum is 400 lb. D1 and D2, the distances from the fulcrum to the
applied loads, can be found by calculating, or taking moments,
from a point of rotation along the beam. Using the left end of
the beam as the point of rotation, starting at the right end and
moving toward the point of rotation, and taking moments of all
of the forces acting on the beam, the moments are:
175 lb. × 16´ = 2,800 lb.-ft. clockwise (+)
400 lb. × D1 = 2,800 lb.-ft. counterclockwise (−)
225 lb. × 0´ = 0
Because the moment is being taken at the left end, there is no
length to the moment arm at the support point of the 225 lb.
To find the length of the moment arm for the left side (the dis-
tance from the left end to the fulcrum), take the total moment of
the right end and divide it by the force at the fulcrum.


 ∑M = 0
∑M = (D1 × 400 lb.) + (175 lb. × 16´)
(D1 × 400 lb.) + (175 lb. × 16´) = 0

2,800 lb.-ft.
D1 = –––––––––––––
400 lb.
D1 = 7´
D1+ D2 = 16´
D2 = 16´− D1
D2 = 16´− 7´
D2 = 9´

This can be checked by taking moments at the right end of

the beam.

F. Examples
Three examples of using moments to calculate reactions on
beam supports follow.

Fig. 1.9a. Example 1

Fig. 1.9b. FBD of

figure 1.9a

Example 1. Two rigging points are hung from a 20´ beam as

indicated in figure 1.9a. What are the reactions on the left and
right support points? Constructing the FBD in figure 1.9b and
taking moments at the right end:


 ∑M = 0
(Rl × 20´) + (−1,000 lb. × 12´) + (−2,000 lb. × 8´) = 0
(Rl × 20´) − 12,000 lb.-ft. − 16,000 lb.-ft. = 0
28,000 lb.-ft.
Rl = –––––––––––––
20´
Rl = 1,400 lb.

Using ∑V = 0
∑V = 0
Rl + Rr − 1,000 lb. − 2,000 lb. = 0
Rr = −1,400 lb. + 1,000 lb. + 2,000 lb.
Rr = 1,600 lb.

Fig. 1.10a. Example 2

Fig. 1.10b. Weight

distribution of
figure 1.10a

Fig. 1.10c. FBD of

figure 1.10a

Example 2. This example illustrates how to find the reac-

tions for an evenly distributed load and includes the weight of

10
 the beam in the calculations. Until now we have ignored the
self-weight of the supporting beam. In practice, it must always
be included in the calculations.
Figure 1.10a shows a 15´-wide curtain weighing 5 lb. per
linear foot (lb. per ft.), hung at one end of a 20´ length of 1 ½˝
schedule-40 pipe. The pipe is dead hung by rope at each end.
How much weight does each rope support?

Weight of curtain = 5 lb. per ft. (75 lb. total)

Weight of 1 ½˝ schedule-40 pipe = 2.72 lb. per ft. (54.4 lb. total)

Figure 1.10b illustrates the FBD of the pipe and the evenly dis-
tributed loads.
Evenly distributed loads are calculated by adding up the
total distributed load and assuming it to be a point load in the
center of the distributed span as shown in figure 1.10c. Taking
moments from the left end,

∑M = 0
(−75 lb. × 7.5´) + (−54.4 lb. × 10´) + (Rr × 20´) = 0
(Rr × 20´) = 562.5 lb.-ft. + 544 lb.-ft.
1,106.5 lb.-ft.
Rr = ––––––––––––––
20´
Rr = 55.3 lb.

∑V = 0
Rl − 75 lb. − 54.4 lb. + 55.3 lb. = 0
Rl = 74.1 lb.

Fig. 1.11a. Example 3

11
Fig. 1.11b. FBD of
figure 1.11a

Example 3. This example (fig. 1.11a) illustrates the reactions

of a wide-flange beam 10˝ deep, weighing 12 lb.-ft. (W10 × 12)
overhanging a 5´-wide scaffold tower. A half-ton chain hoist load-
ed to capacity is at the overhanging end of the beam. The equa-
tions to determine the reactions at each of the support points of
the beam (fig. 1.11b) are:

P = 1,000 lb.
Weight of beam = 12´ × 12 lb./ft. = 144 lb.
Weight of chain hoist = 75 lb.

Taking moments at Rl

∑M= 0
(Rr × 5´) + (−144 lb. × 6´) + (−1,075 lb. × 12´) = 0
(864 lb.-ft. + 12,900 lb.-ft.)
Rr = –––––––––––––––––––––––––
5´
Rr = 2,753 lb.
∑V = 0
∑V = Rl + Rr – 144 lb. – 1,075 lb.
Rl = –2,753 lb. + 144 lb. + 1,075 lb.
Rl = –1,534 lb.

In this case, the left reaction is negative, or a force in the down

direction. There is a tendency for the beam to rotate with the
fulcrum at Rr. A force of −1,534 lb. on the left side, in the down
direction, is necessary to keep the beam in equilibrium.

G. Continuous Beams
In the last section were several examples of beams supporting
loads. In each case, statics was used to calculate the reactions

12
 Fig. 1.12.
Continuous beam
with three supports

at the support points of the beam. Figure 1.12 illustrates a con-

tinuous beam with three or more supports. Statics cannot be
used to calculate the reactions if the beam has three or more
supports. A more complex method called the three-moment
theorem is used for continuous beams. The three-moment the-
orem is beyond the scope of this book but is touched upon in
section 3.04.B.2 on battens.

1.04 Summation of Forces

Fig. 1.13b. FBD of

figure 1.13a

Fig. 1.13a. Load

supported by pipe

A. Resultant Force
Figure 1.13a illustrates a 100-lb. load suspended by a rope that
is bent 360° around a pipe. Figure 1.13b is an FBD illustrating
the forces at work in figure 1.13a. The load is 100 lb. on the right
side, and a 100-lb. force on the left side holds the load in equi-
librium. The sum of these two vertical forces is 200 lb. in the down
direction. The forces are acting on a common point, in this case
the pipe, and the sum of the forces is called the resultant force.
The reaction is 200 lb. in the up direction and is equal and op-
posite to the resultant. Two or more forces acting on a common
point produce a single resultant force.
Figure 1.14a depicts a line bent 90° around a pipe holding
the same load. The FBD in figure 1.14b shows horizontal and
vertical forces with 90° between the parts of the line. The pipe
will tend to bend at a 45° angle between the parts of line. The

13
 Fig. 1.14a. Line bent Fig. 1.14b. FBD of
90° around pipe figure 1.14a

magnitude of the force is unknown. When two equal forces in

different directions act on a common point, the direction of the
resultant force, or R, is halfway between the applied forces. This
is true for the example of the line bending around the pipe, a line
going over a block, or a line bending around any point.

Fig. 1.15. Line bent

around pipe at various
angles, showing the
multipliers, M

Figure 1.15 shows a line bent around a pipe at various angles.

At 180° it is obvious that there is no load M on the pipe. At 0° the
resultant is 200% of the applied load. As the angle between parts
of line decreases from 180° to 0°, the resultant increases from
0% to 200% of the load.

B. The Law of Sines

Using a variation of the trigonometric law of sines, the resultant
force can easily be calculated if the magnitude of the applied
force and the angle between the parts of line are known. The
formula to use is

14
 P × sin ∠
Fr = –––––––––––
sin ∠ / 2
Fr = resultant force
P = applied force
∠ = angle between parts of the line
∠÷2 = half of the angle between the parts of line

Fig. 1.16. Line bent

110° around pipe

Figure 1.16 indicates a line supporting 100 lb. bent 110°

around a pipe. Using a calculator with trigonometric (trig) func-
tions, do the following:

Enter 110, sin (the sin of the included angle).

The calculator should read .93969, (the sin of 110°).
Enter ×, 100 (the load).
Enter ÷, 55, sin (the sin of 1/2 the included angle).
The calculator should read: 114.71.
Fr is 114.71 lb. or rounded off, 115 lb.

C. Table of Multipliers for Resultant Forces

Changing the load to 2,500 lb. and using the same formula, Fr =
2,868 lb., divide the resultant load by the applied load and round
off: 2,868 ÷ 2,500 = 1.15. From the above example of 100 lb.,
dividing 115 lb. by 100 lb. equals 1.15. It becomes apparent that
1.15 is a multiplier for 110°. To find the resultant for any two forc-
es separated by 110°, multiply the applied force by 1.15. The

15
 multipliers used to find the resultant forces for equal loads in in-
crements of 5° are listed in table 1.1.

Table 1.1. Resultant-Force (R) Multipliers

Angle (º) Multiplier Angle (º) Multiplier Angle (º) Multiplier

180 0.00 120 1.00 60 1.73

175 0.09 115 1.07 55 1.77
170 0.17 110 1.15 50 1.81
165 0.26 105 1.21 45 1.85
160 0.35 100 1.30 40 1.88
155 0.43 95 1.36 35 1.91
150 0.52 90 1.41 30 1.93
145 0.60 85 1.47 25 1.95
140 0.68 80 1.53 20 1.97
135 0.77 75 1.59 15 1.98
130 0.85 70 1.64 10 1.99
125 0.92 65 1.69 0 2.00

The reaction is equal and opposite to the resultant; this table

gives the reactive forces for the listed angles.

D. Vectors

Fig. 1.17a. Vector

drawing of figure 1.16

Forces that have magnitude, direction, and sense can be drawn

as vectors. Figure 1.17a is a vector drawing of the forces shown
in figure 1.16. A scale is chosen to represent the magnitudes of
the force. In this case, each unit of length represents 10 lb. of
force. A line representing the magnitude and direction of each
force is drawn to scale with an arrowhead indicating the sense
of the force. The resultant force can be calculated by geometri-
cally adding the vector forces. There are two ways to do this.

16
 1. Parallelogram Method

Fig. 1.17b. Com-

pleted vector
drawing of
figure 1.17a

Figure 1.17b illustrates the method whereby a parallelogram is

constructed, and the diagonal from the origin to the opposite cor-
ner is drawn. The diagonal represents the resultant force. If the
vectors are carefully drawn, the length of the diagonal can be
measured, and the resultant force can be closely approximated.
2. Tip-to-Tail Method

Fig. 1.17c. Tip-

to-tail vector
drawing of
figure 1.17a

In the method shown in figure 1.17c, the vector for the vertical
force is drawn starting at the origin. The diagonal-force vector
at 110° is drawn from the tip of the vertical vector. A resultant
vector is drawn from the origin to the tip of the diagonal-force
vector and measured. If a large enough scale is selected, and
the drawing carefully done, the results can be very accurate.

1.05 Bridle Analysis

In section 1.04, it was shown that component forces can be com-
bined to produce a resultant force. Often it is necessary to do
the opposite and determine the horizontal and vertical compo-
nents of a diagonal force.

17
Fig. 1.18a. Bridle sus-
pending load from
two support points

Using bridles typically requires an analysis of the bridle com-

ponents and the loads placed on all of the supporting members.
The items that need to be calculated are the length of the bridle
members; the force, or tension, on each bridle member; and the
horizontal and vertical forces on each suspension point. Figure
1.18a shows a bridle being used to suspend a load from two
support points. The given information includes the load and
the horizontal and vertical distances of the load point from the
hanging points.

A. Bridle-Length Calculation
If the horizontal and vertical distances from the hanging points
are known, then calculating the required length of the bridle
members can be done in two ways.

1. Scale Drawing
Carefully making a scale drawing of the bridle system, then,
measuring the length of the bridle members will give a close
approximation of the required bridle length. If done on a com-
puter-aided drafting system (CAD), the results can be extremely
accurate.

2. Pythagorean Theorem

Fig. 1.18b.
Right triangle

The Pythagorean theorem can be used to find the length of the

bridle legs mathematically. Figure 1.18b shows a right triangle
with legs a and b. The theorem states that the square root of

18
the sum of the square of the sides is equal to the hypotenuse,
c. Mathematically stated,

c = √a2 + b2
c = √32 + 42
c = √9 sq.-ft. + 16 sq.-ft.
c = √25 sq.-ft.
c = 5 ft.

Applying the formula to the bridle example shown in figure

1.18a, the length of the bridle members (L) can be calculated.
Ll = √Vl 2 + Hl 2 Lr = √Vr2 + Hr2
Ll = √5 sq.-ft. + 4 sq.-ft. Lr = √5 sq.-ft. + 8 sq.-ft.
Ll = √25 sq.-ft. + 16 sq.-ft. Lr = √25 sq.-ft. + 64 sq.-ft.
Ll = √41 sq.-ft. Lr = √89 sq.-ft.
Ll = 6.4 ft. Lr = 9.4 ft.

B. Vertical and Horizontal Forces

All of the forces supporting the load must be in equilibrium. At
this point in the bridle analysis, the length of the components and
the weight of the load are known. The next step is to find the mag-
nitude of the vertical and horizontal forces on each suspension
point. Looking again at figure 1.18a, it is obvious that the total
vertical force in the up direction must equal 500 lb. and ∑V = 0. It
is also obvious that there will be more load on the left suspension
point than on the right because the load is closer to the left side.
1. Vertical Forces
As long as both hanging points are the same height, Vl = Vr, the
moment formula, ΣM = 0, can be used. It makes no difference
that the applied load is a vertical distance away from the sup-
port points. (See section 1.05 E. for hanging points of different
heights.) Taking moments at the left support point to solve for
the vertical force (VF) at the right support point, VFr, we have:

ΣM = 0
ΣM = (Hl × P) + [(Hl + Hr) × VFr]
ΣM = (4 ft. × 500 lb.) + (12 ft. × VFr)
(4 ft. × 500 lb.) + (12 ft. × VFr) = 0
2,000 lb.-ft.
VFr = –––––––––––– = 166.6 lb. = 167 lb.
12 ft.

19
 ∑V = 0
∑V = 500 lb. − 167 lb. − VFl
VFl = 500 lb. − 167 lb.
VFl = 333 lb.

2. Horizontal Forces

Fig. 1.19.
Similar triangles

The horizontal forces must be equal to each other (ΣH = 0), or

the load will be moving from side to side. When the force in any
one direction on a bridle leg is known, and the horizontal and
vertical distances of the bridle point from the suspension points
are known, the other forces can be determined by using ratios
of similar triangles. When two triangles have the same angles
but sides of different lengths, they are similar. This means that
the ratios of any two sides of one triangle will be equal to the
ratio of the same two sides of a similar triangle as shown in fig-
ure 1.19.
Figure 1.20a is the bridle diagram with the corresponding
vertical-force magnitudes shown. The diagram indicates the

Fig. 1.20a. Bridle

diagram showing
vertical-force
magnitudes

20
Fig. 1.20b. Vector
drawing of
figure 1.20a

length of the bridle members and the distances the load is from
the supporting points. It also indicates the direction and sense
of the vertical forces. Figure 1.20b shows a vector drawing of
the forces (in which T is the tension). Note that the legs of the
triangles in Figures 1.20a and 1.20b are of different lengths; the
angles are the same. Setting up the ratios to find the horizontal
forces, we have

5´ 333 lb. 5´ 167 lb.
––– = –––––––– ––– = –––––––
4´ HFl 8´ HFr

4´ × 333 lb. 8´ × 167 lb.

HFl = ––––––––––– HFr = –––––––––––
5´ 5´
HFl = 266 lb. HFr = 267 lb.

The 1-pound difference is due to rounding off the vertical

forces and is of no consequence; 267 lb. is used for further
calculations.

C. Bridle Tension
The tension in the bridle leg can be calculated in several ways.
Two of the methods are illustrated here.

21
 1. Pythagorean Theorem
Using the Pythagorean theorem and the values for the horizontal
and vertical forces, we have (after rounding off)
Tl = √267 lb.2 + 333 lb.2 Tr = √267 lb.2 + 167 lb.2
Tl = 427 lb. Tr = 315 lb.

2. Comparative Ratio Method

6.4´ Tl 9.4´ Tr
–––– = ––––––– –––– = –––––––
4´ 267 lb. 8´ 267 lb.

267 lb. × 6.4´ 267 lb. × 9.4´

Tl = ––––––––––––– Tr = –––––––––––––
4´ 8´
Tl = 427 lb. Tr = 314 lb.

D. Vector Analysis

Fig. 1.21. Partial vector

drawing superimposed
on figure 1.18a

Making a vector drawing for bridles is another way of solving for

the vertical, horizontal, and bridle-leg tensions. Use the original
bridle drawing of figure 1.18a as a starting point. The horizontal
forces acting on the bridle point are equal, therefore, the horizon-
tal components of the vector drawing are equal. Take the short-
est horizontal component of the scale drawing, in this case Hl,
and mark it off on the longest horizontal leg. Construct a new
vertical, VX, to intersect the bridle leg. Figure 1.21 shows the
modified original drawing of figure 1.18a with the vector draw-
ing superimposed.
The vector drawing is a scale drawing of the forces acting on
the various elements of the bridle. Although the drawing is accu-

22
 rate, the scale, or value of the units, is unknown. Determine the
length of VX by using the ratio of similar triangles.

Vx Vr
––– = –––
Hl Hr

(Vr × Hl)
Vx = ––––––––
Hr

(5 × 4)
Vx = –––––––
8
Vx = 2.5

∑V = 0; therefore, the two vertical components in the vector

drawing must equal 500 lb. Adding the number of units and di-
viding them into the weight gives the weight-per-unit value of the
vector drawing, that is, 500 lb. ÷ (5 + 2.5) = 66.6 lb. per unit. Now
the force value of any component in the vector diagram can be
found by multiplying the vector length by the unit value.
Vl = 5 × 66.6 lb. = 333 lb.
Vx = 2.5 × 66.6 lb. = 167 lb.

E. Hanging Points of Different Heights

1. Vector Method

Fig. 1.22a. Bridle

with hanging points
of different heights

When the hanging points are of different heights, as in figure 1.22a,

the bridle component lengths can still be calculated by the Py-
thagorean theorem, and the tension and forces can be calculated
by the vector method in 1.05.D. Figure 1.22b is constructed from

23
Fig. 1.22b. Partial
vector drawing
superimposed on
figure 1.22a

figure 1.22a and a superimposed partial vector drawing. The weight-

per-unit value in the vector diagram is

weight-per-unit = P ÷ (Vl + Vx)

P is the point load force. This equation is the sum of the vertical
forces, or ΣV = 0. Using similar triangles,

Vx Vr
–––– = ––––
Hl Hr
(Vr × Hl)
Vx = ––––––––
Hr
(6´ × 4´)
Vx = –––––––
8´

Vx = 3´

The weight-per-unit value is 500 lb. ÷ 8´ = 62.5 lb. per ft.

All of the forces can be calculated by multiplying the appro-
priate vector lengths by 62.5 lb. The left vertical force (VFl) is
VFl = 62.5 lb. × 5 = 312.5 lb.
VFr = 62.5 lb. × 3 = 187.5 lb.
Tl = 62.5 lb. × 6.4 = 400 lb.
Tr = 62.5 lb. × 5 = 312.5 lb.
HFl = 62.5 lb. × 4 = 250 lb.
HFl = HFr = 250 lb.
2. Moment Method
If a vector diagram is not constructed, and the value for the weight-
per-unit is not found, the moment theorem, ∑M = 0, requires

24
some modification for finding the vertical forces. The following
section will derive and illustrate the formulas.

(Vl × P)
VFl = –––––––––
(Vl + Vx )

Without a vector diagram, the value for Vx is not known. Us-

ing the similar-triangle formula and substituting (Vr × Hl) ÷ Hr for
Vx in the VFl formula,

(Vl × P)
VFl = –––––––––––––

[Vl + (Vr × Hl )
––––––
Hr ]
To simplify the equation, both sides are multiplied by Hr ÷ Hr.
(Note that Hr ÷ Hr = 1, so it does not change the VFl side of the
equation.)

(Vl × Hr × P)
VFl = –––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(5 × 8 × 500)
VFl = –––––––––––––––––
[(5 × 8) + (6 × 4)]
VFl = 312.5 lb.

Follow the same procedure for the other side:

(Vr × Hl × P)
VFr = –––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(6 × 4 × 500)
VFr = –––––––––––––––––
[(5 × 8) + (6 × 4)]
VFr = 187.5 lb.

The tension in the bridle legs can be found by similar triangles:

Tl Ll
–––– = ––––
VFl Vl

(VFl × Ll )
Tl = –––––––––
Vl

25
Substituting the VFl formula above for VFl:

(Vl × Hr × P)
VFl = –––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(Ll × Hr × P)
Tl = –––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(6.4 × 8 × 500)
Tl = –––––––––––––––
[(5 × 8) + (4 × 6)]
Tl = 400 lb.

Substituting the VFr formula to find the tension in the right bridle leg,

(Lr × Hl × P)
Tr = ––––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(10 × 4 × 500)
Tr = –––––––––––––––––
[(5 × 8) + (4 × 6)]
Tr = 312.5 lb.

Summarizing the formulas,

(Vl × Hr × P)
VFl = ––––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(Vr × Hl × P)
VFr = ––––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(Ll × Hr × P)
Tl = –––––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

(Lr × Hl × P)
Tr = –––––––––––––––––––
[(Vl × Hr ) + (Vr × Hl )]

F. Ratio of Horizontal to Vertical Distance

Changing the ratio of horizontal to vertical distance for the hang-
ing points has an effect on the bridle tension and the horizontal
forces on the hanging points. Figure 1.23 shows a series of bri-
dles in which the vertical distance gets shorter in relationship to

26
Fig. 1.23. Increasing
vertical angles

the horizontal distance. As the vertical angle approaches 90°,

the tension in the bridle increases, and the horizontal force on
the hanging points increases. Assuming a 100-lb. load, the ver-
tical load on each hanging point is 50 lb. A comparison of the
bridle tension and horizontal forces at various angles illustrates
the increase in forces.

Angle Bridle Tension Horizontal Force

30º 58 lb 29 lb
45º 70 lb 50 lb
60º 100 lb 87 lb
75º 193 lb 186 lb
89º 2,865 lb 2,865 lb
89.9º 28,648 lb 28,648 lb

Note: When the angle between the bridle leg and the vertical is
known, the following trigonometry formulas can be used: T = VF
÷ cos of the vertical angle; HF = T sin of the vertical angle.
The above comparisons show that even though the support-
ed load may be small, as the vertical distance decreases between
the bridle point and the hanging points, the tension increases in
the bridle. If too shallow a bridle angle is chosen, the tension in
the bridle and the applied horizontal forces to the hanging points
can be many times the load.

27
 G. Allowable Loads
Sling manufacturers (a sling is just a bridle upside-down) derate
the strength of their bridles as the angle changes between the
sling leg and the vertical. Because the tension is increasing in the
sling member as the vertical angle approaches 90°, the sling will
support less weight. The sling member is given a working-load
rating based on a straight vertical load. To find the allowable load
of a bridle member at any angle, multiply the allowable load of
the bridle member by the cos of the vertical angle. The cos of
0° is 1 and therefore can support the full load rating. The cos of
89° is .017. Due to the increased tension in the member, at 89°
the sling can support only a small percentage of the load that it
can support at 0°. If the rating of a bridle member is 1,000 lb., then

1,000 lb. × cos 89° = allowable load

1,000 lb. × .017 = 17 lb.

Generally, the manufacturers want a vertical angle of 45° or

less maintained.

H. The Effect of Bridles on Hanging Points

When using a bridle, be sure that the hanging points can sup-
port both the horizontal and vertical forces of the bridle.

1. Separate Hanging Points

Fig. 1.24. Hanging

points on separate
members

When the hanging points are separate, such as with individual

beams shown in figure 1.24, the beams must be braced in the
horizontal direction to withstand the horizontal forces of the bri-

28
 dle. While this may seem obvious, quite often no one told the
engineer who designed the beams that the supporting members
would have to withstand these forces. Consequently, there may
not be sufficient horizontal bracing. Imagine hanging a bridle
from two separate battens with no stiffener between them. The
horizontal force would pull the battens together. The same thing
can happen to the beams in a building. Always calculate the hori-
zontal, vertical, and tension loads on a bridle system before install-
ing the bridle. Inspect the hanging points for horizontal bracing
and any signs of deflection. (See 1.06.C for allowable deflection.)
If there is no horizontal bracing or if there is any question about
the bracing being able to withstand the applied forces, have an
engineer verify that the structure can support the load.
2. Hanging In-line on a Beam

Fig. 1.25. Hanging

points on same
member

Hanging the bridles in-line on a beam (fig. 1.25) ensures that there
is horizontal support. A batten is a simple beam, and bridling
from it is a clear example of this type of hanging. There is a finite
amount of weight that the batten, or any beam, can support in
this manner. If the horizontal forces are too great, the beam will
bend just like a bow when the string is drawn.

1.06 Strength of Materials

The following discussion on strength of materials is brief and in-
cluded to provide a foundation for understanding the terminol-
ogy that component manufacturers use in rating their products.
Listed in the bibliography are some excellent books on the sub-
ject that do not require a degree in higher mathematics to un-
derstand. Not only are they very well written, some of them are
even fun to read.

29
 Every material used for stage-rigging components and sup-
port members has a finite strength, a limited ability to resist the
load placed on it. Generally speaking, the manufacturers of com-
ponents tell the users how much load a component made from
a given material can support before failure. This information is
conveyed in several ways, and understanding the terminology is
part of the rigger’s job.

A. Types of Applied Forces

There are four types of applied forces that affect materials. These
are tensile, or stretching, forces; compressive forces; shear forc-
es; and torsional forces. (Torsional forces are discussed in sec-
tion 1.06.F.)

Fig. 1.26a. Tensile

force on a line

Fig. 1.26b.
Compressive force

A tensile force attempts to pull the material apart (fig. 1.26a).

This is generally the type of force placed on rope, cable, bolts
clamping two objects together, and the bottom chord of beams.
Not all materials withstand tensile forces well.
Compressive forces tend to push the material together and
cause it to bulge (fig. 1.26b). Footings, the top chord beams, bolts
used as leveling legs on appliances, and walls are examples of
objects that have to resist compressive forces.
A shear force is a sliding force (fig. 1.26c). It tends to make
two parts of an object try to slide past one another. A load on
the pin of a shackle is an example of a shear force.
In each of these cases, the external force is attempting to
deform the material, and the material is resisting the force through
the molecular bond of atoms within the material. Some materi-
als resist one type of force better than others. Steel resists both

30
 Fig. 1.26c. Shear
force on a shackle

tensile and compressive forces fairly well. Concrete and Styro-

foam resist compressive forces well but by themselves are al-
most useless in resisting tensile forces. Rope and cable with-
stand tensile forces but are ineffective in resisting compressive
forces. Trying to move a load by pushing a rope is a futile task.

B. Stress, Strain, and Hooke’s Law

Stress (S) is defined as the load per unit of cross-sectional area.
It is found by dividing the point load forces (P) by the cross-sec-
tional area (A) of the object being tested. S = P ÷ A. If a steel rod
1˝ square is supporting a load of 1 ton in tension, the amount of
stress on the rod is 2,000 lb. per square inch,

S = 2,000 lb. ÷ 1˝

This same principle is true for compressive forces. If a wom-

an weighing 120 lb. walks on a pair of high heels, and each side
of the bottom of the heel is .5 in., the area of one heel is .25 in.2
(.5 in. × .5 in. = .25 in.2). When all of her weight is on that one
heel, the compressive stress on the area of the floor where she
puts her heel at the moment is 120 lb. ÷ .25 in. = 480 lb./in.2 As
the construction of a tall building is completed, more and more
material is added to the structure, increasing the weight that the
building supports. The building compresses and actually gets
shorter. Engineers must take this compression into consider-
ation when designing the structure.
Stress can be caused by either tensile or compressive forc-
es. In everyday life, the terms stress and strain are used inter-
changeably: The stage manager is “stressed out.” The technical
director (TD) is under a lot of “strain.” In the science of material,

31
stress and strain are very different. Strain is defined as the change
in length of an object as force is applied to it. Strain (e) equals
the change in length (l) divided by the original length (L) of the
object, e = l ÷ L.
Robert Hooke was the first person to realize the relationship
between stress and strain and write about it. His theory, Hooke’s
law, states that stress is directly related to strain. This is true for
many materials, especially steel. When a piece of steel is sub-
jected to a given load, either in compression or tension, its length
changes in proportion to the applied force. The steel rod with a
cross-sectional area of 1 square inch will stretch a certain length
under a load of 1 ton. It will stretch exactly twice as much under
a load of 2 tons. If the woman wearing high heels weighed 240 lb.,
the floor would compress twice as much. Or, if the heel of her
shoe had an area of only .125 in.2, the floor would compress
twice as much.

C. Yield Point and Elasticity

For many materials, when forces within a certain range are ap-
plied and then removed from an object, the object will go back
to its original shape. These applied forces are within the elastic
range of the material from which the object is made. If the amount
of force is increased, it will reach a point where the object will
not return to its original shape. This point is called the yield point.
At this point, the molecular structure of the material has been
permanently altered. An example of this is a rubber band that
has been stretched to the point where it will no longer go back
to its original shape. Common examples are a thimble that has
been permanently deformed by stress (see fig. 4.15) or a beam
that is bent.
The yield point for a material is usually determined by labo-
ratory testing. A sample of the material with a known cross-sec-
tional area is subjected to carefully increasing forces, and the
change in length is measured. This information is plotted on a
standard stress-strain graph. Figure 1.27 is a typical stress-strain
diagram for mild steel, the material from which structural and
bar-stock steel components are usually made. As the stress in-
duced by the load increases, the strain increases at a constant
rate until it reaches the yield point.
If the force is released at any point of the test before the
yield point is reached, the material will go back to its original
shape. The force up to this point is within the elastic range of the
material, and there is no change in the strength of the material.

32
Fig. 1.27. Stress-
strain diagram
of mild steel

At point Y, the yield point, the material stretches a greater

distance than before in relation to the applied force. If the force
is released at this point or any point beyond, the material will not
return to its original shape. The molecular bonds have been
changed, and the elastic limit has been exceeded. Permanent
deformation has occurred, and the material is now in a plastic state.
At this point, the material is no longer as strong as it was originally.

D. Breaking Point

As increased force is applied to the material, the material con-

tinues to stretch in a plastic state until it reaches the point of
ultimate stress. This point is called the breaking point or failure
point. The material continues to stretch with no additional force
being applied until it fractures. With any piece of hardware, there
will be variances in the strength from piece to piece. For exam-
ple, if an entire batch of shackles with a rated breaking strength
of one ton was tested to failure, the shackles would not all break
at exactly one ton. Some would break above, some would break
right at, and some would break below the design strength. If
reasonable quality control was used in manufacture of the shack-
les, they all will break within an acceptable range. If the break-
ing point for each shackle is recorded and plotted against quan-
tity on a graph, a standard bell curve results. Figure 1.28 is an
example of a bell curve with each dot representing one shackle
test. The average absolute-value for the deviation from the de-
sign strength is calculated and is called the standard deviation.

33
Fig. 1.28. Standard-
deviation bell curve

Typically, about 68% of the samples fall within the first de-
viation, and about 95% fall within the first and second combined.
A problem arises if a particular shackle is below the median de-
sign strength, because, obviously, the user does not know where
any shackle falls on the deviation curve. Manufacturers publish
the strength of materials in different ways. The terms breaking
strength, tensile strength, nominal breaking strength, and aver-
age breaking strength are various ways manufacturers express
the average breaking strength, the mid-point on the bell curve.
About half the samples tested will fail above the average, and
half will fail below.
Minimum breaking strength is the measurement of strength
at about two standard deviations below the average. Almost all
of the samples will test above this point.
Ultimate or maximum breaking strength is a point on the
curve below which more than 90% of the samples broke. How
this affects hardware selection and design factors is discussed
in section H. Although these terms have slightly different mean-
ings for the user, they are basically synonymous.
When a component fails and breaks apart, the official phras-
ing used in accident reports is “The component suffered a cata-
strophic failure.” Because the failure is usually accompanied by
a loud noise, the riggers on the job will say, “The son-of-a-bitch
blew up.” These two phrases are also synonymous. “Catastroph-
ic failure” equals “son-of-a-bitch blew up.” Whatever the term
used, this result is to be avoided.

E. Allowable Deflection
When a load is placed on a beam, such as a head-block beam,
roof beam, or grid channel, the beam deflects, or bends. There

34
Fig. 1.29. Allowable
deflection for a
steel beam

is a limit to how far the beam can deflect before it reaches the
yield point. A reasonable amount of deflection, based loosely on
building-code recommendations, is 1/240 of the span (fig. 1.29).
To determine the deflection of a beam, measure the length
of the beam in inches between supporting points. Divide the
length by 240 to get the allowable deflection. For example, a beam
120˝ long has an allowable deflection of 0.5˝ (120 ÷ 240 = 0.5).
Stretch a string along the top of the beam between the support-
ing points, and measure the distance from the string to the top
of the beam. If the distance is less than the allowable deflection,
there is no problem. If it is more than the allowable deflection,
the beam should be inspected by a qualified person.

F. Torsion
A torsional force is a twisting force. Using a wrench to tighten a
nut and bolt subjects the bolt and the nut to torsional force. The
longer the wrench, the greater the force that can be applied. The
strength of the bolt and nut must be able to withstand the force
applied by the wrench, or the bolt will fail. Most of us have, at
one time or another, “over-torqued” a bolt and had that sinking
feeling when it suddenly got easier to turn because the threads
were stripped, or the bolt broke apart. In both cases, the torsion-
al force caused the material to fail in shear. Shear, as defined ear-
lier, is when two parts of the material slide against one another.
This torsional force that causes shearing is highly destructive and
relatively easy to apply to a component. It is impossible for any-
one to pull apart a ¼˝-diameter steel rod (tensile force) but rela-
tively easy to strip a bolt of the same diameter if given a long-
enough wrench.

G. Unpredictable Forces
Tension, compression, shear, and torsion forces are fairly easy
to predict and calculate under static conditions. Once the load

35
starts moving, the forces are increased and might be applied
in unpredictable modes. Two of these modes are fatigue and
shock loading.
1. Fatigue
Fatigue stress is caused by the repeated applying and removing
of force on an object. The force can be tensile, compressive, tor-
sional, or any combination of these. The components used for
rigging are all subject to dynamic loads and fluctuating stress-
es. The actual stress can be well below the tensile strength or
even the yield point of the material.
Fatigue is progressive, hard to see, and very difficult to pre-
dict. If a rigging system is designed for a single use with a con-
stant load and a constant number of cycles per time period,
predicting fatigue failure is possible. Most of the time, though,
the loads and cycles are changing and therefore unpredictable.
Bending a paper clip back and forth will eventually fatigue the
piece of wire until it breaks. That it will break is certain. When it
will break is very difficult to predict. Only regular inspection of
the components can tell when the fatigued parts are in danger
of failing.
2. Shock Loads
The rapid application of force to an object is shock loading. It
usually involves rapid acceleration or deceleration. Hitting the
arbor on the crash bar, a batten fouling on an adjacent batten
and then falling free, or starting and stopping a motorized sys-
tem are all examples of shock loading. The magnitude of shock
load due to a free fall can be approximated if the free fall dis-
tance (DF), the stopping distance (DS), and the weight (W) of the
falling object are known. The formula is

(W × DF )
shock load = ––––––––– +W
DS

On theatrical rigging systems, calculating the effect of a shock

load on specific components is extremely difficult. The stopping
distance is dependent on the cross-sectional area, the length of
the supporting wire or rope, the coefficient of elasticity, and the
percentage of load applied to each component of the system.
The following formula and sample problem are courtesy of
Reid Neslage of H & H Specialties. This formula appears in the
Macwhyte G-18 catalog. Neslage has reworked it for ¼˝ galva-

36
 nized aircraft cable. In order to use the formula, you need to
know the modulus of elasticity and the cross-sectional area of
the wire for the type of wire rope you are calculating the shock
load for. The modulus of elasticity and area formulas are not in
the catalog and were obtained from Macwhyte by Neslage.
They are included here for your use.

Type of Wire Rope Modulus of Elasticity Area

1 × 7 carbon 25,000,000 .605 d2
1 × 19 carbon 22,500,000 .597 d2
1 × 37 carbon 22,000,000 .573 d2
7 × 7 carbon 19,000,000 .491 d2
7 × 19 carbon 15,000,000 .476 d2
6 × 19 carbon IWRC 15,000,000 .490 d2
18 × 7 carbon 13,000,000 .433 d2
7 × 19 stainless 13,000,000. 476 d2

The d2 is the nominal diameter squared. Quarter-inch wire

rope is .25˝ squared.

Fig. 1.30. Shock load

on 1/4˝ cable

The following formula can be used to calculate shock loads

on a single piece of wire rope as shown in figure 1.30. The fol-
lowing symbols are used in the formula.

l = length of wire rope in inches

P = static load in pounds
h = slack in inches
Δl = elastic stretch of wire rope
A = metallic area of wire rope (in2)
d = wire rope nominal diameter
E = modulus of elasticity
Pf = stress at impact in pounds

37
   
2h Pl
Pf = P × f K = 1 + 1 + –––– ∆l = ––––
∆l AE

  
2h × A × E
Pf = P × 1 + 1+ ––––––––––––
P×l

A sample problem for ¼˝ galvanized aircraft cable follows.

l = 75 ft.
P = 500 lb.
h = 6 in.
A = .476 d2
E = 1.5 × 107
   
2 × 6 in × .02975 in.2 × 1.5 × 107 psi
Pf = 500lb. × 1+ 1+ ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
500 lb. × 75 ft. × 12in./ft.
Pf = 2296 lb.

H. Design Factor of Components

It is unsafe to load rigging components beyond the yield point.
Usually a component is given a working load limit (WLL) that is
a percentage of the ultimate breaking strength of the material
from which the component is made. Other synonymous terms
for WLL are allowable load limit (ALL), allowable working load
(AWL), recommended working load (RWL), and safe working
load (SWL). The terms safety factor and safe working load are
not the preferred terms because they imply safety, which may
or may not exist.
The ratio of the allowable load to the ultimate breaking
strength is called the design factor (DF) and is determined by
dividing the ultimate breaking strength (UBS) by the allowable
load (AL). Like any equation, this formula can be manipulated
algebraically to solve for any of the three terms.

DF = UBS ÷ AL
AL = UBS ÷ DF
UBS = AL × DF

I. Determining the Design Factor

The design factor provides a margin of safety for selecting and
sizing rigging components. The question is, how large should

38
the margin of safety be? The design factor, when not specified
by a law, such as an Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration (OSHA) regulation, depends on the degree of risk involved
in the situation. Dead-hanging a 10-lb. sack of feathers 8´ off the
floor poses little risk to anyone. If it falls, there is not much chance
of someone getting hurt or killed. The design factor for the sus-
pension materials can be very low. Hanging a 200-lb. chandelier
on a single line that moves during an a vista (in view of the audi-
ence) scene change over a stage full of actors has a much high-
er degree of risk. The design factor for all components should
be increased to reflect the risk and provide an adequate margin
of safety.
When calculating the design factor, every known force should
be added to the load. Typical load-increase factors are the add-
ed weight that curtains will gain by absorbing moisture from the
air and by the added force required to overcome the inertia of
starting to move an object at rest.
Other factors will decrease the strength of the materials that
are being used and are called strength reduction factors (SRF).
Examples of strength reduction factors are a knot in a rope and
the type of termination on a wire rope. Because these factors are
known, the strength of the hardware device should be derated
before starting the equation. For example, the efficiency of prop-
erly applied wire rope clips is 80% for sizes of 1 8̸ ˝ through 78̸ ˝.
Therefore, multiply the catalog breaking strength of the wire rope
by 0.8 to find what the breaking strength of the wire is after the
clips are applied. The margin of safety provided by the design
factor should allow for the unknown factors, such as shock
loading and fatigue.
Common minimum design factors used in the entertainment
industry are

Static-wire rope and hardware 5:1

Running-wire rope 8:1
Fiber rope 10:1

Running-wire rope is subject to fatigue bending and there-

fore requires a higher minimum design factor than a sling re-
quires when wrapped around a beam for concert rigging. The
10:1 minimum design factor for fiber rope takes into account
fatigue bending and abrasion.
When using wire or fiber rope, it is always a good idea to
multiply the catalog breaking strength by the termination effi-
ciency before calculating the allowable load. Seven-by-nineteen

39
galvanized aircraft cable 1 8̸ ˝ diameter has a catalog breaking
strength of 2,000 lb.
Terminating the wire rope with copper Nicopress sleeves
provides a 100% efficient termination. No derating is necessary.
For a static application, 2,000 lb. divided by a design factor of 5
gives a 400-lb. allowable load. For a running application in which
the line will be bent over a pulley, dividing 2,000 lb. by a design
factor of 8 gives an allowable load of 250 lb.
Terminating with wire rope clips provides an 80% efficient
termination. Multiplying 2,000 lb. by 0.8 gives a derated break-
ing strength of 1,600 lb. The allowable static load at 5:1 is 320
lb. The allowable running load at 8:1 is 200 lb.
To determine the size of rope required to hang the 200-lb.
chandelier in the above example, start with the known informa-
tion and reasonable assumptions. The weight of the object and
the efficiency of a bowline (60%) are known. A design factor of
10 is common practice for this kind of situation.
Weight of chandelier (AL) 200lb.
Required design factor (DF) 10
Efficiency of knot (SRF) 60%

Modifying the formula to solve for the ultimate breaking

strength of the rope with design factor of 10 gives the equations

(UBS × SRF)
DF = ––––––––––––
AL

(DF × AL)
UBS = –––––––––––
SRF

(10 × 200 lb.)

UBS = –––––––––––––
.60

2,000 lb.
UBS = ––––––––––
.60
UBS = 3,333 lb.

Selecting a rope with an ultimate breaking strength of 3,333

lb. provides a design factor of ten times all of the known forces
and allows for the strength reduction of the knot. This allows for
shock loading, fatigue, and any other unforeseen forces hidden
in the factor of ignorance.

40
 The problem can also be solved by breaking the formula
down into two steps.

UBS
DF = ––––––
AL
UBS = DF × AL
UBS = 10 × 200 lb. = 2,000 lb.

Then divide the breaking strength by the efficiency of the

termination.

2,000 lb.
UBS = ––––––––––
.60
UBS = 3,333 lb.

Because the chandelier has to be lowered and raised by hand

(obviously on a bagged line), the diameter of the rope has to be
large enough to pull comfortably. Five-millimeter Spectra would
be strong enough but hard to handle.

41
Part 2 Block-and-Tackle Rigging

2.01 Introduction
Section 1.01 introduced the four main principles of rigging called
the 4 Ks. In the following sections, these principles will be ap-
plied to different kinds of rigging systems. Section 2.01 looks at
their application to block and tackle rigging. Begin by getting to
know the system. Under this heading, the things that the rigger
needs to know to use a block and tackle safely are

1. the weight of the load to be lifted

2. the weight of the block and tackle
3. the capacity of the block and tackle
4. the working-load limit (WLL) of the rope
5. the lead line pull (LLP)
6. the load capacity of the supporting member
7. the total load on the supporting member

42
 2.02 Anatomy of a Block-and-Tackle System

Fig. 2.1. Block

and tackle

A block and tackle consists of a standing (or fled) block attached

to the supporting member, a running (or fall) block attached to
the load, and a line of fiber rope (see fig. 2.1). The line for a block-
and-tackle system can be natural or synthetic fiber. (More de-
tailed information on types and strength of line is given later.)
The principal part of a block is the pulley, or sheave, con-
sisting of one or more grooved wheels supported by wood or
metal side plates that turn on a shaft. The block is used to change
the direction of force utilized to move an object with a line. It is
much easier to raise something to the grid using a block and
pulling down on the line than it is to stand on the grid and pull it
up. Not only is there less strain on the back but the rigger can
use body weight to help raise the load.
Blocks are rated for working-load limits. Each block should
have a label on its side indicating the manufacturer’s name and
the working-load limit. This rating indicates that all of the com-
ponents of the block have been engineered to withstand the
working load. Sometimes there is a code indicating the type of
bearings used in the block. If the type of bearing is not evident,
call the manufacturer to get a list of its codes. Do not use un-
rated blocks for heavy loads. If an unrated block fails while you
are using it, it is your fault, and you are liable.

43
 A. Wooden Blocks

Fig. 2.2.
Wooden block

Figure 2.2 shows the parts of a wooden block.

1. The wooden shell (or cheeks) keeps the rope in the

sheave groove.
2. The straps, made of steel, transmit the load from the pin
to the hook.
3. The sheave, or pulley, is the grooved wheel over which
the rope runs.
4. The pin is the axle on which the sheaves turn. The pin
supports the entire weight of the load and transmits the
load from the sheave to the straps.
5. The swallows is the larger opening through which the
rope passes.
6. The breech is the smaller opening at the other end of the
block.
7. The becket is the attachment point of the dead end of
the line.
8. A thimble is used to reduce the stress on the rope at the
becket.
9. A hook or shackle is used to attach the strap to a sup-
porting member.

B. Metal Blocks
Metal blocks, figure 2.3, are similar to wooden blocks. If the met-
al shell (or cheeks) is strong enough, it can actually support the

44
 Fig. 2.3.
Metal block

pin and transmit the load from the pin to the hook, and no straps
are needed. In addition, metal blocks very often have some type
of improved bearing to allow the sheave to turn with less friction.

C. Other Types of Blocks

Other types of rigging equipment are finding their way onto the
stage. Venues close to navigable bodies of water sometimes
use rated marine-grade sailing pulleys for block-and-tackle rig-
ging. The blocks are load rated and lightweight, can be furnished
with good ball bearings, and are easy to handle. Due to the small
sheave diameter, they work particularly well with braided syn-
thetic line.
For simple work lines, mountain-climbing rescue pulleys are
easy to use. They are load rated, efficient, and lightweight.

2.03 Load Distribution on a Block

A. Static Load
Figure 2.4a shows a single block with a load of 100 lb. on it. A
force of 100 lb. on the lead line is required to hold the load in
static equilibrium. Recalling section 1.04.A, the resultant force
on the block is 200 lb. A force of 200 lb. on the structural mem-
ber also supports the block. When using a single block to sup-
port a load with an angle between lines of 0°, the force on the
block and the supporting member is doubled.
This type of rigging is commonly found in arenas or thrust
theatres with dead-hung pipe grids. Scenic units, such as head-

45
 Fig. 2.4. Static
load on a block

ers, are often hung from the grid. Block and tackle are used to
raise the unit into position where it is dead hung with wire rope,
piano wire, or some other “invisible” suspension medium. Dur-
ing the raising process, stagehands use single or multiple blocks
to raise the unit to a working or trim height. The lead lines are
often tied to the arms or legs of the auditorium seats to hold the
header in position. Because seats are designed to withstand the
downward load of a body, not upthrust, it is good practice to
inspect the mounting bolts first to be sure that they are firmly
attached to the floor, because tied-off lead lines are exerting an
upthrust on the seats.
In figure 2.4b, the lead line is tied off to the load instead of
to the seat. By doing this, the load is distributed equally to both
lines. Because half of the load (50 lb.) is on each line, the load
on the block and on the supporting member is only 100 lb. Un-
tying the lead line from the load instantly doubles the load on
the block and support.
The principle of distributing the load between two lines is
used in many parts of stage rigging. One example is the differ-
ence in load distribution between a choker hitch (see fig. 2.5)
and a basket hitch around a beam for arena rigging. The entire
load is supported by one end of the cable in a choker hitch,
while the load is split, with half on each side, in a basket hitch.
A smaller-diameter wire rope can be used to support the same
weight with a basket hitch. See section 4.05.D.1 for a similar
example using trim chains.

46
 Fig. 2.5.
Beam rigging

Refer to figures. 2.2 and 2.3 for the parts of a block. The
entire resultant force is supported by the sheave, the pin, the
attachment device, and the bearings. Half of the resultant load
is supported by each side plate. Each of the components must
be strong enough to do its job. If any of them are not, the com-
ponent will fail, and the load can fall.

B. Dynamic Load
1. Inertia
A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends
to remain in motion. This tendency to resist change in accelera-
tion is called inertia, and it is the principle of Newton’s first law
of physics. We have experienced inertia when trying to push a
car on a level road. (Usually, it seems that cars must be pushed
uphill, but that is a different problem.) More force is required to
get the car rolling than to keep it rolling. A 100-lb. load requires
a force of 100 lb. to hold it in position, but it requires more than
100 lb. to move it. In addition to overcoming the friction in the
system, moving the load requires enough force to overcome the
inertia, that is, to change the acceleration from zero to whatever
speed we want it to move. With a block and tackle, we generally
do not know the velocity that we want the load to travel. There-
fore, an exact calculation of the inertial force is not practical. Even
though inertia is not pragmatic to calculate, its existence causes
an increase in the force required to move the load.

47
 Once the load is moving at the desired speed, the inertial
force is no longer needed. A force equal to the load plus the
force of friction is required to keep it moving. The three magni-
tudes of force on the block and supporting member are (1) the
force of the load at rest; (2) the force required to accelerate the
load to the running velocity, which is a force equal to the load
plus inertial and friction forces; and (3) the force required to keep
it moving, which includes the load force and the friction force.
These changes in force are transmitted to the block parts, to
the supporting member, and to the rope and cause fatigue in all
of the parts of the system.
2. Friction
When asked to solve problems of force and movement in high
school physics class, we were usually told to ignore friction. In
real life, ignoring friction is like ignoring the wind in a hurricane.
Friction is always there. It is a real part of the system, and it is ex-
tremely hard to calculate. There are three sources of friction in a
block-and-tackle system. The first is the friction of the sheave turn-
ing on the bearings. Depending on the type of bearings and how
well-lubricated they are, the bearing friction can range from 1%
to 10% of the load. Typical types of bearings used in blocks are

a. Common, or plain, bore. This is simply a hole drilled in

the sheave for the metal shaft to rotate on, very common
in wooden-sided blocks. This type of block has the high
est friction factor.
b. Roller bearings.
c. Self-lubricating bronze bearings.
d. Pressure-lubricated bronze sleeves.
e. Ball bearings, usually found in boat pulleys and some
stage blocks.
f. Sealed-precision ball bearings.
g. Tapered roller bearings, found in some loft and mule
blocks, and all head blocks. These can be overtightened
to the extent that the sheave will not move.

The friction factors for these various types of bearings are found
in tables 2.1 through 2.4 in section 2.04.C.
The second source of friction is the rope. Regardless of the
type of rope—synthetic, natural fiber, or wire—the strands and
fibers rub against each other as they bend over the sheave. The
smaller the diameter of the sheave, the sharper the bend in the
rope and the more the fibers rub against each other. The recom-

48
 mended ratio of the sheave diameter to the rope diameter is dis-
cussed in section 3.03.G.9. The amounts of lubricant on the rope
fibers and the amount of moisture in a fiber rope also affect fric-
tion. It is not practical to calculate rope friction, but be aware that
it exists and requires force to overcome.
The third source of friction results when lines are twisted (see
section 2.05). Additional friction can occur if the line is oversized
for the sheaves and rubs on the side plates. Also, if the blocks
tilt, the line can rub on the side plates and cause additional friction.

2.04 Mechanical Advantage

Mechanical advantage is the ratio, or comparison, between the
force required to move a load and the force of the load. The for-
mula is

Mechanical Advantage (MA) = Load (L) ÷ Applied Force (AF )

If there is a load of 100 lb. and a device requiring 10 lb. of force

to move the load is used, then the MA is 10; 100 lb. ÷ 10 lb. = 10.

A. Apparent Mechanical Advantage

In order to gain any mechanical advantage in moving a load with
a block and tackle, a second block attached to the load must
be used. Figure 2.6a is a schematic drawing showing a two-block
system with an apparent MA of 2:1. This means that an appar-
ent force equal to half of the load is required to move the load.
To determine the apparent mechanical advantage of a block-and-
tackle system, count the number of ropes supporting the load.
The number of supporting ropes is equal to the theoretical MA.
Analyzing the force on the three ropes shows that there are two
ropes supporting the load (S1 and S2), with half the load on each
one. To hold the load in position, there is a force of ½ of the
load on the lead line, LL. A second way to determine the MA is
to divide the load by the force required to move the load. If the
load equals 1, then L ÷ .5L = 2.

B. Actual Mechanical Advantage

In order to raise the load 1´, 2´ of rope must be pulled through
the top block (fig. 2.6b). When the load is at rest, the tension in
the line is equal at all points. When the load is moving, the forces

49
 Fig. 2.6a. Two-
block system

Fig. 2.6b. Raising

the load 1´ by
pulling 2´ of line

of friction are added to the static force in the line as it passes

over a sheave, and the tension in the separate parts of the line
is unequal. S1 supports half of the load when moving or static.

50
 S2 has the added force required to overcome the friction in the
lower block. Assuming that the friction factor is 10%, the ten-
sion in S2 is

.5L + (.5L × 10%) =.55L

The force on LL (the lead line pull, LLP) includes the friction for
the upper block and is

.55L + (.55L × 10%) =.605L

Therefore, in order to move the load, we would need an force of

.605 of the load plus the force of inertia. Using L ÷ LLP = MA,
we have 1 ÷ .605 = 1.65. The actual mechanical advantage is
somewhat less than 1.65 due to inertia.
Adding all of the force on the block and the supporting
member when the load is moving, we have

S1 + S2 + LLP = total load on block and support

.5L + .55L + .605L = 1.655L (or, total load)

Fig. 2.7. Four-

line system

Figure 2.7 is a schematic drawing of a four-line block and

tackle with a static mechanical advantage of 4:1. Each of the
supporting parts of line, S1 through S4, holds 0.25L when stat-
ic. The amount of force on the lead line, lead-line pull (LLP), re-
quired to hold the load in the static position is also 0.25L. Every
time the rope bends around a sheave, the friction factor for that
sheave is added to the pull on the line. Ignoring inertia for the
moment and assuming a 10% friction factor for bearings and rope,
the actual dynamic load on each line is

51
 S1 = .25L
S2 = .25L + (.25L × 10%) = .275L
S3 = .275L + (.275L × 10%) = .3025L
S4 = .3025L + (.3025L × 10%) = .333L
LLP = .333L + (.333L × 10%) = .366L

The total dynamic load on the top block and supporting mem-
ber, ignoring inertia, is

S1 + S2 + S3 + S4 + LLP = L
.25 + .275 + .303 + .333 + .366 = 1.53L

If we ignored the accumulated friction factor, the apparent

dynamic load would be the same as the static load, 1.25L. Tak-
ing friction into consideration, the dynamic load is .28L higher
than the static load.

C. Calculating Lead-Line Pull

Table 2.1. Friction Factors on Sheaves with Friction

Force of 10% of Sheave Load and Common Bearings
(hole in the sheave)

No. of Parts Multiplication Actual Mechanical

of Line (N) Factor (M) Advantage (ratio = N/M)
1 1.10 .91
2 1.21 1.65
3 1.33 2.26
4 1.46 2.74
5 1.61 3.12
6 1.77 3.39
7 1.95 3.59
8 2.14 3.74
9 2.36 3.81
10 2.59 3.86
11 2.85 3.86
12 3.14 3.82
13 3.45 3.77
14 3.80 3.68
15 4.18 3.66

52
Table 2.2. Friction Factors on Sheaves with Friction Force
of 5% of Sheave Load and Pressure-Lubricated Bronze
Bearings

No. of Parts Multiplication Actual Mechanical

of Line (N) Factor (M) Advantage (ratio = N/M)

1 1.05 .95
2 1.10 1.80
3 1.16 2.59
4 1.22 3.28
5 1.28 3.90
6 1.34 4.48
7 1.41 4.96
8 1.48 5.40
9 1.55 5.81
10 1.63 6.13

Table 2.3. Friction Factors on Sheaves with Friction Force

of 3% of Sheave Load and Ball Bearings or Well-Adjusted
Roller Bearings

No. of Parts Multiplication Actual Mechanical

of Line (N) Factor (M) Advantage (ratio = N/M)

1 1.03 .97
2 1.06 1.89
3 1.09 2.75
4 1.13 3.54
5 1.16 4.31
6 1.19 5.04
7 1.23 5.69
8 1.27 6.30
9 1.30 6.90
10 1.34 7.46

53
Table 2.4. Friction Factors on Sheaves with Friction Force of
1% of Sheave Load and Excellent Precision Ball Bearings or
Perfectly Adjusted Tapered Roller Bearings

No. of Parts Multiplication Actual Mechanical

of Line (N) Factor (M) Advantage (ratio = N/M)

1 1.01 .99
2 1.02 1.96
3 1.03 2.91
4 1.04 3.85
5 1.05 4.76
6 1.06 5.66
7 1.07 6.54
8 1.08 7.41
9 1.09 8.26
10 1.10 9.09

The previous examples illustrate a laborious method of calculat-

ing bearing-friction factors and lead-line pull. Tables 2.1 through
2.4 provide information to simplify the calculations. Each table
has three numbers in each row. In the first column is the number
of parts of line (N), which refers to the number of supporting lines.
The second number, next to the part of line, is the multiplication
factor (M) used to calculate the load on that part of line. This fac-
tor takes into account all of the accumulated sheave friction in
the system up to the point of the particular line. The third num-
ber is the ratio (R), or actual mechanical advantage, on that part
of line. This is found by dividing N by M (or N/M).
To find the LLP, divide the load (L) by the parts of line that
give the theoretical mechanical advantage, and multiply it by M.

LLP = (L ÷ N) × M

Another way to find LLP is to divide the load by the actual

mechanical advantage, R. The formula is

LLP = L ÷ R

Using the example in figure 2.6a, assigning a value of 500 lb.

to the load and a friction factor of 10%, and using the value .605
derived for the two-line system above,

LLP = 500 lb. × .605 = 303 lb.

54
 The laborious part is arriving at the number .605. LLP can
be calculated more quickly using the table to get the value of R.

LLP = 500 lb. ÷ 1.65 = 303 lb.

Using R to calculate LL for the four-line system,

LLP = 500 lb. ÷ 2.74 = 182 lb.

Allowable working loads for different types and sizes of rope

are discussed in section 3.03.E. In all of the calculations, the fric-
tion caused by the rope rubbing against itself and the force of
inertia have been omitted because of the difficulty in calculating
them. The actual lead-line pull and total load on the system will
be greater than the calculated lead-line pull. The design factor
allows for this.

D. Mechanical Advantage of Common Systems

The most common block-and-tackle systems used for stage rig-
ging have apparent mechanical advantages ranging from 2:1 to
6:1. There are systems used on cranes with many more parts of
line, but they are beyond the scope of this book. Within the range
of the systems commonly used for stage work, a number of dif-
ferent kinds of bearings are used. Each of the bearing types has
a finite load limit and a unique coefficient of friction. The load limit
is calculated in the overall rating of the block, and you can assume
that the WLL has taken the bearing-load rating into account.
Many times we do not know what type of bearings the block
has, so we must guess at the friction factor. Wooden blocks often
have no bearings. The sheaves have a hole punched through them
to allow them to turn on a steel shaft. Lubricant is the only thing
that can reduce the friction on this type of block. Judging from
the squeaking and groaning heard during operation, many unlu-
bricated blocks are in use. If you are unsure of the type of bear-
ings in a block, use the 10% friction factor shown in the tables.

Fig. 2.8. Five-part

system with
mule block

55
 Figure 2.8 shows a five-part system with a mule block add-
ed to the lead line to change the direction of the pull. The mule
block adds friction to the system and decreases the MA. In this
case, the actual mechanical advantage cannot be read directly
from the tables. It is calculated by dividing the parts of line sup-
porting the load (N) by the multiplication factor (M) for the num-
ber of sheaves the rope passes over.
R=N÷M
R = 5 ÷ 1.77 = 2.82

Without the mule block,

R = 5 ÷ 1.61 = 3.11

Therefore, LLP with the mule block is

500 lb. ÷ 2.82 = 177 lb.

and without the mule block is

500 lb. ÷ 3.11 = 161 lb.

Adding a block to a system always decreases mechanical ad-

vantage and increases lead-line pull.

Fig. 2.9. Six-part

system upside down

Figure 2.9 is a six-part system turned upside down. By revers-

ing the position of the blocks and pulling up on the lead line, the
lead line becomes a supporting line, the six-part system becomes
a seven-part system, and the MA is increased. There are seven
parts of line supporting the load but still only six sheaves. To find
the mechanical advantage (R) for this system, divide the parts
of line supporting the load, N (7) by the factor for the number of
sheaves (M = 6)
R = 7 ÷ 1.77 = 3.95
LLP = 500 lb. ÷ 3.95 = 127 lb.

56
E. Calculating the Total Load on the System
The total load on the system and the supporting member is the
load plus the weight of the block and tackle plus the lead-line pull.
The weight of the load is either calculated or obtained by weigh-
ing the object. (If it is large, it can be weighed on a truck scale.)
The weight of the block and tackle is the total weight of the
blocks and the line, and, depending on the type of equipment, it
can be significant. Blocks can range in weight from a few ounces
for an alloy marine block, to over 50 lb. for a 3-sheave 8˝ block. If it
appears that the weight is going to be a significant factor in the
total load on the supporting member, weigh the block and tack-
le on a scale. Once done, label the set for future reference.
LLP can be calculated by using the procedures described
above, which is not always possible in the field. Common sense
tells us that the maximum load that can be placed on the lead
line is equal to the total amount of force available to pull it. In many
cases, that would equal the weight of the rigger, or riggers, pull-
ing the line. A rule of thumb for calculating the total load on the
system and supporting member is to add together the weight of
the load and the block-and-tackle system and then double the
total. As long as the lines are not twisted, this should provide an
adequate design factor for friction and inertia. An exception to
this rule is the case of a single-line block (fig. 2.4a). A single-line
block system exerts a static force of twice the load on the block
and supporting member. To determine the total dynamic load on
the system and the supporting member and allow for friction and
inertia, double the load and add 15% of the load to be raised to
the doubled load.
Common block-and-tackle systems are designed to be used
by hand. Attaching the lead line to a capstan winch, forklift, or
other mechanical device is not recommended because of the
greatly increased applied force on all of the components, which
can stress them beyond their capacities.

F. Rope and Sheave Wear

Further analysis of figure 2.7, the four-sheave system, shows
that to raise the load 1´, 1´ of rope passes around sheave A; 2´
of rope pass over sheave B; 3´ pass over sheave C; and 4´ pass
over sheave D. This means that sheave D travels four times faster
than sheave A and receives four times the wear. The lead line at
sheave D has the greatest stress and travels the greatest distance.
An example of this kind of stress and fatigue happens to us in

57
 everyday life. In lacing up our shoes, we pull on the ends of the
laces. The greatest stress and travel of the lace is at the top eye-
lets, and this is where the lace almost always breaks. Re-reeving
the blocks so that the fast sheave becomes the slow sheave and
changing the rope end-for-end will equalize the wear on the sys-
tem and extend the useful life of the rope and the sheaves.

G. Mechanical Advantage of Complex Systems

Fig. 2.10a. Two

block-and-tackle
systems with an
actual MA of 5.92

Fig. 2.10b. Two

block-and-tackle
systems with an
actual MA of 8.11

Section 2.04.D noted that adding a sheave to a system also add-

ed friction to the system. Table 2.1, for 10% friction factor, shows
that after eleven parts of line, mechanical advantage actually de-
creases with the addition of any more parts of line. Using two
block-and-tackle systems together, as shown in figures 2.10a
and 2.10b, increases the mechanical advantage significantly.
The lead line from the seven-part system is attached to the fall
block of a two-part system. R is calculated for each system in-
dependently: the value is 1.65 for the two-part system, and the
value is 3.59 for the seven part system. When using two systems
together, the mechanical advantages are multiplied together to
calculate the total mechanical advantage acting on the load. To-
tal actual mechanical advantage is calculated as follows

58
 R = 1.65 × 3.59 = 5.92
LLP = 500 ÷ 5.92 = 84 lb.

If two additional parts of line are added to the seven-part sys-

tem making it a nine-part system in the same configuration, then
R=N÷M
R = 9 ÷ 2.36 = 3.81
LLP = 500 ÷ 3.81 = 131 lb.

In the three-part system of figure 2.10b, R is 2.26. The total

mechanical advantage is

2.26 × 3.59 = 8.11

LLP = 500 ÷ 8.11 = 62 lb.

Although they take more gear and longer to set up, com-
plex systems can significantly increase lifting capacity.

2.05 Lacing and Reeving of Blocks

Fig. 2.11. Laced

and reeved blocks

There are two ways of running the line through a set of blocks.
The first, called lacing (fig. 2.11), runs all of the parts of line in
the same direction, starting with a sheave on one side of a block
and working toward the other side. Lacing tends to allow the
rope to twist a great deal, and in larger systems, the block will
be inclined to tilt when moving (fig. 2.12). When the block tilts,
the line rubs on the cheeks of the block and adds friction. When
the line twists, an enormous amount of friction is added to the
system by the line rubbing against itself.
Reeving (see fig. 2.11), the second way to run a line, puts the
blocks at right angles to each other. In this configuration, the two

59
 Fig. 2.12. The
tendency of
laced blocks to tilt

Fig. 2.13. Running

of lines in five- and
six-part systems
of reeved blocks

sheaves on each block turn in opposite directions from each oth-

er, and this helps to decrease twisting and reduce friction. When
reeving, attach the standing part of the line as close to the cen-
ter of the block as possible. Also, run the lead line out of a sheave
as close to the center as possible; this will reduce the tendency
of the block to tilt and allow the line to run without rubbing on
the side plates. Figure 2.13 illustrates how to reeve common five-
and six-part systems.

60
 2.06 Inspecting a Block-and-Tackle System
The second K, Keep the system in safe working order, can only
be achieved by periodically inspecting the system. Every time a
block and tackle is taken out of storage and set up, the rigger
should inspect it. A professional, conscientious rigger inspects
every piece of rigging gear before using it. Use the following
checklist as a guide.
1. Check the load rating on the blocks. If they aren’t rated,
do not use them for heavy loads. If they are old, use a higher
design factor. Because the parts are worn, they will not be as
strong as when they were first made.
2. Look for frayed or worn rope. If it is old Manila or badly
worn line of any type, derate the allowable load on the system.
See section 3.03 for additional information on fiber rope.
3. Check to see if the rope is the right size for the sheaves.
Too large a rope will rub on the side plates, adding friction and
abrading the rope. Too small a rope will not be properly support-
ed by the sheave groove. The rope may also get jammed between
the sheave and the side plate.

Fig. 2.14.
Different-sized
hooks on blocks

4. The hook or attachment device is often the weakest part

of a block. Bent or deformed hooks or attachment devices on
the blocks may be a sign that the blocks have been overloaded,
and the block should be taken out of service. Note the different-
sized hooks on the blocks in figure 2.14. The single-sheave block

61
 is rated for a WLL of 1,000 lb., and the double-sheave block is
rated for 1,400 lb.
5. Elongated straps or bent side plates are a sign that the
block has been overloaded. Remove from service.
6. Cracked wooden side plates may fall apart under load.
Remove them from service.
7. Turn the sheaves without a load to see if they wobble. Stick
your thumb in the groove to see if the sheave moves from side
to side. Wobbling can be an indication of bad bearings, an over-
sized hole in the sheave due to wear, or a worn-down pin. If the
bearings are bad, friction and load increase on all of the compo-
nents. A worn pin or enlarged hole in the sheave means a loss of
strength of the component. Replace the block.
8. Check all nuts and bolts, rivets, and retaining rings for
tightness.
9. Listen to the sheaves. If they squeak, lubricate them spar-
ingly. Do not get lubricant on the line.

2.07 Using a Block-and-Tackle System

Before using a block and tackle, make a list of the items that need
to be to be checked, and follow it. The user’s checklist shown
below is a starting point; modify it to fit your needs.

A. User’s Checklist
1. The weight of the load to be lifted
2. The weight of the block and tackle
3. The capacity of the block and tackle
4. The working load limit of the rope
5. The lead-line pull
6. The load capacity of the supporting member
7. The total load on the supporting member
8. The location and capacity of the tie-off point for the
lead line

B. Attaching
The standing block is attached to a supporting member. Before
climbing up to make the attachment, determine to which sup-
porting member the block will be attached as well as how it will
be attached. Be sure that the supporting member will sustain the
load. You may have to consult a structural engineer to help you.

62
Any sign of deflection in the supporting member is an indication
that it may fail.
1. If a cable basket or choker is to be used, calculate the
applied load, and size it accordingly. Use a minimum design fac-
tor of 5:1 for the wire rope. A minimum design factor of 5:1 is
acceptable for wire rope under a static load; a design factor of
8:1 is used for running lines.
2. If the attachment fitting on the block is a rotating type,
mouse it to keep it from rotating (unless for some reason you
want it to rotate).
3. Hook fittings come with and without latches. If there is no
latch, mouse the hook to keep it from falling. A good mousing
material is solid-core electrical wire. It holds well and can be
installed and removed by hand.
4. Shackles are a positive way to attach the fall block. The
shackle should not have a side load on it. The pin may be either
up or down.

C. Operating
1. Before operating the block and tackle, especially if mul-
tiple sets are in use on a common load, designate one person
to be in charge and to give directions to keep the load balanced.
2. When operating the block and tackle, watch for any de-
flection on the supporting member. If it starts to deflect, stop
immediately, and lower the load to the floor.
3. Keep the load balanced so that one rigging point will not
have to support more than it should.
4. If the load spins, tie a tag line to the object, and have a
rigger stand to the side holding the line to keep it from spinning.
5. Keep your concentration.

D. Storing
There are primarily two ways to bundle up block-and-tackle sys-
tems for storage. Once bundled, keep them in a cool, dry place
away from heat sources and contaminants.
1. Method A. Pull the lead line until the blocks are about 3´
apart. Lay them on the floor, and coil the line around them. If you
are using a right-lay twisted line, coil the line clockwise (“with the
sun” as they say in the nautical-rope books). Pull the bundle to-
gether, and tie a clove hitch around the bundle in the center. The
bundle may be stored by hanging by the top block.

63
 To uncoil, lay the bundle on the floor, clove-hitch side up. Un-
tie the knot, carefully take the coiled rope, and turn it over. Sep-
arate the blocks to the required working distance, feeding the
line carefully to avoid tangling.
2. Method B. Separate the blocks to the full extent of the
line. Tie the end of the line around the bundle of line just above
the fall block. Starting at the standing-block end, coil the bundle,
and using one hand only, pull the bundle through the loop, mak-
ing another loop. Using the same hand, continue pulling the bun-
dle through each successive loop until you reach the fall block.
Pull the fall block through the last loop. The bundle may now be
hung or coiled on a peg for storage.
Caution: If you use both hands alternately to pull the line, you
create extra twists in the bundle, and it is harder to take apart.
Also, be careful that you feed the fall block out only through the
last loop. It is all too easy to put it through the second-to-last
loop. If you do, you will make a series of locking knots that will
have to be untied one at a time.

64
Part 3 Hemp Rigging

3.01 Introduction
Although hemp rigging is the simplest and oldest form of stage
rigging, the word hemp is actually a misnomer. The term hemp
rigging generally refers to any fiber rope used for attaching, sup-
porting, or flying stage effects.

3.02 The Hemp Systems

A. Single-Line System
The simplest system consists of a single rope, a head block, a
loft block, a load (something to fly), and a place to tie off the
rope (fig. 3.1).
Rope. The rope has two ends: the load end, which is usu-
ally onstage, and the hauling end, which is usually offstage.
Until the 1990s, ½˝, 5 8̸ ˝, or ¾˝ Type M Class 1 Manila was the

65
 Fig. 3.1. Single-
line hemp set

rope of preference. Synthetic rope will eventually replace natu-

ral-fiber rope.
Head block. The first pulley that the rope passes through,
after leaving the rigger’s hands, is called the head block. Usu-
ally the head block is offstage of the load. See section 3.04.C.
Loft block. The pulley that the rope passes through, directly
above the load, is the loft block. It is usually onstage. Multiple-
line systems have more than one. See section 3.04.D.
Spot block. A loft block that is easily movable and can be
“spotted,” or placed anywhere on the grid, is called a spot block.
See section 3.04.E.
Pin rail. A rail with vertical pins of wood or metal, used for
tying off the hauling end of hemp systems, is known as the pin
rail. See section 3.05.

B. Multiple-Line System

Fig. 3.2. Multiple-

line hemp set
Two or more lines attached to the same load make up a mul-
tiple-line system. The ropes pass from offstage through a multi-
sheave head block (see section 3.04) to individual loft or spot
blocks and down to a batten or other object (fig. 3.2).

66
 Fig. 3.3. Tying
rope to a batten

Batten. A pipe or wood rail attached to two or more lines of

a rigging system is called a batten. Loads are attached to the
battens. Wood or pipe battens are attached to the hemp lines
with a clove hitch and two half hitches (fig. 3.3).
Line identification. The lift lines or lead lines on a multiple
line rigging system are identified with reference to their length
from the head block. The line nearest the head block is called
the short line; the one farther away, the long line (fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4. Hemp-

set lift-line
identification

Starting from the loft block closest to the head block, typi-
cal line designations are
four-line set: short, short-center, long-center, long
six-line set: short-short, short, short-center, long-center,
long, long-long

A more common system for numbering lines, on sets with

more than three lines, is to number the lines from the head block.
The short line is number one, the next is number two, and so on.

67
 C. Sandbag and Arbor Attachment as Counterweight
If the load is too heavy for a single stagehand to move, sand-
bags or arbors for metal weights may be attached to the haul-
ing line. The weight devices are attached by using either a loop
of steel cable called a sunday (fig. 3.5) or a trim clamp (fig. 3.6).
See section 3.06.

Fig. 3.5. Sandbag

on a sunday

Fig. 3.6.
Sandbag on a
trim clamp

68
3.03 The Rope
Rope rigging in the theatre is generally referred to as hemp rig-
ging. Several types of natural-fiber rope are casually referred to
as hemp. This practice is confusing, because Manila, not hemp,
is the preferred rope for stage rigging. As mentioned earlier, syn-
thetic-fiber rope is being accepted rapidly as a viable alternative
to natural fiber for rigging use.

A. Considerations of Rigging Rope

When choosing a fiber rope for rigging, the following character-
istics of the rope should be considered.

1. Low Elongation
The rope should not be too elastic. When hauling on the line, the
load should raise directly in proportion to the amount of line be-
ing pulled, rather than having the line stretch and the load
bounce along behind.

2. Flexibility
The rope needs to be flexible enough to easily tie knots in and
run over sheaves with a minimum amount of internal friction.

3. Durability
The rope must be durable enough to withstand the abrasion of
running through blocks, being tied off, and generally being used.
The rope should also be resistant to atmospheric degradation.

4. Handling Characteristics
The rope should be comfortable to handle. The operator’s hands
must be able to grasp the line and not slip. The line should tie
and coil easily.

5. Strength
The rope must be strong enough to safely support the load and
absorb the additional force of friction, inertia, and shock loading
for the particular application.
6. Cost and Value
The cost of the rope includes the initial purchase price of the rope
and the cost of installation. The value of the rope is a combina-

69
tion of initial two-part cost and the expected life of the rope
before it needs to be replaced. If you pay 50% more for a good-
quality rope, and it lasts three times as long as the less-expen-
sive rope, the more-expensive rope is a better value.

B. Types of Natural-Fiber Rope

The three most common types of natural-fiber rope come from
living vegetation. All natural-fiber rope has a relatively short strand.
The length of strand is limited by the size of the leaf or stalk from
which the fiber is made.
Hemp is a soft fiber made from the inner bark of the main
stalk of the cannabis plant. Partly because of the other uses of
the leaves of the cannabis, this rope is not readily available in
the United States. It is not as strong as Manila.
Sisal is made from the leaf fiber of the agave plant. It is more
flexible than Manila but not as strong. It is readily available, less
expensive, and easy for the untrained to confuse with Manila.
The sisal strands have less cohesion than do Manila strands, and,
therefore, sisal is not durable enough for rigging. Because sisal
is sometimes used for decorative purposes in the theatre, it is
good practice to clearly mark it and store it separately from rig-
ging rope to prevent it from ever being accidentally used for a
rigging job.
Manila is a hard fiber made from the leaf of the abaca plant.
To add to the confusion, it is sometimes called Manila hemp. It
possesses the best combination of the desired characteristics
of natural-fiber rope for rigging.
Manila is graded by how light it is in color and the cleanliness
of its fibers. The lighter the rope, the better the grade. To deter-
mine the color of the grade, a light source is focused on the rope,
and the amount of reflected light is read on a photometer. The
numeric value of the reflected light is called the Becker value.
The cleaner and lighter the Manila rope, the longer it will last
under acceptable atmospheric conditions. All grades of Manila
are manufactured with the same strength rating for each size.
The lower the grade, the quicker it will deteriorate and lose its
strength. Do not be surprised if your local rope dealer has never
heard of the Becker value. It is a term with which, for the most
part, only rope experts are familiar.
When purchasing Manila, insist that it be Type M Class 1,
according to federal specification T-R-605B, including Amend-
ment 3, dated 17 April 1973. This specification indicates a mini-
mum Becker value of 36 for Class 1 rope and has the latest mini-

70
Fig. 3.7. Manila
rope with
identification
tracer

mum-strength ratings. (These are the values used in table 3.1

below.) Class 2 Manila is not graded by Becker value and gen-
erally will not last as long as Class 1. Some Manila is not manu-
factured to the federal specification at all, and the strength and
quality vary widely. If the rope is greater than ½˝ in diameter and
manufactured to the federal specification, it will have a paper
tracer in one strand indicating the name of the manufacturer,
the year and country of manufacture, and the statement that it
is Type M Class 1 Manila (fig. 3.7).
Rope can be made in several different ways. Manila rope is
almost always twisted. The twisting can be done with either three
or four strands, and the direction of fiber, yarn, and strand twists
can vary as well. Different twist directions produce different char-
acteristics in the rope.
The specific method of twisting for stage use is as follows.
The fibers are twisted to the right, or clockwise, into yarn. Sev-
eral pieces of yarn are then twisted to the left, or counterclock-
wise, and made into strands. Three or four strands are twisted
to the right, clockwise, to make a rope. This is called a regular-
lay, or right-lay, rope.

C. Synthetic-Fiber Rope
Many types of synthetic-fiber rope are available. They are braid-
ed, cored and mantled, twisted, woven, or any combination of
the above. Most of them are not suitable for stage use. Nylon
has too much stretch and absorbs moisture, making it difficult
to handle. Polypropylene has a low melting point, low strength,
and low abrasion resistance. It floats, but this is not a require-
ment for stage use.

71
 Two types of polyester rope are now manufactured specifi-
cally for stage use. They have been in use long enough to have
proven their worth and reliability.

1. Parallel-Core Polyester Rope

Fig. 3.8. Parallel-

core and three-
strand-twist
polyester rope

Parallel-core polyester (fig. 3.8, left) is made of continuous par-

allel fibers that run the entire length of the rope. The core is
wrapped in polyester tape and covered by a braided polyester
jacket. Over 95% of the strength of the rope is in the core. Mi-
nor abrasion to the jacket does little to reduce the rope’s strength.
There are no slivers on the rope, and it does not degrade in the
atmosphere. If it is not overstressed, the life of the rope is almost
limitless. The strength-to-size ratio is about 3½ times that of
Manila. The polyester is initially more expensive than the Manila,
but it lasts much longer and is a much better value in the long
run. This rope is a bit stiff for hemp systems but makes an ex-
cellent hand line for counterweight sets.

2. Three-Strand Twisted Polyester

A three-strand twisted polyester is also available (fig. 3.8, right).
Sizes above ½˝ diameter are made with spun-polyester fibers
around a polyolefin or polypropylene core. Sizes with a diameter
less than ½˝ do not have the poly core. This rope has excellent
handling characteristics, is easy to tie into knots, and is not sus-
ceptible to atmospheric degradation. The breaking strength is a
little more than twice that of Manila. This rope is not as strong
as the parallel-core polyester, but it is a bit less expensive. Be-
cause it is a three-strand rope without a jacket, any fiber break-
age reduces the strength of the rope. However, unlike Manila,

72
there is no internal organic deterioration. This rope is an excel-
lent substitute for lines in hemp rigging.

D. Tensile Strength or Breaking Strength

Table 3.1. Comparison of Fiber-Rope Strength

Three-Strand-
Rope Twisted Parallel-Core
Diameter (in.) Manila (lb.) Polyester (lb.) Polyester (lb.)
3
/16 406
1
/4 540 1,500
5
/16 900 2,300
3
/8 1,220 3,200 4,600
7
/16 1,580 4,100 6,300
1
/2 2,380 5,800 8,100
9
/16 3,100 6,600
5
/8 3,960 8,230 12,500
3
/4 4,860 10,540 16,700
13
/16 5,850
7
/8 6,950 15,500 23,000
1 8,100 18,700 32,000
1 1/16 9,450
1 1/8 10,800
1 1/4 12,200

Source: Manila strength figures provided by the Cordage Institute. Polyester

figures from New England Rope for Multiline II and Stage-Set X.

Tensile strength is the ultimate strength of the rope before it

breaks. (See section 1.06 for a detailed discussion of tensile
strength.) The breaking strength of rope should be furnished by
the rope distributor. Testing is usually conducted and certified
by the manufacturer. Table 3.1 is a comparison chart of tensile
strength (in pounds) for Manila, three-strand twisted polyester,
and parallel-core polyester. The actual breaking strength may
vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer.

E. Strength and Allowable Working Load of Rope

1. Design Factors
The allowable working load is considerably less than the break-
ing strength. (See section 1.06.H for calculating the allowable

73
load of rope.) Some of the factors affecting the strength of the
rope and therefore the allowable working load are
a. Strength reduction caused by the knots. Every knot re-
duces the strength of a rope, some by as much as 50%. See sec-
tion 3.03.F.
b. Wearing caused by abrasion. Rope rubbing on some part
of the grid, an improperly sized sheave, or dirt on the rope will
cause the fibers to break and reduce the breaking strength.
c. The potential for shock load. It is easier to break a piece
of string with your hands by jerking than by applying steady or
constant force. With stage rigging, there is always the chance
of a flown piece fouling and then falling, so that a sudden shock
load occurs.
d. The length of the rope. The longer the rope, the heavier
the load. This is caused by the weight of the rope itself being
added to the weight of the load.
e. The type of use. A dead-hung leg in the wing area has less
potential for hurting someone than a working piece, such as a
chandelier, over the acting area.
f. The age of Manila rope. Manila, or any natural-fiber rope,
is an organic product made from vegetable fiber. It begins to de-
teriorate in the atmosphere as soon as the plant from which it is
made is harvested. Even though there may be no obvious flaws
in the rope, it will never be as strong as it is when it was first made.
The older the rope, the greater the design factor should be.
2. Factors in Calculating the Allowable Working Load
for Rope
See section 1.06.H for the formula for calculating the allowable
working load.
a. Breaking strength. Know the rated breaking strength of
the size rope being used. Remember that the breaking strength
is calculated for new rope and must be derated for older Manila.
b. Weight. Be certain of the weight of the load. Calculate this
carefully. If in doubt, weigh the object to be lifted, using truck
scales if necessary.
c. Risk. Consider the application and degree of risk to life
and property.
d. Strength-reduction factors. Consider the strength-reduc-
tion factors that reduce the ultimate breaking strength of the rope,
such as knotting. See section 3.03.E.
e. Load-increase factors. Consider the load-increase factors.
These are variable factors that may increase the load above its

74
design limit, such as a curtain absorbing moisture from the at-
mosphere or the distribution of a load on a batten.
f. Design factor. Allow a minimum 10:1 design factor. The de-
gree of risk to life and property destruction determines the design
factor. If there is great risk, and the factor of ignorance is great,
increase the design factor. This decision is your responsibility!

F. Effects of Knotting
Knotting a rope produces sharp bends and shear stresses in the
rope and thereby reduces the breaking strength. The sharper
the bend, the greater the stress concentration, and the greater
the damage to the rope. It is interesting to note that under test,
the rope will fail next to the knot rather than in the knot itself. A
knot should be chosen for its strength, stability, and reduction
of injury to the rope. For example, a simple overhand knot, the
type that seems to get into the middle of a rope all by itself, can
reduce the breaking strength by as much as 75%. If the knot is
left in the rope, and stress is applied, a permanent weak spot can
develop. See section 6.01.B for the efficiency of common knots.
A three-strand twisted rope is tested by attaching it to the
test machine with eye splices. The breaking strength of a three-
strand rope is actually the breaking strength of that rope with per-
fect eye splices in it. The eye splices, if properly done are, by
definition, 100% efficient. The test splices are made by certified
people in a consistent and specified manner. But most of us do
not make an eye splice as carefully as they do. Therefore, for field
use, the eye splice is derated to 95% efficiency.

G. Care of Rope
Rope is a tool made from organic or synthetic fibers. In order to
perform properly within its design parameters, you must correctly
care for it.
1. Balance
A rope made by twisting has a certain amount of twist built into
it. If the rope has too much twist, it will kink or get a hockle in it.
If it has too little twist, it loses strength. When the twist is just
right, the rope is in balance. Try to avoid twisting stranded rope
while working with it. If it becomes kinked from too much twist,
it must be untwisted to restore proper balance. In stagehands’
jargon, this is known as “taking the assholes out of the rope.”

75
This can be done either by actually twisting the rope in the di-
rection opposite to the final strand twist or, preferably, by hang-
ing it vertically. If the end is allowed to hang free from the grid
or fly floor, the excess twist will usually come out by itself. If the
kink is not removed, and a load is placed on the line, or it is pulled
through a confined space, such as a head block or loft block,
permanent damage to the rope will occur. If there is too little twist
in the rope, with strands hanging loose from each other, the rope
has been damaged and should not be used for rigging.
2. Uncoiling Rope
New rope in a full coil is stiff and has a tendency to stay curled.
The proper way to uncoil it is to lay the coil down on its side so
the inside end is down near the floor. Begin uncoiling the rope
from the inside end, turning it in your hand to remove the excess
twist. This method will keep the rope from tangling and kinking.
3. Coiling Rope
When you are finished working with a rope, coil it properly. Never
coil a twisted rope over your hand and elbow, as this will put
excess twist in the rope and cause kinking. Right-lay rope should
be coiled clockwise, or “with the sun.” Care should be taken to
remove all excess twist. Do this by turning the rope as it is be-
ing coiled. If the rope is properly coiled and in balance, no twist-
ing or kinking of individual coils should occur. Rope can be coiled
over an open hand, on a pin of the pin rail, or if too long and heavy,
flat on the floor. When coiling a rope on the floor, be sure that
the top coils do not get larger and fall around the bottom coils.
This will cause kinking and tangles the next time you use the rope.
When coiling a long length of rope that is to be used again im-
mediately, let it pile up in figure-8 coils. Do not pick up the rope
when it is coiled in figure-8s.
4. Storing Rope
On a fly floor, rope should be dressed or properly coiled and hung
on a belaying pin. Do not leave it lying around on the floor. It will
pick up dirt and is dangerous for people to walk on (see section
3.03.G.5).
Sometimes, rope is stored near or on the grid because spot
lines must be rigged from there. Provide some method to hang
the rope, preferably on wood pegs, so that air can circulate freely
through it. Natural-fiber rope absorbs moisture from the air. If it
is hung on a metal peg or on a metal surface, the metal can oxi-
dize and hasten the deterioration of the rope.

76
 5. Keeping Rope Clean
Grit and dirt work into the fibers of the rope and break them
through abrasion. Dust absorbs the dressing put on the rope
during manufacturing and dries the rope out, thus shortening
life. When a rope gets dirty, wash it in clear water. Pass it through
a tub of water, and swish it around until the dirt comes out, or
hose it off. A mild dishwashing detergent can be used but should
be thoroughly rinsed out.
6. Drying Rope Properly after Wetting
Because Manila is an organic substance, it will rot or mildew if
stored wet. Hang it loosely where dry air can circulate, and dry
it thoroughly. Inspect the rope for dryness by untwisting it a bit
and touching and smelling the fibers. Wet Manila has a distinc-
tive odor. Polyester will not rot, but it still needs to thoroughly
dry after wetting.
7. Protecting Rope from Chemicals
Acidic and alkaline substances will harm Manila fibers. Grease
and oil destroy the fiber friction that holds rope together. Paint
solvent dries out rope. Polyester rope is not as affected by harsh
chemicals. Nevertheless, keep all rope away from chemicals.
8. Avoiding Rope Overload
Once a rope is stressed beyond its elastic limit, it loses its origi-
nal strength. Use the right size rope for the job at hand. If it is
overstressed, take it out of service, and destroy it. note: If you
throw away a rope, cut it up. If someone uses your cast-off rope
for load-bearing or life-line applications, and it fails, you could
be liable. Always cut up old rope before throwing it away.
9. Avoiding Sharp Bends and Small Sheaves
A rope tied around a sharp corner of a heavy load can be strained
at that point, which will permanently weaken the rope. Pad all
sharp corners. When a rope passes around a sheave, the rope
bends as it moves. Be sure that the pulley has a large enough
diameter so that the rope will not be severely strained (see sec-
tion 4.06.B). Maintain a minimum ratio of sheave diameter to
rope diameter (D/d ratio) of 8:1.
10. Avoiding Abrasion
Do not drag rope over rough surfaces. Doing so will cause un-
necessary wear. Sheaves or pulleys must be grooved for the

77
size rope being used. If the groove is too small, the friction on
the rope will cause it to wear and weaken. Be sure that blocks
are aligned so that the rope does not rub on side plates.
11. Avoiding Shock Load
Jerking a rope or suddenly dropping a load (such as when a
fouled piece of rigging falls free) can easily break a rope. One
of the reasons that the safe working load is much less than the
breaking strength of a rope is to allow for this possibility. The
greater the shock load, the easier it is to break the rope. If a rope
is subjected to a severe shock load, it may be stressed beyond
its elastic limit. If a rope has been shock loaded, take it out of
service, and destroy it.
12. Adjusting Rope for Humidity
Humidity affects Manila rope. As the humidity increases, the fi-
bers absorb the moisture from the air and swell. The rope gets
thicker and shorter. As the humidity drops, the rope dries out,
the fibers shrink in diameter, and the rope gets longer. In envi-
ronments with significant changes in humidity, such as theatres
with intermittent air-conditioning or outdoors, multiple-line hemp
sets must be trimmed before every performance. Because the
lines are different lengths on multiple-line sets, they will not shrink
or expand evenly. A hanging drop that is level at low humidity
will get high on the long side as the humidity increases. In this
case, the load is free to move, and no damage will be done to
the rope.
In some instances, where the load cannot move, such as a
guy rope, permanent damage to the rope may occur owing to
shrinkage caused by dampness. The rope can get stretched past
its elastic limit and lose some of its tensile strength. In such cas-
es, it is important to remember to slack off the tension on the
rope as it contracts. Polyester rope is not affected by humidity
and therefore needs no adjustment.
13. Inspecting Rope
Using the rope until it breaks is irresponsible. As you use it, be
aware of it. Look at it; feel it! If something does not feel or look
right, replace it, rather than take a chance. Visually inspect all
rigging rope over its complete length on a regular basis. This is
best accomplished by unrigging it and inspecting the entire length
by hand and eye. For multiline hemp sets, have someone on the

78
grid at the head block inspect the line as the set is raised and
lowered (see section 3.03.E).
14. Rotating Rope Position
Periodically change around the ropes. Reverse the ends, and
change the jobs they do. This will lessen the chance of causing
weak spots, spread the wear throughout rope, and increase the
life of the rope.
think. All of the above recommendations for taking care of
rope are common sense! Take the time to care for the rope. Re-
placing rope is expensive. Replacing a life is impossible.

H. Indications of Wear
When inspecting any kind of rope, look for the following.
Indentations. These are caused by a kink being pulled through
a block or by excess strain.
Wear. A rough or worn spot, wear, is caused by abrasion
and broken fibers and yarns. Any broken fiber in a three-strand
rope or in the core of a parallel-strand rope means a reduction
in strength. Open up the strands on a twisted rope. Signs of in-
ternal wear are a powdery residue or broken strands inside.
Variations in color. Color variations are indications of chemi-
cal contamination. Take the rope out of service, and destroy it.
Variation in diameter. Reduction in diameter is an indication
of overloading or excessive wear on the rope.
Broken internal strands. Open up twisted rope, and look for
broken internal strands. The internal strands can be the first to
break when a rope has been overstressed.
High strand. If one strand is either higher or lower in a twist-
ed rope, the load is not being evenly distributed on all of the
strands, and the rope cannot sustain its rated load (fig. 3.9).
Dryness. Untwist a strand, and break a few fibers between
your fingers. Overly dry rope will break easily.
Wetness. A wet rope loses a good deal of its strength. If it is
wet, do not use it. Dry it well before using.
Rot. Untwist the rope in several places. Look on the inside,
where the strands touch each other, for signs of mildew and rot,
which is indicated by odor and darker-colored fibers.
Mildew. Smell the rope. In climates with high humidity, Ma-
nila rope is very susceptible to mildew. The strong odor of mil-
dew is an indication that the rope should be replaced.

79
Fig. 3.9. Three-
strand-twist
Manila with
high strand

Acid contamination. A dark spot or area on the rope can be

an indication of acid or chemical contamination. Many of the
chemicals that are used for painting, dying, and cleaning back-
stage contain enough acid to be harmful to rope.
All of the above conditions reduce the strength of the rope.
Do not use a rope with any of the above conditions for rigging.
Take it out of service, and destroy it.

I. Testing a Rope
1. Manila Rope
If you are not sure of the strength of a rope, do not guess. Ma-
nila rope loses strength every day. It is organic and gradually

80
deteriorates even while it is just sitting there. If a nearby college
or university engineering school has testing equipment, ask it to
run a destructive test on a sample for you. If no free testing fa-
cility is available, contact a professional testing laboratory. The
only way to determine the strength of Manila rope is to perform
a destructive test on it. If that is not possible, rig the rope as it is
to be used and then load it to a minimum of two times the an-
ticipated working load. The rope should perform within its elas-
tic limit and should return to its original length and show no signs
of overstress after the load is removed. If the rope stretches to
the point of deformation, or if there are other signs of overstress,
do not use it. Although this is time-consuming, it is better than
having the rope break while it is in use. Remember, the greater
the risk of the situation, the greater the design factor needed.
Do not keep old, unsafe rope around. Cut it up, and dispose of
it so that it does not get used by a person who does not know
that the rope is weak.

2. Synthetic Rope
Unless you purchased a synthetic rope and are sure of its type,
strength, and history of use, do not assume the strength of the
rope. Many types of synthetic rope look similar. The rope could
have been shock loaded or misused without your knowledge.
Test it, or get new rope that you are sure of.

J. Bo’sun’s Chair
A rope that has been used for flying scenery or lifting any mate-
rial should never be used for rigging a bo’sun’s chair or for any
type of life- or fall-protection line. To do so is against the law, as
well as being highly dangerous. There are special requirements
for rope used to lift or protect people. Check the current OSHA
regulations.

K. Selecting the Right Rope for the Job

1. For general hemp rigging, choose Type M Class 1A Ma-
nila or polyester of the appropriate size.
2. Choose the proper diameter rope to hold the expected
load, making certain that the rope is compatible with the blocks
available for the job. Common sizes of blocks are ½˝ and 5 8̸ ˝.
Half-inch rope will work quite nicely in 5 8̸ ˝ sheaves, but 5 8̸ ˝ rope
will be chewed to shreds by ½˝ sheaves.

81
 3. Obtain test reports from your supplier.
4. Whip ends to keep them from unraveling (see section
6.01.A.1).
5. Uncoil the rope properly.
6. Post safe working loads backstage in a prominent place
so all technicians will have the information available when and
where they need it—working backstage with the rope.
7. Mark various lengths of rope by color-coding the whipped
ends or in some other way. A 125´ rope and a 150´ rope are dif-
ficult to distinguish between when they are coiled up on a dark
grid. Explain the marking system on signs posted on the grid, in
the fly gallery, and on floor level.
8. Inspect all rope periodically, and replace it if you have
any doubts about its condition.

3.04 Blocks
A. Hemp-Rigging Blocks
Hemp-rigging blocks are pulleys that are used to change the
direction of the force that moves a load. A block consists of the
following parts (fig. 3.10): (1) sheave, (2) bearings, (3) shaft or axle,
(4) side plates, (5) retainers, (6) base angle, and (7) keeper pin.

1. Sheaves
The sheave is a grooved wheel. The groove should be sized to
support at least 1 3̸ of the rope’s circumference. The edges of the
groove should be flared enough to allow the rope to enter and
exit the groove without abrasion (fig. 3.11). As a recommended
guideline, the minimum tread diameter of the sheave should be
eight times the rope’s diameter (fig. 3.12).

2. Bearings
The bearings reduce the friction between the sheave and the
shaft. Typically, either some type of ball bearings or tapered roll-
er bearings are used in hemp-rigging blocks. See sections 2.03
and 2.04 for detailed information on bearings and friction factors.
Of the many types of bearings, some require periodic lubrica-
tion, and some are permanently lubricated and sealed. The sealed
bearings may eventually dry and have to be replaced. If the sheave
does not turn easily or if it squeaks, there is a bearing problem
that needs to be analyzed and corrected.

82
Fig. 3.10. Cross-
section of a
typical hemp-
rigging block

Fig. 3.11. Cross-

section of a
rope sheave Fig. 3.12. Diameters of a sheave

3. Shaft
The shaft should be large enough to support the required load.
It must be attached to the side plates by a keeper pin or other
device to prevent the shaft from rotating. All rotational action
should be limited to the sheave.
4. Side Plates
The side plates, made of steel, support the shaft. The retainers
and other spacers keep the side plates evenly separated.

83
 5. Retainer

Fig. 3.13. Section

through a
retainer and bolt

The retainer, usually a length of pipe or tubing held in place by a

bolt, prevents the rope from jumping out of the sheave groove
and keeps the side plates properly spaced. The diameter of the
retainer is usually larger than the bolt to allow the position of the
retainer to be adjusted relative to the sheave. Retainers should
not be placed too close to the sheave or they will rub on the rope
or sheave. They can usually be adjusted slightly by loosening
the bolt and moving it closer or farther away from the sheave
(fig. 3.13).

Fig. 3.14.
Underhung block

84
 6. Mounting Device
The mounting device holds the block to the support steel. A
block will have a tendency to move in the direction of the resul-
tant force (see section 1.04.A). The mounting device should pro-
vide metal-to-metal contact in the direction opposite the applied
force. This is especially important in preventing horizontal move-
ment (fig. 3.14). At a minimum, grade 5 bolts should be used for
all block mounting.

B. Loads
In order to calculate the loading, it is necessary to understand
the forces that are applied to the block.

Fig. 3.15. Applied

and resultant
force diagram, 90°

1. Applied and Resultant Forces

Two forces are applied to a block at any given time: the force of
the load and the force that holds or moves the load. These com-
bined forces produce a resultant force (fig. 3.15). See section
1.04 for a detailed discussion on the summation of forces.
2. Batten Loading
A batten is a continuous beam (see section 1.03.G), and an even-
ly distributed load on the batten produces resultants of different
magnitudes on the lift lines. The resultants can be calculated us-
ing the three-moment theorem—a very laborious process and
beyond the scope of this book. Figure 3.16 shows the percent-
age of the total load that is applied to each loft block and lift line
on a batten. The percentages are based on the assumptions that
the lift lines are evenly spaced, the load is evenly distributed, and
the end lines are at the end of the battens. When trimming a line
set, it is possible to feel the difference in weight from line to line.
On a three-line set (second row from top in fig. 3.16), the end
lines each support 18.75% of the total weight, and the center

85
 Fig. 3.16. Reactions
of evenly distributed
load on lift lines
and loft blocks as
percentages of
total load on batten.
Courtesy of Peter
Albrecht Corp.

line supports 62.5% of the total weight. Moving the end lines in
toward the center increases the load on the end lines and decreas-
es the load on the center point. However, we do not always hang
evenly distributed loads. If the batten extends too far out past
the end-line and a leg is hung on the end, the batten will sag,
and the curtain will not hang straight.

C. Head Blocks
Two types of head blocks are most commonly used for hemp
sets. One type, the single-shaft head block, has all of the sheaves
mounted on a single shaft (fig. 3.17). The resultant force on this
type of block is similar to that on loft blocks.
The other type, the stacked head block, stacks the sheaves
on separate shafts (fig. 3.18). The resultant force usually runs in
a direction fairly close to the center line of the long dimension of
the side plates. This places the majority of the load on the bot-
tom block support (fig. 3.19).

86
 Fig. 3.17. Single-
shaft head block

Fig. 3.18. Stacked

head block

Fig. 3.19. Resultant

force on stacked
head block

87
D. Loft Blocks
Loft blocks can either be mounted on the grid (fig. 3.20) or un-
derhung on support steel over the grid (fig. 3.21).

E. Spot Blocks
Loft blocks designed to be easily movable are called spot blocks.
Extreme care must be taken to ensure that spot blocks are se-
curely mounted. The V-shaped piece of steel on the underside
of the block in figure 3.22 is designed to fit tightly against the
grid steel to prevent horizontal slippage. The V shape allows the
block to be mounted at an angle to the grid steel in order to main-
tain a proper fleet angle with the head block (see section 3.08.C).

F. Mule Blocks
Mule blocks change the direction of lift lines in the horizontal
plane. This type of block is used when it is not possible to run
the lift line straight from the head block to the loft block (fig. 3.23).

G. Idler Pulleys
Non–load-bearing blocks are called idler pulleys. Their function
is to keep the lift lines from sagging on long runs from head blocks
to loft blocks (see fig. 3.21). Idler pulleys are usually found on
systems in which the loft blocks are underhung from the roof
steel. Because an idler pulley does not bear any of the lifting load,
it can be of a much lighter construction than a loft or head block.

H. Sag Bars
Sag bars (fig. 3.24) are used on grid-mounted systems to keep
the running lines from fouling on the blocks that they have to
pass. Sag bars are usually made from hardwood. Attaching a
strip of ultra-high-molecular-weight plastic (UHMW) to the top
of the wood greatly increases the life of the bars. The sag bars
also tend to eliminate a good deal of cable noise and provide
for quieter operation of the system.

I. Snatch Blocks
Snatch blocks open so that a lift line can be placed on the sheave
without being threaded through from the end. Snatch blocks are

88
Fig. 3.20. Grid-
mounted
loft block

Fig. 3.21.
Underhung
loft blocks with
idler pulleys.
Courtesy of
Peter Albrecht
Corp.

89
 Fig. 3.22.
Spot block

Fig. 3.23.
Mule blocks.
Courtesy of Peter
Albrecht Corp.

handy for muleing or idler purposes, after the load has been at-
tached to a lift line (fig. 3.25).
For temporary rigging, a rescue block can be used to divert
or align a line (fig. 3.26). These are lightweight blocks that open
easily and are found in stores that sell mountain-climbing equip-
ment. The sheaves are made of lightweight material and should
not be used for wire rope.

90
 Fig. 3.24. Sag
bars on top of
grid-mounted
loft blocks

Fig. 3.25.
Snatch block

Fig. 3.26.
Rescue block

91
3.05 Pin Rail
The pin rail is used to tie off, or belay, the hauling end of a hemp
system. The rail is a horizontal wooden beam or large pipe that
is pierced with vertical pins. The pins are made of either hard-
wood or pipe. They can be either fixed to the rail or removable.

A. Fixed-Pin Rail
As the name fixed-pin rail implies, the pins are permanently fixed
and cannot be removed. This type of rail is safer than the loose
pin rail for cinching a load, in that the pins cannot work their way
out as the rope passes around the pin. Another advantage is
that the pins cannot be lost.

B. Loose-Pin Rail
On a loose-pin rail, the pins are removable. It is possible to re-
lease the tie-off by pulling the pin out, which should be done
only when there is no load on the line. If there is only one wrap
around the pin, the pin spins as the load is eased in. Because of
that spin, there is a little less friction on the rope. A second wrap
around the top of the pin in the opposite direction eliminates the
spin, increases the friction, and gives greater control over the load.
The pins can be removed to clear space for extra-large coils of
rope hanging on the rail.

C. Single-Pin Rail
A single-pin rail is, as the name implies, one rail. High and low
trim are tied off on adjacent pins.

D. Double-Pin Rail
The double-pin rail consists of two rails (fig. 3.27). The top rail is
usually set farther onstage than the lower rail. Tie off high trim
on one rail and low trim on the other.

E. Pins
The pins can be made of hardwood or steel. Hardwood pins are
easier on the rope. They do not promote rust in damp climates,

92
 Fig. 3.27.
Double-pin rail

Fig. 3.28. Indented

pins, lower
contact point

but because they are usually loose, they spin when letting in a
load. If used on a steel pin rail, hardwood pins become indented
from spinning under side load and lose strength due to the bro-
ken wood fiber at the point of indentation (fig. 3.28). Examine the
pins for broken wood fibers, especially at the lower point of con-
tact with the pin rail. If they are indented, take them out of service.
Steel pins can be either solid or made from pipe. Loose steel
pins will also spin but are not susceptible to the wearing that

93
 wood pins are vulnerable to. Pins made from pipe should have
the ends plugged to prevent riggers from inadvertently catching
their fingers in the hole. More than one rigger has missed a cue
due to getting a finger stuck (fig. 3.29).

Fig. 3.29.
Finger in pin.
Don’t do this!

F. Tying Off
There is a specific procedure for tying off a hemp line or set.
1. Take a single wrap around the underside of the pin (fig.
3.30). The friction of the rope on the pin immediately gives the
operator some control of the load. It is always best to raise the
load a little too high, make the wrap, and then ease it into trim
position. If the load is very heavy or on a loose pin rail, two or
three wraps may be necessary to control the load.
2. Cross the rope on the face of the rail, and take a wrap
around the top of the pin (fig. 3.31).
3. Make another wrap around the underside of the pin, in
the same direction as the first wrap.
4. Form a loop by twisting the rope. The free end goes un-
der the standing part (fig. 3.32).
5. Put the loop over the top of the pin (fig. 3.33).
6. Pull it tight (fig. 3.34). Never tie off on the first wrap. By
tying off after at least four wraps, you are able to maintain con-
trol of the load after untying the line because the other three
wraps are still around the pin.

94
 Fig. 3.30.
Tying off, step 1

Fig. 3.31.
Tying off, step 2

95
 Fig. 3.32.
Tying off, step 4

Fig. 3.33.
Tying off, step 5

96
 Fig. 3.34.
Tying off, step 6

Riggers seem to enjoy heated discussions about which di-

rection is preferable for wrapping lines around pins—to the left
or to the right—and strong opinions also arise about what meth-
od to use when crossing lines on successive wraps. That de-
bate will never be resolved. What is essential, however, is that
the direction of the wraps must be consistent in each venue.
That way, all riggers in a venue know exactly how each line set
is tied off.

3.06 Sandbags and Arbors

Usually sandbags are used as counterweight for hemp rigging.
They are made of heavy canvas that is reinforced with rope or
nylon straps. The rope or strap has a snap hook affixed to it for
easy attachment to the lift lines. Sandbags commonly range in
size from 10 lb. to 150 lb. Add or remove sand from the bags as
needed to match the weight of the load. A container should be
on the fly floor to hold extra sand.
Metal weights on a single-rod arbor are sometimes used
instead of sandbags (figs. 3.35 and 3.36). This hardware is only
manufactured under special order and is not readily available.
The arbor is attached to the lift lines in the same way that sand

97
Fig. 3.35. Metal
hemp arbors
stored along
rail wall

Fig. 3.36.
Metal arbors
on hemp lines

98
 bags are attached. The weight on the arbor can be adjusted by
adding or subtracting weights from the arbor rod. The rods can
be tied to the lift line at the top and bottom to keep the weight
from swinging.

A. Attaching Sandbags and Arbors with a Sunday

Fig. 3.37. Tying

a sunday knot
(water knot)

One method of attaching weight devices to the lift line is to use

a loop of steel cable, called a sunday. A piece of 1 8̸ ˝ steel cable,
3´ to 4´ long, is formed into an endless loop, either by using
Nicopress sleeves (see section 6.03.B) or by tying a water knot
(also known as a sunday knot) in it (fig. 3.37). Many theatres have
started using sundays made from 5- to 6-mm Spectra rope. Spec-
tra is stronger than steel cable. The knots are easier to tie, the
rope is more flexible than cable, and the rope is easier on the
hand line. Spectra rope can be purchased at sporting goods
stores that carry mountain-climbing gear.

Fig. 3.38.
Attaching a
sunday to
hemp lines

99
 The sunday is attached to the lift line by wrapping the loop
around the lift line and passing one end of the loop through the
other (fig. 3.38).
The weight device is then hung on the remaining loop (see
fig. 3.5).

B. Attaching Sandbags and Arbors with a Trim Clamp

Fig. 3.39.
Trim clamp

Another method of attaching sandbags and arbors to the lift

lines is to use a trim clamp. The clamp is bolted over the ropes
with the steel loop facing down. Sometimes, it helps to squeeze
the trim clamp together with a C-clamp when putting it on. The
spring-loaded jaws inside the trim clamp must be compressed
in order to tighten the nuts (fig. 3.39). The sandbags are then
hung on the loop (see fig. 3.6).
The advantage of using a trim clamp is that the load is easi-
er to retrim after the trim clamp and sandbags are attached than
with a sunday. This is done by pulling the longest lines through
the clamp, thus raising the low points. If there is an unevenly
distributed load, it may be necessary for someone on the stage

100
 floor to hold down the flown piece at the high points while the
low points are raised. Instead of holding the piece directly, a rig-
ger can tie a tag line to the batten at these points (see section
6.06.C).

3.07 Jack Line

Fig. 3.40.
Jack-line
schematic

A jack line is a separate line that runs over a block on the grid.
One end is tied to the sunday or trim clamp on the lift lines, and
the other end is tied to a separate pin. In some theatres, the jack-
line system is along the side wall of the stage, on the opposite
side of the fly gallery from the pin rail. The jack line is used to let
the flown piece in when it is bag-heavy. By pulling up on the jack
line, the flown piece is lowered (fig. 3.40).

3.08 Spot-Line Rigging

Hemp sets can be positioned, or spotted, for special production
needs. Either single- or multiple-line sets can be used to provide
flying capability in positions and patterns to supplement perma-
nently installed batten sets.

A. Positioning Loft Blocks

Installing a spot-line set begins with positioning the loft block.
The point where the lift line must drop is usually determined on
the stage floor. A target that is easily visible from the grid is placed

101
 on the floor. Using a plumb bob, a weight on the lift line, or the
“spit method,” position the block on the grid directly above the
target (or as close as possible). The loft block is then lined up
with the drop point over the target, and the sheave is aligned
with the head-block position. The block is then secured to the grid.
note: It is most important that the block be firmly mounted
so that there is no chance of the block slipping (see section
3.04.D).

B. Positioning Head Blocks

Once the loft blocks are firmly attached, the head blocks are
aligned with the loft blocks and secured in place. It is important
that the rope travel in a straight line from head block’s sheave to
the spot block’s sheave to avoid abrasion on the rope. When us-
ing the type of head block with the sheaves mounted side by
side, it is sometimes necessary to angle the spot blocks slightly
to align them properly.

C. Fleet Angle

Fig. 3.41. Fleet

angle of the
line between
offset blocks

Fig. 3.42.
The maximum
allowable fleet
angle (FA) is 1.5°.

The fleet angle is the angle the line makes when two blocks are
offset from each other relative to a straight line from the center
point of one sheave (fig. 3.41). For stage rigging, the maximum
acceptable fleet angle is 1.5° (fig. 3.42). The formula for calcu-
lating the fleet angle is

102
 tan FA = a ÷ b
a = offset distance
b = distance between the pins of the sheaves

You must use the same units (inches, feet, centimeters, etc.) for
both dimensions.
Using a calculator with trig functions, find the tangent ac-
cording to the formula, push the inverse tan keys, and read the
degrees. If the angle is equal to or less than 1.5°, the fleet angle
is acceptable. If it is greater than 1.5°, there is a possibility of
abrasion on the line and excessive side load on the bearings.
Mule blocks may be required to correct the problem.

Fig. 3.43. Using

slope to calculate
an acceptable
fleet angle

A quick rule of thumb to approximate the fleet angle is to

look at it in terms of slope. The rise is the offset, and the run is
the distance between the pins of the blocks. Anything less than
1 ÷ 40, such as 1 ÷ 50, is acceptable. Anything greater, such as
1 ÷ 30, and the angle is too great (fig. 3.43).

D. Aligning Blocks
Fig. 3.44. Least fleet
angle for all blocks

Fig. 3.45. Greater

fleet angle for
long center line

When using a head block with side-by-side sheaves, align the

short loft block with one of the inside sheaves. Use the adjacent
inside sheave for the short center and the outside sheaves for
the long center and long lines (fig. 3.44). The worst fleet-angle
case is with the short line. Make that run as close to a straight
line as possible. You need to calculate the fleet angle for all of
the lift lines and adjust the position of the head block or provide
muleing as required.

103
 Starting with an outside sheave for the short line causes a
greater offset for the long center line and could cause an exces-
sive fleet angle (fig. 3.45).

E. Running Rope
Once the blocks are positioned, the rope is fed through the blocks
from the grid. Attach a weight, or tie off the rope as soon as it is
fed through the blocks to keep it from running away. Storing the
rope somewhere near the grid eliminates the necessity of haul-
ing the rope to the grid every time a spot line must be run.

F. Attaching Weight to Rope

The onstage end of the rope should be either attached immedi-
ately to the load or weighted. Weighting can be done either with
a small sandbag or by running the end of the line through a short
section of pipe and tying a figure-8 knot in the end of the line
(figs. 3.46 and 3.47).

3.09 Operation of Hemp Rigging

The safe operation of hemp rigging requires a thorough knowl-
edge of how the rigging system works. This knowledge includes
knowing the function of each of the components and knowing
how the components work together to make an integrated sys-
tem. Hemp rigging requires of riggers more human physical
strength to operate than do other types of rigging. At times, the
operator will need to move unbalanced loads solely by brute
strength. Because almost all lift-line connections are knots, the
operator must also have a thorough knowledge of knot tying.
Both strength and knowledge must be properly applied. Con-
centration and attention to detail are essential to the safe op-
eration of hemp rigging. In brief, revisit the 4 Ks.

1. Know the rigging system you are working with.

2. Keep the equipment in safe working order.
3. Know how to use it.
4. Keep your concentration.

A. Safety Inspection of All Components

The components of a rigging system should be thoroughly in-
spected on a periodic basis. The resident technician, house car-
penter, or technical director is responsible for maintaining the

104
Fig. 3.46. Rope
weighted with
sandbag

Fig. 3.47. Rope

weighted
with pipe

105
equipment. It is this person’s job to see that the rigging system
is in perfect working order. It is the management’s responsibility
to provide the time for maintenance. The system should be in-
spected, component by component, at least once a year! If the
resident technician does not have sufficient expertise to conduct
an inspection, it will be necessary to hire an outside expert to
do it. Periodically, have an inspection performed by a compe-
tent person who is not associated with your venue; an outside
set of eyes can often spot things that are missed by the people
who have grown accustomed to the system (see part 7).
In a strange theatre, if there is a high degree of risk, always
inspect the rigging before attaching loads. Never assume that
just because it is there, the rigging is in good condition.
Knowing a rigging system goes beyond a knowledge of the
parts and their locations. Every rigging system is unique and has
its own feel, sound, and smell. Becoming aware of these sensory
perceptions is essential so that every time the system is used,
there will be instant awareness if something is out of the ordinary.
A sheave with dry bearings or a rope being rubbed makes dis-
tinct sounds. It feels different. A piece of hemp with dry rot or
hemp that has been charred by a lighting instrument has a dis-
tinct smell. Knowing how the system should be when it is in per-
fect operating condition is a prerequisite to spotting problems.
Keep the floor, grid, and fly gallery clean. Any sign of foreign
substances, such as metal filings or rope fibers, is a sign that
something is wearing. Keeping the work area clean makes it eas-
ier to see these signs of wear.

B. Untying a Line Set

Before untying the line on a hemp set, grasp the rope above the
pin, and pull it. Get a feel of the load that is on the line before
you untie it. Make this a habit. If the rope is extremely taut, it is
a signal to be extremely cautious when untying the line. The load
is probably very heavy. Keep several wraps around the pin so
that you can safely control the line set. If the load is heavier than
you are, and you untie it completely, it will be impossible to hold.
If you do not let go immediately, it will haul you up to the head
block. Riggers have been seriously injured and killed by having
a line set run away from them.

C. Attaching Loads
Most of the time, loads are attached at stage-floor level. The rail
operator should lower the load end of the rope to the stage floor.

106
Before moving any piece of rigging during a load-in or strike,
always warn the people onstage and on the grid by yelling a
warning to the stage. If the rail operator cannot see the load, a
spotter should be used. The spotter watches the load and com-
municates directly with the rail operator. Be sure that the com-
ponents are within an adequate design factor for the degree of
risk. If the loads are very heavy, it may be necessary to join or
marry two or more line sets. (For specific information on attach-
ing techniques, see part 6.)
Once the load is attached, it is pulled up to the low-trim po-
sition. Several people may be required to raise the load, but one
competent person must be assigned to the task of tying off the
rope. At this point, multiple-line sets are trimmed, which means
that the individual lines are pulled level to the stage floor or rel-
evant low-trim datum point. The rope is then tied off. With the
low trim tied off, the flown piece is then raised to its high-trim
position and tied off again. At this point, sandbags (or an arbor)
are attached, and the load is balanced. Enough weight should
be added to the offstage end of ensure ease of operation. How-
ever, if there is no jack line, the line set must be slightly load-
heavy in order to operate. After the weighting device has been
attached, the piece should be operated to recheck high- and
low-trim positions.

D. Removing Loads
The first step in removing a load from a hemp set is to be sure
that the stage area underneath is clear. With the lines tied off at
high trim, remove the jack line, sandbags and sunday (or trim
clamp) from the rope. Untie the low trim. Sort out the rope, and
be sure that it is free and clear. Untie the high trim, keeping a suf-
ficient number of wraps around the pin to maintain control as the
flown piece is lowered to the stage floor (fig. 3.48).
The friction of the rope around the pin acts as a brake. It is
good practice to never unwrap the rope completely from the pin
until the load is on the floor.

E. Trim Marks
Trim heights on hemp rigging may be marked on the rope by
using tape. However, tape can come off or leave a sticky resi-
due when it is removed.
Another method is to use a piece of brightly colored yarn or
ribbon (fig. 3.49). Untwist the rope slightly using a splicing fid or

107
 Fig. 3.48.
Letting in an
unweighted piece

Fig. 3.49.
Yarn trim mark

marlinespike, and insert a piece of yarn or ribbon about 6˝ long

through the rope. As with tape, different colors can be used to
indicate different trim positions.

F. Lashing with Small Tie Line

When tying off high and low trims on different pins, it sometimes
helps to use small tie line to lash the low-trim tie-off in place
(fig. 3.50). Doing so helps keep the lines from fouling on the low-

108
Fig. 3.50. Tie-off
lashed to pin

trim pins when moving the piece from high to low trim. The small
tie line also serves as a reminder not to untie the low-trim pins.

G. Retrimming
Because of the effect of moisture on Manila rope, changes in
humidity affect the trim of hemp rigging. On multiple-line sets,
the longest ropes change the most. Therefore, trims should al-
ways be checked before performance time.
If a multiple-line set is out of trim, the sunday must be re-
moved to retrim. If a jack line is being used, the weight of the
sand bags can be tied off with the jack line, thus allowing ret-
rimming without removing the sunday completely. This is a time-
consuming task and points to the advantage of using a trim clamp.
Be sure to relevel dead-tied sets as well as those that move.

H. Coiling and Dressing

The extra rope on a fly floor should always be properly coiled and
hung on a pin. This is called dressing the rope and keeps the rope
from getting tangled and dirty from the riggers walking on it.
Keep the fly floor clean so when rope is placed on the floor,
it will not get dirty (see section 3.03.G.4).

109
 I. Showtime Operation
Operating rigging during a performance is very much like stage
managing. Most of the work is in the preparation well before the
performance. Knowing the rigging system, being sure that it is
in good, safe condition, properly attaching the loads, clearly
setting trim marks, and properly dressing the loose rope on the
fly floor all contribute to an organized and reliable performance.
It is good practice to check trim marks and low-trim tie-offs
before every performance. Be sure the trim marks are still in place.
Be sure that tie-offs have not slipped and that humidity has not
changed rope lengths.
When letting a piece in, check the load first by pulling on the
standing part of the lines; then remove the coiled rope from the
pin, and lay it on the fly floor. It should be placed where it cannot
be stepped on so the rope will uncoil evenly and without tangling.
On the “warn” cue, find the proper rope, and review which
direction it moves. On the “standby” cue, untie (if it is being let
in) or get ready to pull (if it is being taken out). On the “go” cue,
move the piece, being sure that either the operator or the spot-
ter can see the piece and the stage floor under it.

3.10 Operation Summary

1. Know the rigging system. Know it well enough to detect
any abnormality during operation.
2. Inspect the system thoroughly at regular intervals.
3. Be sure to use an adequate design factor for the degree
of risk involved.
4. Use the correct knots for attaching loads and tying off on
the pin rail.
5. Maintain visual contact with a moving piece, using a
spotter if necessary.
6. Warn people on the stage and the grid before moving a
flown piece.
7. Maintain control of a moving piece at all times.
8. Wear hand protection.
9. Keep the working area clean.

3.11 Historical Summary

This type of rigging has been in use since Western theatre was
founded by the ancient Greeks as a part of their religious festi-

110
vals. Some of the plays of Aeschylus, Euripides, and Aristophanes
require characters to fly through the air. Since those theatres
were open to the sky and had no grids, this effect was accom-
plished by a device called the machina. Because the most com-
monly flown characters were gods, the device became known
later as the deus ex machina—a god in the machine.
The machina was a device consisting of a rope drawn through
a series of pulleys that were mounted on a pivoting boom. The
boom, in turn, was mounted on top of the skena—or stagehouse.
A person or object could be lifted from or lowered onto the stage
by stagehands working the offstage end of the rope. The boom
could be rotated to move the flown object onstage or offstage.
It is generally believed that the technology that made this
possible was adapted from that used by Greek sailors. Then, as
now, rigging required a good knowledge of the care and use of
rope as well as the ability to tie knots properly.
Today’s theatres are generally enclosed structures; many of
them have grids; many of them have complex, sophisticated sys-
tems for flying stage effects. But still commonly found in use is
the simple technique of fastening an object to a rope, running
the rope through pulleys, and raising the object into the air. There
are many variations and combinations of hemp-rigging systems,
but hemp remains as the most basic of all stage rigging. To be a
competent stage technician, it is essential to know the correct
use of hemp rigging.

111
Part 4 Counterweight Rigging

4.01 Introduction
The invention of counterweight rigging was the next logical step
in the progression of flying equipment for the stage. It began to
appear in the first quarter of the twentieth century. The early sys-
tems employed a rack, or arbor, in which to stack metal weights.
This arbor was attached to the hemp lift lines, and a single hand
line was attached to the arbor. The shrinking and stretching of
the hemp lift lines because of changes in humidity still posed a
problem. This was solved by using a wire rope for the lift lines
(lead lines). Wire guides gave the arbors some vertical stability.
Eventually, T-bar–guide rails appeared and have become the
most common form of guide systems.
For efficiency, the counterweight system is a great im-
provement over hemp rigging. The onstage load can be coun-
terweighted much faster than a hemp set can be bagged. The

112
 single hand line, wire-rope lift lines, and lock rail reduce work
and thus save time.

4.02 Single-Purchase Counterweight System

Fig. 4.1.
Single-purchase
counterweight set

A single-purchase counterweight system is used when there is

clear wall space on one side of the stage from grid height to the
stage floor (fig. 4.1). This system typically consists of

1. Head block for lift line and hand line

2. Loft blocks (mule blocks as needed)
3. Wire-rope lift lines
4. Batten

113
 5. Hand line (Purchase line)
6. Counterweight arbor
7. Lock rail
8. Tension block
9. T-bar–guide rails
10. Loading bridge

Counterweights are used in a 1:1 ratio, that is, 1 lb. of coun-

terweight is needed for each pound of load weight.

4.03 Double-Purchase Counterweight System

Fig. 4.2.
Double-purchase
counterweight set

A double-purchase system is used when some obstruction pre-

vents full travel of the arbor from grid to stage floor. Note the com-
pound rigging of both hand line and lift line in figure 4.2. The bat-

114
 ten travels 2´ for every 1´ of travel for the arbor. Consequently,
2 lb. of counterweight are required for every 1 lb. load.
The arbors must be sized larger than a single-purchase sys-
tem in order to have the same lifting capacity. Larger arbors of-
ten make loading and unloading more difficult and thus more dan-
gerous. Quite often two loading bridges are required to safely
load the longer arbors.
A typical double-purchase counterweight system consists of

1. Head block for lift line and hand line

2. Loft blocks (mule blocks as needed)
3. Wire-rope lift lines
4. Batten
5. Hand line
6. Counterweight arbor
7. Lock rail
8. Tension block
9. T-bar–guide rails
10. Loading bridge
11. Arbor blocks
12. Hand-line tie-off
13. Hand-line and lift-line tie-off

4.04 Miscellaneous Hardware

Knowing the rigging system includes knowing the capacity of
every part of a system. A line set is only as strong as the weak-
est piece of hardware in it, and this includes the miscellaneous
hardware: wire-rope clips, swage fittings, shackles, pear rings,
chain, and other items used for rigging purposes but not made
by manufacturers of theatrical-rigging hardware. When using this
type of hardware for rigging applications, use only hardware with
a manufacturer’s name and load, or application, rating on it and,
if possible, a Product Identification Code (PIC.)
When a manufacturer places its name on a product, it is will-
ing to stand behind the product. It guarantees that the product
will do the job for which it is designed. The companies that man-
ufacturer this type of hardware have engineering departments
that are willing to answer your questions about the use and ap-
plication of their products.
Shackles, pear rings, chain, and other load-bearing products
generally have a rated working load limit. This is a percentage
of the ultimate breaking strength, well below the yield point of
the material from which it is made (see section 1.06.C). Many

115
 manufacturers put the design factors in their catalogs, simplify-
ing the task of selecting hardware with adequate design factors.
The PIC tells the year that the product was manufactured, the
plant where it was manufactured, and the heat number of the met-
al used for that particular item. The PIC, along with the manufac-
turer’s name, assures the user of complete traceability in case
of component failure and of the manufacturer’s liability for the
quality of its product.
By purchasing hardware that has only the country of origin
stamped on it, all of the liability is placed on the user. It is im-
possible to trace the product in case of failure. Many of the im-
port hardware items have a working load limit stamped on them,
but there is no catalog information indicating the design factor.
In fact, the design factor may be only 1:1 or 2:1, while a compa-
rable U.S. product may be 4:1 or 5:1. With only a country of ori-
gin on the product, there is no catalog to consult or engineer to
call for further information. A country, obviously, will not assume
any liability if the piece of hardware fails.

4.05 Wire Rope

With the invention of the counterweight rigging system, wire rope
replaced Manila as the lift-line material. Wire rope is not suscep-
tible to stretching or shrinking from humidity changes, and it is
much stronger per unit of cross-sectional area than Manila rope.
Many types of wire rope are manufactured for industrial applica-
tions, and not one is designed specifically for theatrical use. Al-
though several types of wire rope have been used for rigging over
the years, some are more appropriate than others. The specific
properties and types are discussed below.

A. Properties of Wire Rope for Stage Rigging

1. Reserve Strength
The outer wires of a wire rope are subject to wear and abrasion,
while the inner wires are protected. The reserve strength is the
strength of the inner wires of a wire rope with the outer wires
removed. The more inner metallic area in relation to the outer
metallic area, the greater the reserve strength. This property is
of great interest to the elevator and crane industries, where a
certain number of broken outer wires are allowed before the
wire rope needs to be replaced. It is of less significance for rig-

116
ging applications. For stage rigging, however, even one broken
wire is cause to replace the wire rope immediately.
2. Flexibility
Wire rope, when used for stage rigging, is constantly being bent
over sheaves and cable drums. Repeated bending and straight-
ening requires a flexible and fatigue-resistant type of wire rope.
Preforming the wire into a helix before twisting it into strands
reduces internal friction and increases flexibility.
The smaller the diameter of each wire, the more flexible the
wire rope. Choosing a wire rope with a greater number of wires
per cross-sectional area increases flexibility and fatigue resis-
tance. Wire rope is made of many pieces of wire. Bending a
piece of wire back and forth will eventually fatigue the wire until
it breaks (see section 1.06.G.1). This is true for wire rope as well.
Constant bending will eventually fatigue the wires in the rope
until they break. The number of repeated bends before failure is
called the fatigue life cycle of the wire rope. The greater the fa-
tigue resistance, the longer it will last.
a. D/d ratio. The ratio of the sheave tread diameter (D) to the
wire-rope diameter (d) is called the D/d ratio. The larger the D/d
ratio, the less sharp the bend over the sheave, and the longer
the cable will resist fatigue failure (see section 4.06.B).
b. Reverse bending. Reverse bending can reduce the life of
a wire rope by as much as 50%. When installing new wire rope,
take it off of the spool carefully, and install it so that its major di-
rection of bending is in the same direction as it was on the spool.
It is not always possible to avoid reverse bending. Figure 3.23
shows wire rope being subjected to reverse bends by mule blocks.
If an installation requires reverse bending of the wire rope, try to
place the blocks as far apart as possible, and use as large a
sheave as reasonable. The reverse bends shorten the fatigue life
cycle of the wire rope, thus requiring more frequent replacement.
3. Abrasion Resistance
In normal operation, a wire rope is subject to surface abrasion.
Excessive fleet angles and the absence of sag bars and idler
pulleys contribute to abrasive wear. The larger in diameter the
outer wires are, the more the metal can wear away before the
wire breaks. Larger-diameter wires generally mean greater abra-
sive resistance.
Another factor in abrasion resistance is the grade of the wire
rope. The grade refers to the metal from which the wire rope is

117
made. The chemical content of the steel determines the abra-
sion resistance and strength for a given diameter wire. Gener-
ally, the stronger the grade of wire rope, the more abrasion-re-
sistant it is.
For outside applications, where the wire rope is being dragged
over the ground, abrasion resistance is very important. For nor-
mal theatrical use, it is one of the properties that must be bal-
anced against the others in selecting the proper wire rope for
the job.
4. Size
When wire rope is manufactured, its diameter is slightly over-
sized. After a load is applied, it stretches, and the individual wires
seat themselves closer to each other, thus slightly reducing the
diameter. This stretching is called construction stretch. See sec-
tion 6.03.A.1 and A.2 for the effect on termination devices.
Federal specification RR-W-410E specifies the dimensional
and strength requirements for carbon-steel wire rope. The allow-
able diameter tolerances in these specifications permit a variance
of −0% to +5%, thus never allowing the wire rope to be under-
size, yet allowing the rope to be slightly oversize, even after con-
struction stretch.
Imported wire rope must meet size and strength standards
for theatrical use. Insist on size and strength certification from
the dealer.
Any difference in diameter causes a difference in strength.
The tensile strength of a material is dependent on its cross-sec-
tional area. A smaller-diameter wire rope of similar construction
and material has less cross-sectional area, thus less strength,
than one of a larger diameter.
5. Strength
Strength is a major factor in selecting a type of wire rope for a
rigging application. Wire-rope strength is stated in terms of ulti-
mate breaking strength (see section 1.06). The type of material
denoted by the grade determines the strength of the wire rope
for a given diameter (see section 4.05.C). Wire rope should nev-
er be stressed beyond the yield point. For this reason, a minimum
design factor for running wire rope used for theatrical purposes
is 8:1. That is, the maximum allowable load is one-eighth of the
breaking strength. As the degree of risk increases, the design
factor must also increase. This design factor allows for the fa-
tigue and abrasion of the wire rope.

118
 For slings or other static applications, a minimum design
factor of 5:1 is used. The degree of fatigue and abrasion is much
less for static applications (see section 1.06.I).

B. Construction of Wire Rope

Wire rope is made of many wires twisted together in various com-
binations to provide a strong, flexible cable. There are classifi-
cations of the patterns that the wires are twisted in.
1. Core Construction
The core is the center of the wire rope around which the outer
strands are wrapped. The center is usually one of three types:
fiber core (FC), independent-wire-rope core (IWRC), or wire-strand
core (WSC or SC).
The fiber core is made of natural or synthetic fiber. It is soft-
er and more flexible than the IWRC and is easier to crush under
load. It deforms more under compressive termination devices.
Natural-fiber cores retain lubricant, which has been known to leak
on the stage. They are also less strong than IWRC wire ropes.
Plow-steel wire ropes are available with an FC.
Independent-wire-rope core is a separate wire rope around
which the outer strands are wrapped. It resists crushing and is
less flexible and stronger than a fiber-core wire rope. Galvanized
aircraft cable greater than 3/8˝ in diameter usually has an IWRC.
Plow-steel wire ropes are available with an IWRC.
Wire-strand cores are made of the same construction as the
outer strands of a wire rope. Galvanized aircraft cable below 3/8˝
has a WSC.
2. Classification
Wire rope is classified according to the number of wires and
strands (see fig. 4.3). For example, in a 7 × 19 classification,
the first number (7) denotes the number of strands; the second
number (19) denotes the number of wires in each strand. Typi-
cal classifications are 6 × 19, 6 × 37, and 7 × 19.
Plow steels for stage use are made in the 6 × category. The
number of wires per strand varies, giving the user a wide choice
for flexibility and abrasion resistance. Two broad construction
classifications for plow steel are 6 × 19 and 6 × 37. Within the
6 × 19 classification, there are wire ropes with 19 through 26
wires in each strand. Within the 6 × 37 category, there are wire
ropes with 36 to 49 wires per strand, as figure 4.3 shows. Wire

119
 Fig. 4.3. Section
drawings of 6 × 19
and 6 × 37 wire
rope classifications.
Courtesy of
American Iron
and Steel Institute,
Wire Rope Users
Manual, 4th ed.

Fig. 4.4. Section

drawing of 7 × 19
aircraft cable

ropes with the same diameter, core construction, and grade of

wire all have the same breaking strength, regardless of the num-
ber of wires per strand.
Aircraft cable most commonly used for theatrical applica-
tions is the 7 × 19 classification. The seventh strand is the core
(fig. 4.4).

C. Grades of Wire Rope

Many grades of wire rope are available. Only those found in the-
atrical use will be discussed here.

120
 1. Plow Steel
Plow steel comes in four basic grades: plow steel (PS), improved
plow steel (IPS), extra-improved plow steel (XIPS), and extra-
extra-improved plow steel (XXIPS). (Once there was a grade
called mild plow steel at the very bottom of the strength chart,
but it has not been made for quite some time.) Plow steel is a
natural-colored steel, usually not galvanized. Each grade increas-
es its strength by approximately 15% from the one below it. PS
and IPS grades can be found in older installations and are not
readily available anymore. XIPS is generally used today for the-
atrical applications. XXIPS is available and is used for special
high-strength applications.
It is impossible to distinguish the different grades of plow
steel by eye. They all appear the same. Physical or chemical
testing is the only way to differentiate among the various grades.
To field test a piece of plow-steel wire rope to determine its grade,
obtain samples of PS, IPS, and XIPS in the same diameter that
you want to test. Cut all samples by hand using a cable cutter.
There will be a noticeable difference in the amount of force re-
quired to make the cuts. The plow steel will cut very easily. The
XIPS will require the most effort, and the IPS will fall in the mid-
dle. Cut the unknown sample, and compare the force required
to the known samples. The 15% strength differential is very no-
ticeable; one cut is usually all that is needed to make a determi-
nation. If the unknown sample is harder to cut than the known
samples, it probably is XXIPS.

2. Galvanized Aircraft Cable

Galvanized aircraft cable has become the wire rope of choice for
most theatrical work. It is readily available at reasonable cost and
has a good balance of the properties required for theatrical use.
Aircraft cable comes in both galvanized and stainless steel. The
stainless is less strong and more expensive than the galvanized,
and it should be used only where corrosion is a serious problem.
Aircraft cable used on the control systems of airplanes must
meet the latest version of Military Specification (Mil Spec) MIL-
DTL-83420M, a primary feature of which is fatigue testing. The
cable used in airplanes is run over small-diameter sheaves and
must be able to take repeated small-radius bending without break-
ing. To reduce the abrasion between wires, Mil Spec aircraft ca-
ble is heavily lubricated.
In stage applications, we have no need for this type of test-
ing, and the heavy lubrication will drip on the stage. Instead of

121
Mil-Spec aircraft cable, we use commercial grade. Commercial
grade conforms to Federal Specification RR-W-410E in size and
strength but is not as heavily lubricated and does not go through
fatigue testing. In order to use correct design factors and to ter-
minate the wire rope properly, the rope must meet the size and
strength criteria. Reputable suppliers can provide certification
for strength and size upon request.

3. Stainless-Steel Wire Rope

Stainless-steel wire rope should be used where saltwater corro-
sion is a problem. It is available in two common types, 304 and
316. Type 304 is the stronger of the two; type 316 is the most
corrosive resistant. Both types are less tough than galvanized
aircraft cable and are susceptible to abrasion wear. Inspect the
rope on a regular basis. Never use carbon-steel fittings such as
thimbles, wire-rope clips, or shackles with stainless-steel wire
rope. Electrolysis will cause the carbon-steel elements to rust,
and the rust will migrate to the stainless wire rope, causing it
to corrode.

4. Extra-Flexible Wire Rope

Applications where the wire rope is subjected to high cycles of
operation or a small D/d ratio for sheaves and drums may call for
extra-flexible wire rope. Extra-flexible wire rope is designed to
bend over a smaller radius than either plow steel or aircraft cable.

5. Rotation-Resistant Wire Rope

For applications that require a single lift line that should not ro-
tate, a rotation-resistant wire rope is available. The direction of
twist for the core and outer strands are opposite to each other,
giving it a degree of rotational stability.

6. Sash Cord
As the name implies, sash cord is a wire rope for window sash-
es (fig. 4.5). It is made in both a soft-iron and a steel version. The
soft iron often has a copper coating to resist rust. It is made in
a 6 × 7 design, has a fiber core, is extremely soft, and is very
weak. Many old theatres have this wire rope on the counterweight
sets. Because of its softness and low strength, soft iron does
not take shock loads well and should not be used for theatrical
applications.

122
 Fig. 4.5. Section
drawing of 6 × 7
sash cord

7. Tiller Rope
Tiller rope is made in a 6 × 42 configuration, has a fiber core, and
is usually copper coated (fig. 4.6). It is also made in both steel
and iron wire and is designed for controlling the tillers on small
boats. This wire rope has very low strength, low abrasion resis-
tance, and should not be used for theatrical lifting applications.

Fig. 4.6. Section

drawing of 6 × 42
tiller rope

8. Strength Comparison
The following listing (from the Macwhyte Wire Rope Catalog G-
18) is a comparison of the breaking strength of various types of
1/4˝ wire rope.

Type Breaking Strength (lb.)

Tiller rope, iron 1,168
Sash cord, bright 2,040
Tiller rope, plow steel 2,620
Plow steel IWRC 4,780
Improved plow steel IWRC 5,480
Extra-improved plow steel IWRC 6,800
Galvanized aircraft cable 7,000

9. Wire Rope for Theatrical Use

When taking over the responsibility for the rigging equipment in
a facility, one of the first orders of business should be to inspect
the rigging equipment. This includes finding out what type and
grade of wire rope are being used. Determine if there is more than
one type. Look at the outside physical appearance of the wire

123
rope. Is it plain metal colored, copper colored, or galvanized?
Determine, if possible, the approximate year the wire rope was
installed. Open up an end to determine the type of core. Count
the number of wires in a strand. Compare what you see to the
information found in a good wire-rope catalog. Galvanized air-
craft cable, tiller rope, and sash cord are easily identified. Plow
steel, because of its various grades, is more difficult and may
require a destructive test to determine the grade. If possible, con-
tact the company responsible for the installation of the rigging
system; it may be able to help you answer questions.
Once you determine the type and grade of the wire rope,
make a written record for future use.

10. Purchasing New Wire Rope

Determine the design load for the line set and the type of use
with regard to fatigue, flexibility, and abrasion. Ordinary counter-
weight sets and many winch sets can use galvanized aircraft
cable or 6 × 19 XIPS with an IWRC. If the line set will require a
high number of cycles per day, will have excessive reverse bends
in the cable, or has a small D/d ratio, use a more flexible XIPS,
such as 6 × 25 or 6 × 37. If the wire rope is for a permanent in-
stallation and a special application, other than a counterweight
set, seek a knowledgeable person to help with the selection.
Most often, the sales representative at the wire-rope store has
no understanding of theatrical requirements. Talk to a theatre
consultant or a stage-equipment company.
When ordering, specify the diameter, the breaking strength,
the core type, number of strands and wires, and grade. Ask for
a certified test report of the exact size and breaking strength.
There can be a strength difference between domestic and im-
ported wire rope. Record in the rail log the installation date and
line sets for which the wire rope was used (see section 7.03.A).

D. Attaching to Batten and Arbor

Applying a load to wire rope causes it to stretch. Even if a batten
is evenly loaded, the load on each lift line is not equal. Many loads
are not evenly distributed, which adds to the problem of uneven
cable stretch (see section 3.04.B.2). Therefore, when terminating
the lift lines at arbor and batten, a method of adjustment must
be provided. The adjustment device can be attached either to
the batten or arbor end of the wire rope. Leveling the batten is
much easier if the trimming device is attached to the batten rath-

124
er than to the arbor. The batten is lowered to a point where it is
convenient to measure from floor to batten. Measurements are
made where each lift line is attached to the batten, and the lines
are lengthened or shortened as required. If the adjusting device
is on the arbor, then one person onstage must yell to the person
adjusting at the arbor. This is often awkward and time consuming.
1. Trim Chain
Use trim chain that is manufactured to Federal Specifications
RR-271-E and ASTM A413 to be assured of consistent strength
and dimensions. The published design factor for chain meeting
these specifications is 4:1. The entertainment industry uses a
minimum design factor of 5:1. To obtain the allowable theatrical
working load for a particular chain, multiply the published WLL
by 4, and divide by 5.
Chain catalogs typically have disclaimers for welded passing-
link chain, coil chain, machine chain, and grade-30-proof coil
chain that indicate they should not be used for overhead lifting.
These disclaimers apply to using the chain for slings and to rais-
ing or lowering loads by lengthening or shortening the chain with
mechanical means, such as a chain hoist. The trim-chain appli-
cation is defined as a dead hang.
Grade 8 alloy chain is recommended for overhead lifting and
slings. Because of the size of the chain links in relation to the
opening in the links, the bell of a properly sized shackle will not
pass through a link. Using grade-8 chain is not practical for typ-
ical trim-chain use.
Today, trim chains are usually made from ¼˝ proof coil chain
with a breaking strength of 5,000 lb. on systems in which the
WLL for the loft blocks is typically no more than 700 lb. The wire
rope is terminated in an eye splice at the end of a chain, using a
thimble with cable clips or a Nicopress sleeve. The trim chain is
wrapped around the batten 1½ times and is secured back to the
thimble using a shackle (fig. 4.7). By attaching the shackle back
to the wire-rope thimble, the load is distributed between both
sides of the chain (called a basket hitch). The effective capacity
of the trim-chain assembly is doubled, thus providing a breaking
strength for the chain assembly of 10,000 lb. (see section 2.03.A).
When the shackle is attached to a link in the chain below the
thimble, the entire load is on a single link, and the point of great-
est stress is that link (fig. 4.8). This reduces the strength of the
trim-chain assembly to 5,000 lb. If the chain link is side loaded,
this further reduces the chain strength to 2,500 lb. Side loading
reduces a chain-link strength by 50%.

125
 Fig. 4.7. Lift
line attached to
batten with trim
chain; shackle
through the eye
of wire rope

Fig. 4.8. Lift

line attached to
batten with trim
chain; shackle
through a link
of the chain;
the safety bolt
through links of
the chain

126
 When installing trim chains, leave about four extra links hang-
ing out of the shackle so that the batten can be lowered as well
as raised without having to take the shackle out of the cable eye.
Snap hooks are often used to secure a trim chain (fig. 4.9).
However, they are unrated pieces of hardware and should not
be used; replace them with appropriately sized shackles. A quick
temporary fix can be made by inserting a grade 5 bolt with a grade
5 locknut in the links below the snap hook as a backup device,
as shown in figure 4.8.

Fig. 4.9.
Broken snap
hook on trim
chain on arbor

Quick Links are also used with trim chains or to attach lift
lines to arbors (fig. 4.10). They must be fully closed to develop
their full strength. Most of them do not bear a manufacturer’s
name, and the design factor is unknown. Maillon-Rapide is the
only manufacturer (that the author is aware of) that puts its name
on the Quick Link and has a published design factor (5:1). Be-
cause Quick Links can come open as a result of vibration, they
are not dependable devices. Shackles from a known manufac-
turer are a safer choice. If Quick Links are used on either end of
the lift lines, and you notice they have a tendency to come loose,
do one of the following: (1) Reinstall them so that they tighten
down. This usually will solve the loosening problem. If changing
the orientation is not possible, (2) use Loctite on the threads.

2. Clove Hitch with Wire-Rope Clips

This termination technique is a holdover from hemp rigging. The
wire rope is tied around the batten with a clove hitch, just as fiber

127
Fig. 4.10. Loose
Quick Link on
trim chain

Fig. 4.11. Clove

hitch with
wire-rope clips

128
rope is. To secure the hitch, the dead end is fastened to the stand-
ing part with the recommended number of wire-rope clips (fig.
4.11). Destructive testing has shown that the weak point is just
above the top clip. The wire rope breaks at this point regardless
of how many clips are used. This is the point where all of the sup-
port of the load transfers from both halves of the line to just the
live line. It is the point of greatest stress on the line at the batten
end. From the top clip downward, the wire rope forms a basket
hitch, and the load is equally divided between both halves of the
line. The clove hitch supports the load on both the lines and is
not the weak point of the termination. The efficiency of this ter-
mination is 80%, the same as wire-rope clips.

3. Twisted Sash Cord

In the early days of counterweight systems, 6 × 7 sash cord was
often used for the wire-rope lift lines. As mentioned in section
4.05.C.6, this is a very weak wire rope and should not be used
for stage rigging. It was often tied in a clove hitch around the bat-
ten with the dead end wrapped around the standing part. The
end was taped to hold it in place. This type of termination plac-
es a concentrated stress area right where the standing part of
the line makes the first bend of the clove hitch.
The photograph in figure 4.12 shows an existing system in
which the rigger has replaced the tape with two cable clips; this
does nothing to strengthen the termination. The entire load is
still on the standing part of the line. If the dead end of the line is
straight, as in figure 4.11, and the clips are applied, the wire rope
forms a basket hitch, and the load is shared by both parts of the
line up to the top clip. Because the dead end of the line is twist-
ed around the live line, it does not support any of the load. In
this case, the efficiency of the termination when first applied is
that of a clove hitch, about 75%. Due to fatigue and shock load-
ing over time, the wire rope can become deformed at the stress
point of the clove hitch, and the termination will become even
less efficient.

4. Turnbuckle
The wire rope can be attached to the end of a turnbuckle using
a thimble with cable clips or a compression sleeve. Use a turn-
buckle with either jaw or eye ends or a combination of both. At-
tach the wire rope or batten clamp to an eye with a shackle. Do
not fasten the cable directly to the eye. The turnbuckle may need
to be replaced, and using a shackle makes replacement easier.

129
 Fig. 4.12. Clove
hitch with twisted
dead end of wire
rope; added clips
of little value

A jaw end can be attached directly to the arbor, pipe clamp on

the batten, or wire-rope thimble.
As wire rope runs over a sheave, the twist in the wire rope
causes it to spin. Cotter pins, or No. 12 solid-core electric wire,
through a hole in the rod ends or wire mousing should be used
to keep the turnbuckle from turning and separating. Jam nuts
do not hold. They keep the rod of the turnbuckle from closing
but not from opening. All three methods are shown in figure 4.13.

E. Indications of Wear
When inspecting the lift lines for signs of wear, look for broken
wires, flattened wires, separation in wire or strand, rust, signs of
chemical etching, or anything unusual (fig. 4.14). Wire rope in good
condition is clean, well formed, and free from dirt, grease, and
other discoloration.

130
 Fig. 4.13.
Turnbuckle on
a batten with
jam nuts and
two types of
mousing

Fig. 4.14. Signs of

wear and misuse.
Courtesy of
American Iron and
Steel Institute, Wire
Rope User’s Manual,
4th ed.

131
Fig. 4.15. Regular
thimble (left) and
deformed thimble

In particular, look closely at the wire rope next to the cable

clips and compression fittings. These are points of stress con-
centrations and the most likely places to find broken wires caused
by overloading. An elongated thimble is a sign of excessive
stress (fig. 4.15). Check terminations very thoroughly.
To check for broken wire over a long run, hold a piece of terry
cloth or cotton batting in a gloved hand. Wrap the material gen-
tly around the wire rope, and have someone operate the line set.
The broken wires will snag the material. If using a bare hand in-
stead of fabric, you will follow the bloody trail back to a piece of
skin snagged in the broken wire.
Gun bluing or any other type of acid-based solution should
never be used to color wire rope. The acid continues to eat into
the metal and causes corrosion and loss of strength.

4.06 Blocks
In this section, characteristics that pertain specifically to wire
rope blocks are discussed. (For general information pertaining
to blocks, see section 3.04.)

A. Material
The sheaves for wire-rope blocks can be made from a variety of
materials. Each material has a finite amount of compressive load

132
 that it can withstand before it fails. This compressive force is re-
ferred to as radial pressure. The radial pressure is dependent on
the size of the wire rope (d), the magnitude of the load (L), and
the tread diameter of the sheave (D). The formula for calculating
the radial pressure (RP) is
RP = (2 × L) ÷ (D × d)
The allowable radial pressure for common sheave materials with
6 × 19 or 7 × 19 wire rope is
Material Radial Pressure (RP; lb.)
cast iron 480
cast carbon steel 900
chilled cast iron 1,100
manganese steel 2,400
injection-molded Mylatron 500 to 700
cast Nylatron 1,000 to 2,000

The Nylatron figures vary with different manufacturers depend-

ing on molding patterns and machining techniques. Figure 4.16
shows the effect of excessive radial pressure on a sheave. This
kind of scoring causes excessive wear on the wire rope. Even-
tually, the sheave will wear to the point of catastrophic failure.

Fig. 4.16.
Sheave scored
by excessive
radial pressure

B. Sizing
Proper sheave-diameter sizing is far more critical for wire rope
than hemp rope. The recommended sheave diameter is a mul-
tiple of the wire-rope diameter called the D/d ratio (see section

133
 4.05.A.2.a). The minimum sheave tread diameter for 7 × 19 air-
craft cable and 6 × 19 wire rope is 30 times the diameter of the
wire rope. Using ¼˝ for example, .25 × 30 = 7.5˝ minimum sheave-
tread diameter. The groove of the sheave must also be properly
sized for the wire rope. If it is too big, it does not support the wire
rope properly, and the wire rope will flatten out and lose strength.
If the groove is too small, the abrasion of the cable, rubbing the
groove walls, will cause wear on both cable and sheave. A tol-
erance of –.00 to +.015 is acceptable. Using hemp blocks for
wire rope is never acceptable.

C. Head Blocks

Fig. 4.17. Section

of head-block
sheave showing
equal pitch
diameter on
right and
unequal on left

The head blocks for counterweight sets are grooved for the wire-
rope lift lines and the fiber-rope hand line. The pitch diameters
for the fiber and wire ropes must be equal, or the hand line and
lift lines will run at different speeds. The right side of figure 4.17
shows equal-pitch diameter for the hand line and the wire rope.
The left side shows a larger pitch diameter for the wire rope. Un-
equal pitch diameter causes the hand line to slip in the groove
of the head block, thus causing wear to the hand line and addi-
tional friction in the system. This slipping can often be felt when
running the line set. Because friction is a percentage of applied
force, the heavier the load, the greater the amount of friction and
the greater the effort required to operate the line set. Unequal
pitch diameter can be fixed only by replacing the head-block
sheave or having it remachined.
When inspecting the head blocks, check to see that the lift
lines are not crossed, that the fleet angle of all lines is accept-
able, and that the clamps are tight and against the support steel.
All head-block mounting bolts should, at a minimum, be grade
5 (see section 6.04).

134
 D. Tension Block

Fig. 4.18.
Tension blocks

Fig. 4.19.
Bent tension-
block guide

The tension block (fig. 4.18), found on a single-purchase coun-

terweight set, serves two functions. First, because it can float
(move up and down), it can reduce strain on the hand line if it
shrinks due to increased humidity. Most types of tension pulleys
require a downward pressure on the front edge before they can
move up on the T-bar guides.
Second, the tension pulley allows the operator to put slack
in the hand line in order to put a safety twist in it while loading

135
 or unloading (see section 4.11.A.1). The tension-block guides can
become bent (fig. 4.19) from the force generated by doing this
or using an Uncle Buddy. Inspect the guides at regular intervals.

4.07 Lock Rail

Fig. 4.20.
Rope locks

The lock rail is a metal rail with a rope lock for the hand line of
each counterweight set. The rope lock (fig. 4.20) is intended to
keep the batten in a given position under a nearly balanced load
condition. The rope lock is never intended to hold a heavily unbal-
anced load while loading or unloading. The lock rail must be firmly
anchored to the floor to withstand upthrust and side load ap-
plied by stagehands climbing on it. The common upthrust de-
sign load is 500 lb. per foot.

A. Rope Lock
The lock consists of a pair of jaws and a hand-operated lever
arm (fig. 4.21). The lever arm has a cam on the side that presses
against the onstage jaw, forcing it against the rope thus holding
the rope between the two jaws. A steel ring, which is threaded
through the hand line, slips over the lever when it is in the up, or
locked, position. This ring locks the handle closed and keeps the
handle from accidentally falling open. When properly adjusted,
the rope lock should be self-locking, that is, when the handle goes
up 2° past the vertical position, it should stay in position. There

136
Fig. 4.21. Rope-
lock detail

is a noticeable feel when the cam on the handle goes over cen-
ter and into position.

B. Lock Adjustment
The pressure of the jaws is designed to be easily adjusted by turn-
ing the thumbscrew on the back side of the lock (see fig. 4.21).
Missing thumbscrews should be replaced immediately. If the
handle cannot be adjusted to be self-locking, the cam on the
handle or the onstage jaw is worn out and must be replaced.

C. Load Limit and Identification

The lock rail is a good place to mark the load limit of each rigging
set as well as to identify each set by number and purpose. Rig-
ging sets are numbered from downstage to upstage.

4.08 Arbor
The arbor is the rack that holds the counterweights. It consists
of a top plate and a bottom plate (each also called a weldment),

137
 a steel back plate, two guide shoe assemblies, and two steel
rods ¾˝ in diameter. Wire guide systems do not have the guide
shoe assemblies and often do not have back plates. Steel plates
called spreader plates or spreader bars slide on the rods. Top
plates have collars and thumbscrews and are called lock plates.
As weights are stacked on the arbor, the spreader bars should
be distributed every 2´ to 3´. In the event that the counterweight
set moves too fast, and the arbor slams into the top or bottom
stops, the spreader plates keep the rods from bending so the
counterweights do not fall out.
The lock plate should always be used on top of the counter-
weights. Its function is to keep the counterweights from falling
out of the arbor in case of a crash. The lock plate can only do

Fig. 4.22.
Counterweights
with spreader and
lock plates in place

138
 Fig. 4.23. How
not to use
spreader plates

this if it is in place and the thumbscrews are tight (fig. 4.22).

Figure 4.23 shows how not to use the spreader plates. Lock and
spreader plates are like seat belts—you only need to have them
in place at the moment of impact. Because you cannot know when
the moment of impact will be, you need to use them all of the time.
caution: If the arbor tops and bottoms are cast iron, inspect them
carefully and frequently for cracks.

A. Guide Systems
There are two types of guide systems for arbors. The simplest
and noisiest is a wire-guide system (fig. 4.24). These generally
should not be used for line sets with more than 35´ of travel. No
matter how tight the guide wires are, it is impossible to keep the
arbor from swinging side to side. If used for systems with great-
er travel distances, the line sets should be spaced far enough
apart so the arbors do not hit each other.
Periodically, check the wires to see that they are tight and
that they are not worn. caution! Do not overtighten the guide
wires. Overtightening can bend the support steel to which the
ends are fastened, whether they are part of the building or a
part of the head block.
The other type of guide systems for arbors is a track system,
most commonly called a T-bar–guide system (fig. 4.25). The name
is derived from the shape of the guide rails. Typically, the T-bars

139
 Fig. 4.24.
Wire-guide
counterweight set

Fig. 4.25.
T-bar–guide
counterweight set

are made of steel. A similar guide system is made from extrud-

ed aluminum in a J-bar configuration. The J-bars are gaining
popularity, as they are easier and faster to install than steel T-bars.
The arbor has guide shoes, or rollers, that run on the rails. If
the arbor becomes hard to move, check the arbor guide and T-
bars for proper alignment. The guide shoes may need replace-
ment. Never grease the T-bar. The grease will attract dust and
dirt, and it will ultimately make the arbor even harder to move.

140
 B. Pipe Weight
Most of the time, enough weight is left on the arbor to balance
the batten weight. This is called the pipe weight. It is good prac-
tice to paint these weights a distinctive color to aid the loaders
when taking weights off the arbor.
note: The spreader plates are not intended to mark pipe
weight. Using them to mark pipe weights keeps them out of
the way when loading and unloading the arbor but is of little
help during a runaway.

4.09 Hand Line

Fig. 4.26. Hand

line tied at
arbor bottom

Once, most hand lines were Manila rope. Nowadays, three-strand

twist and parallel-core polyester have become the ropes of
choice. Because Manila changes its length with changes in the
humidity, it should be adjusted by retying it if it becomes very
tight or slack. Sometimes, it is necessary to retie polyester after
the construction stretch is worked out of it. On single-purchase
systems, this is done on the underside of the arbor (fig. 4.26).
The arbor is raised and locked off. The knot, usually two half
hitches, is retied to adjust to the proper tension. Taping the tail
of the rope to the hand line keeps it from getting in the way dur-
ing operation.
On a double-purchase set, one end of the hand line is tied
off on the head block beam, and the other is tied off somewhere
near the lock rail. Whichever knot is most convenient to reach
may be used for adjustment. Because the knot is not moving,

141
 no taping is necessary. However, the end of the rope should be
taped or whipped to prevent fraying (see section 6.01).
On both single- and double-purchase systems, be sure the
knot does not interfere with the arbor travel.

4.10 Loading Bridge

The loading bridge is the platform where the arbors are loaded
and unloaded. A safe loading bridge is placed at a height where
the arbors can be easily reached when the battens are 3´ to 5´
above the stage floor. So the loaders can safely see what they
are doing, there should be adequate lighting on the loading bridge.

A. Storing Weights

Fig. 4.27.
Counterweights
stored on
loading bridge

A kick rail should be on both edges of the loading bridge to keep

the counterweights from being kicked off (fig. 4.27). Counter-
weights should never be stacked higher than the kick rail! If pos-
sible, they should be stacked on the onstage side of the bridge,
so the loaders do not have to walk on them while working.

B. Loading and Unloading Weights

Usually, two people should work on the loading bridge. One per-
son hands the weights to the other, who loads them on the ar-
bor. To reduce the chance of dropping weights, the transfer of

142
Fig. 4.28. Loading
counterweights

Fig. 4.29. Handing

counterweights
to loader

weights is done over the loading bridge, never in the open space
next to the arbor. The reverse is done for unloading.
It is easiest for the person loading and unloading to grasp
the weights in the middle (fig. 4.28). The person handing the
weights to the loader should hold them by the ends (fig. 4.29).

143
 C. Identifying Load Limits and Weights
It is good practice to post the weight of the variously sized
counterweights in some obvious place on the loading bridge.
The capacity of the batten can be indicated on the lock plate,
the batten, or other convenient locations (fig. 4.30).

D. Lead Weights
Special precautions need to be taken when using lead weights.
The basic rule is, Don’t lick the lead. Be sure to use gloves, and
wash your hands before smoking or eating. If you put your
hands near your mouth after handling lead weights, you may
accidentally get lead in your mouth and ingest it. Even a small
amount of ingested lead puts you at risk of lead poisoning.

4.11 Loading and Unloading with

a Loading Bridge
Counterweight sets are designed to be used in a balanced con-
dition. This means that the load on the batten is equally balanced
with the counterweights on the arbors. During the loading and
unloading process, an unbalanced condition exists. This condi-
tion is potentially very dangerous! The entire loading and unload-
ing procedure should be handled with great care. The basic rule
for working with an unbalanced load is Keep the weight down.
Never depend on the lock or the lock rail to hold weight in the air.

A. Crew Responsibilities
In order to avoid holding weight in the air, it is essential that a
proper loading-and-unloading sequence be followed. In addi-
tion, it is essential that the crews loading weights, working the
lock rail, and attaching scenery or lights to the battens thor-
oughly know their jobs.
1. The Rail Operator
The operator on the lock rail directs the loading and unloading.
The operator controls the sequence by giving directions for at-
taching or removing loads, as well as adding or removing coun-
terweights on the arbor. If a heavy show is being set in or taken
out, assistant flymen control the hand lines while the head fly-
man directs the operation. When loading or unloading, always

144
 Fig. 4.30.
Loading-bridge
sign, for which
“Maximum print
load” should
read “Maximum
point load”

have a safety wrap on the hand line. There is always a chance of

the counterweight set becoming unbalanced with the load in
the air. Therefore, one of the methods of putting a safety wrap
on the line should be used (see figs. 4.31 through 4.38).
Method 1. Twist the hand line. Step down on the front of the
tension pulley, and pull up on the back hand line. This will cre-
ate slack in the hand line. Twist one rope around the other, four
or five times. Apply tension to the front rope by hand (fig. 4.31),
or place a belaying pin in the ropes for ease in holding (fig. 4.32).
Never rely on the rope lock to hold an unbalanced load! Twisting
the hand line will cause the tension block to pull up in the front,
which puts a great deal of strain on the tension-block guides and
may cause them to bend (see section 4.06.D, fig. 4.19). Once the
load is attached, and the arbor is loaded, hold onto the front line
while keeping the hand lines twisted. Allow the line to slip as the

145
 Fig. 4.31. Safety
twist in hand line

Fig. 4.32.
Belaying pin
in hand line

146
 Fig. 4.33.
Safety hitch
on hand line
load is raised off the floor. When the load is clear of the floor, if
the load feels balanced, untwist the line and operate normally. If
the load is not balanced, pull the arbor to where the weight can
be adjusted, and do it.
Method 2. Tie a safety hitch from the hand line to the lock
rail. In the past, it was common to use a piece of Manila or cot-
ton sash cord to tie off the hand line (fig. 4.33). With the introduc-
tion of polyester hand line, 8 or 9 mm nylon and Spectra moun-
tain-climbing accessory cord is coming into use (fig. 4.34). Spectra
is much stronger than nylon. Two knots that work well for attach-
ing the safety line to the hand line are the stopper hitch and the
prusik knot (see sections 6.01.B.3 and 4). The smaller diameter
of the synthetic tie-off line grips the synthetic hand line better
and gives more secure holding power than Manila. The synthet-
ic line also works well on Manila hand line. Tying off the hand line
places all of the stress on the tie-off line and not on the tension
block. This method is the easiest on the tension-block guides.

147
 Fig. 4.34.
Prusik knot
in synthetic
safety line

Fig. 4.35. Slipping

the knot on the
safety line

Quite often the load—a piece of scenery or a curtain—will

be on the floor after it is attached to the batten. The arbor is
weighted, and the line set is out of balance until the load is lift-
ed clear of the floor. If the tie-off is removed while the weight is
on the floor, the overweight arbor can run away, jerking the load
into the air. Both the stopper hitch and the prusik can be slipped
on the hand line, allowing the operator to control the load until it
is balanced. Get some help to pull down slightly on the tied-off
hand line. When there is a bit of slack on the tie-off line, place
your hand on top of the knot, and slide it down the hand line (fig.

148
 4.35). Ease the hand line up a bit, and continue this process un-
til the load is clear of the floor. Check the balance by pulling on
the hand line. If the load is balanced enough to control, remove
the tie-off line.

Fig. 4.36.
Drawing of
Line Lok

Fig. 4.37.
Line Lok

149
Fig. 4.38. Line Lok
detail. Courtesy of
Wes Jenkins

Method 3. Use a Line Lok (Uncle Buddy). I first saw a Line

Lok (figs. 4.36 and 4.37) in a theatre in Calgary, Canada. Some
months later, while doing a rigging seminar at the Banff Cen-
ter, I mentioned the Line Lok. The technical director not only had
some in the theatre but gave me the drawing in figure 4.38 to
make one. He mentioned that the device first appeared in Cana-
da with a touring U.S. road show. After the first edition of this
book was published, I moved to Seattle and found that the device
was originally made by a Seattle stagehand. In his honor, it is
called an Uncle Buddy. This is a typical example of how infor-
mation on rigging is passed along from one place to another in
the theatre.
note: The drawing of how to make a Line Lok, or Uncle Bud-
dy, that appeared in the first edition contains a dimensional er-

150
 ror and has been corrected in this edition. The original drawing
indicates a space from the inside of the hooks to the front of the
steel tube of 1˝. This dimension should be the same as the di-
ameter of the hand line. If manufactured as drawn and used on
a line less than 1˝ in diameter, the Line Lok could slip. The slack
space can be taken up by attaching a plate of the correct thick-
ness on the inside of the tube, as shown in figure 4.37.

Fig. 4.39.
Commercial
line holder

Figure 4.39 shows a commercially manufactured device that

works in a similar manner to the Line Lok. Both devices can be
used as a brake to move an unbalanced load, similar to slipping
the tie-off knot above. This is done by releasing the bottom hook,
placing one hand at the top of the device and rocking the bot-
tom with the other hand.
Method 4. Use a bull line. See section 4.12.B.2.
Method 5. Use a bull winch or capstan winch. See section
4.12.B.3.
Method 6. Use a block and tackle. See section 4.12.B.4.
Never leave the hand line unattended when a counterweight set
is being loaded or unloaded.

2. Loading-Bridge Crew
The loading-bridge crew should add or remove weights only
when instructed to do so by the rail operator. Adding weight to
an arbor before a load is attached to a batten can cause an un-
balanced condition. This could leave the counterweights hang-

151
ing in the air, supported only by the hand line. Follow safe pro-
cedure for loading weights, using spreader bars and lock plates
(see section 4.10).
3. Stage Crew
The crew onstage attaches the load to the batten. The head car-
penter or head electrician supervises batten and spot-line load-
ing and unloading. The head flyman gives the order to the stage
crew to attach or remove the load. Removing the load from a
batten before the arbor is unloaded is dangerous.
When scenery or curtains are resting on the floor while be-
ing attached or removed from a batten, their full weight is not
offsetting the counterweights needed to balance them. The stage
crew may have to hold the batten down as counterweights are
being added or removed. They do this either by holding the bat-
ten with their hands or with a bull line (see section 4.12.B). When
holding a batten by hand, never lean over the batten. It may be
necessary to let go quickly if the batten begins to run away.

B. Communications
The crews onstage, on the loading bridge, and at the lock rail
must be able to hear the directions given by the rail operator. If,
for any reason, the flyman has difficulty being heard, electronic
voice reinforcement should be used.
Often, many people are working on and above the stage. It
is important to shout a warning to all before moving a batten in
or out. The normal warning is to shout, “Heads up,” “Heads,” or
“Line set number ___ moving.” It is also helpful to indicate
where the piece is moving (e.g., “Upstage, heads up”). When
working on the stage, never stand or walk under a moving rig-
ging set. Never move a rigging set when someone is under it.

C. Runaway Set
If crew members involved in loading or unloading a counterweight
set lose their concentration, it is possible for them to make a mis-
take and for the set to become unbalanced and run away. This
happens when the weight in the air is so heavy that it cannot be
held by the rope lock. If it starts to creep, it may be possible to
stop it by brute strength and quickly correct the situation. How-
ever, if the set begins to move rapidly, indicating a very heavy
out-of-balance condition, do not attempt to stop it! To do so could

152
 cause serious injury. If a runaway should occur, shout a warning
to all crews, and take cover. Crew members should take cover
to protect themselves from flying counterweights and objects
falling from the grid.
The arbor will either crash down or up, depending on which
part of the line set is heavy; and the chance is great that coun-
terweights and smashed head blocks, tension blocks, or other
hardware will fly through the air. The batten will either go up or
down, and the possibilities of adjacent flown objects being hit,
lift lines snapping, loft blocks smashing and falling, and sprinkler
systems being activated are all very real. The only reasonable
course of action is to get quickly out of harm’s way. Runaways
are caused by human error. Concentration on the task at hand is
essential to using rigging safely.

D. Loading
The loading procedure is as follows.
1. Attach load to batten. If a great deal of weight is resting
on the floor, make provision for holding the batten down until
the counterweight has been loaded.
2. Load counterweight arbor.
3. Slowly raise the batten to test for balance, keeping it un-
der control at all times.
4. Add or subtract weight as needed for final balancing.

E. Unloading
1. Unload weight from arbor first.
2. Remove weight from batten.

4.12 Loading and Unloading without

a Loading Bridge
Some facilities do not have loading bridges, or the arbors can-
not be reached from the loading bridge when the batten is down.
This is particularly true with lighting battens. The electric-cable
cradle often restricts the full travel of the battens and arbor.

A. Partial Loads
Where it is possible to attach partial loads to the batten, such
as a lighting batten, the procedure is

153
 1. Put a small amount of weight on the arbor—enough so
that the operator can safely raise the arbor to a height where
the batten can be reached.
2. Add part of the load to the batten, overloading the batten
slightly.
3. Lower the arbor so more weight can be added. This pro-
cedure is followed back and forth until both batten and arbor are
fully loaded and balanced. Needless to say, the rail operators
must be strong and in good physical condition for this work.
4. For unloading, the procedure is reversed. Do not remove
all of the load or counterweights at one time. This could result in
a runaway set.

B. Unbalanced Large Loads

Sometimes, it is necessary to attach large loads as a single unit.
This requires moving either the arbor or batten with a great deal
of weight in an unbalanced condition. Although this is difficult,
with proper techniques and planning, the danger can be mini-
mized. Sufficient force must be used to move the unbalanced load
to a point where it can be balanced. Several options are possible.
1. Human Method
Weight permitting, a group of people operate the hand line by
brute strength.
2. Bull Line
A bull line (fig. 4.40) can be used on the batten. A bull line is a
long piece of rope, 5 8̸ ˝ to ¾˝ diameter, that is doubled over the
batten near one of the lift lines. The stage crew can then pull on
this line and aid the operator in raising or lowering an overweight
arbor. The line is doubled so that it can be pulled free once the
load is balanced. The bull line must be placed near a lift line or
the batten can be bent. More than one bull line can be used on
a batten.
3. Capstan Winch and Bull Winch
A capstan winch (fig. 4.41) is a movable winch that aids in pull-
ing the arbor down or keeping the arbor from rising too rapidly.
A rope is attached to the bottom of the arbor. It is then wrapped
several times around the capstan of the winch, and the winch is
turned on. Applying tension to the free end of the rope causes it
to tighten around the capstan and allows the winch to help move
the unbalanced load.

154
 Fig. 4.40. Bull
line on a batten

Fig. 4.41. Capstan

winch. Courtesy
of Peter Albrecht
Corp.

155
 Fig. 4.42.
Bull winch
used to load
arbor in a
facility with no
loading bridge

A movable winch with a wire-rope drum is called a bull winch

(fig. 4.42). All of the pulling force is applied by the winch. No pull-
ing by hand on the line is necessary.

4. Block and Tackle

A block and tackle can be used to raise or lower an unbalanced
load. It can be rigged to the head-block beam and the top of the
arbor to help lift an arbor-heavy load; or it can be rigged to the
lock rail and the bottom of the arbor to help raise a batten-heavy
156
load. The fall block can also be attached to the hand line using
a sunday with a prusik knot.
5. Sandbag Substitution
When battens are used to store scenery during a performance,
there may not be time to unload the arbor when the scenery is
removed from the batten. In order to keep the counterweight set
in balance, a sandbag may be moved onstage on a dolly and
attached to the batten near one of the lift lines. The weight of the
sandbag will compensate for the weight of the removed scenery.
If the weight is heavy, the sandbag must be attached near
one of the lift lines, or it will bend the batten. Remember, attach
the sandbag before removing the scenery.
6. Carpet Hoist
The carpet hoist (fig. 4.43) is also used in situations in which the
load will be removed from the batten during performance. To
make and use a carpet hoist,
a. Bolt a bracket to the bottom of the arbor. The bracket
should extend out from the arbor far enough to prevent
the adjacent arbor from passing it. The bracket must be
strong and rigid enough to move the scenery arbor with-
out bending or breaking. Many different types of arbor
bottoms are in use. It is beyond the scope of this book to
try to detail a bracket that would work for each type. The
bracket must be designed to support the applied load
and not come loose during operation. The bottom of the
second arbor rests against the top of the bracket.
b. The batten and lift lines must be removed from the sec-
ond arbor.
c. The scenery arbor is loaded only to pipe weight.
d. The second arbor is loaded with enough weight to bal-
ance the scenery.
e. To lower the scenery, pull the hand line to raise the scen-
ery arbor. The weight on the second arbor will follow along
and balance the load.
f. When the scenery is at the point where it will be removed
from the batten, lock off the hand line on the second arbor.
Secure a safety hitch between the second arbor hand line
and lock rail. Remove the scenery from the batten. Take
the batten out by using the hand line on the scenery arbor.
g. After the scenery is reattached to the batten, release the
safety hitch and the rail lock on the second arbor. Raise
the scenery by pulling on the scenery arbor hand line.

157
 Fig. 4.43.
Carpet hoist

note: When the scenery is removed from the batten, the sec-
ond arbor is out of balance and held in the air by the safety hitch.
Be sure the hitch is well tied. Never depend on the rail lock alone
to hold the arbor! A block and tackle can also be used to hold
the second arbor in lieu of the safety hitch. With a sunday, se-
cure the fall block to the hand line that raises the arbor, and se-

158
cure the standing block to the lock rail. Tie off the lead line to
the lock rail to hold the arbor in position.

4.13 Showtime Operation

The reason that scenery, curtains, and lights are flown is so that
they can be used during a performance. Some flown objects do
not move at all, while others move in and out one or more times
during a performance. It is essential to make sure that the flown
objects will function as they should for every performance.

A. Label Lock Rail

Each counterweight set in use for a production should be clear-
ly labeled on the lock rail. Sets that are storing objects not cur-
rently in use should also be labeled. When releasing the lock on
the lock rail, the rail operator should know what is hanging on
that batten.

B. Use Trim Marks

All rigging sets used during a performance should have trim marks
on the hand lines. Tape, ribbon, yarn, or string can be used for
this purpose (fig. 4.44). If the piece must move quickly during
the performance, winding the tape down the rope or inserting a
warning yarn of a different color will indicate that the trim mark
is approaching.
Ribbon trim marks can be pulled through the mantle of a
parallel-core polyester line by using a crochet hook, tire-repair
tool, or a small screwdriver with a slot cut in the blade. Do not
go through the center of the line (fig. 4.45).
Pieces that do not move during a performance should also
be marked so that if they have to move for maintenance purposes,
repositioning to performance trim is simplified.

C. Knuckle Buster
Accurate and fast positioning of a moving piece can be accom-
plished by using a knuckle buster on the hand line (fig. 4.46). This
clamp is designed to fit on the hand line without damaging the
rope lock. However, in the dim light of performance, a rail oper-
ator’s knuckle or hand may be hit—hence the name.

159
 Fig. 4.44. Tape
trim mark

Fig. 4.45. Ribbon

trim mark on
parallel-core
polyester line

160
 Fig. 4.46.
Knuckle buster

D. Preshow Testing
Make a habit of running each moving piece before every perfor-
mance. Test for balance, clearance, and ease of running. If the
pull on the hand line feels different, find out why—before the
performance!
Because soft goods absorb moisture from the air, the weight
of a curtain or drop can change drastically with a change in hu-
midity. Adjusting the counterweight on the arbor may be neces-
sary on a daily basis in some theatres.

E. Cuing
Be absolutely sure of the signals for all cues during a performance.
A normal cue sequence consists of three parts, the one-minute
verbal warning, or cue, gives the operator time to find the prop-
er hand line and determine what is supposed to happen. Does
the piece move in or out? Are there special timing problems?
The next part is the standby cue, which occurs about three
lines before the go cue and is often done by turning on a cue
light. At this point, the rope lock is released, and the operator is
ready for the go.
Finally, the go cue is given. Because it is impossible for a
person to watch two things at once, the operator generally
watches the moving piece to be sure that there are no clear-
ance problems. If the moving piece is masked from the opera-
tor’s view, a spotter should be used to ensure that the piece is
moving safely.

161
 If you feel any unusual resistance, stop moving the piece im-
mediately. Chances are that it is fouled on another batten or flown
object. The air currents in many theatres are different when the
theatre is full (performance) and when the theatre is empty (re-
hearsal). Soft goods can blow and foul on adjacent objects. If
you feel a problem, determine what it is before moving the piece.
A powerful flashlight is a useful tool to have backstage for see-
ing into the dark flies.

4.14 Special Counterweight-Rigging Problems

A. Lighting Battens
Lighting battens frequently change weight as they are raised or
lowered. This is caused by the border light cable, which is at-
tached to the batten. In some rigging schemes, the cable is sup-
ported by a cradle attached to the lift lines. As the batten is raised,
more weight is added to the batten. As the batten is lowered,
weight is removed from the batten. In this circumstance, try to
balance the batten for the performance trim height.

B. Variable Load
Flying framed wall units with hinged side panels is one situation
in which a change in load on the batten occurs. As the wall unit
touches the floor, and the hinged panels open, the floor—not
the batten—is supporting the weight. The wall tends to bounce
off the floor, leaving a gap at the bottom of the set. Here are
three suggestions for dealing with this problem.
1. Block and Tackle
Use a block and tackle. Attach as described in section 4.12.B.4.
As the flown piece touches the floor, the block and tackle is used
to raise the arbor and take the strain off the batten. This method
requires the use of two operators. One operator operates the hand
line, and the other operates the lead line of the block and tackle.
2. Batten Tie-Down
Attach wire or hemp ropes to the batten near the lift lines. As the
flown piece nears the floor, the free ends of the ropes are tied
off to brackets firmly attached to the stage floor or to a sandbag.
Using a trucker’s hitch for hemp or a lever-type load binder for
cable usually gives the mechanical advantage needed to hold
the batten in the desired position (figs. 4.47 and 4.48).

162
 Fig. 4.47.
Load binder

Fig. 4.48. Batten

tie-down
1. Batten
2. Attachment line
3. Tie-down line
4. Ceiling plate
5. Trucker’s hitch

3. Use a Carpet Hoist

See section 4.12.B.6.

C. Increasing Counterweight Capacity

There may be times when an arbor will not hold enough coun-
terweight to balance a heavy load. Do not use lead weights or
an arbor extension without first checking the capacity of all of
the components, including the support steel. The line set was
designed as a complete system, quite often with the arbor be-
ing the limiting factor in terms of applied weight. Using lead or
an arbor extension may overload components beyond their
working load limits. Suggested solutions to increase load ca-
pacity include:

163
 1. Join two or more adjacent battens together, and use more
than one line set. When doing this, be sure that the load is firmly
attached to all of the battens and that the counterweight is even-
ly distributed among all the arbors. More than one operator may
be required to move the battens. This solution distributes the load
among the blocks and lift lines of several line sets and keeps all
of the components within their working load limits.
2. After a careful analysis of the line set components (i.e., ca-
ble size, loft block, head block, support steel, attachment devic-
es, etc.) to be certain they can sustain the added weight, you may
substitute lead weights for steel weights. The density of lead is
approximately 1.45 times that of steel.
3. Install a larger arbor or an arbor extension after analyzing
the rest of the components to be sure that they can safely sup-
port the added load.
4. If there is room on the grid and in the flies, an additional
free-hanging arbor may be used.
a. Mount additional loft blocks over the batten. The blocks
can be evenly spaced between the permanently mounted
loft blocks or placed near the point of attachment of a con-
centrated load. A head block or a group of loft blocks is
mounted on the grid in an area where the arbor has clear
travel. Have the load capacity of the support steel checked
to see if it can support the concentrated load of the loft
and head blocks.
b. Attach lift lines from the batten to the arbor.
c. Since the arbor may not be near a loading bridge, a safe
method of loading the arbor will have to be devised.
d. Arbor guide cables can be attached from grid to stage
floor if necessary.
e. The area under the arbor must be roped off to keep people
away during performance.
caution: In items 2 and 3 above, the flown object is solely
supported by a single set of lift lines and blocks. It is absolutely
necessary to be sure that the rigging set and support steel can
hold the concentrated load. Hire a structural engineer to make
an analysis before attempting to increase the arbor load on any
counterweight system.

4.15 Operation Summary

1. Safety inspect all components at regular intervals.
2. Know the feel, sound, and smell of the system.

164
 3. Know the weight capacity of the system.
4. Always follow safe practice when loading, unloading, and
operating the system. Keep unbalanced loads down.
5. Always appoint someone to maintain visual contact with
a moving piece.
6. Be sure the deck is clear before moving a line set.
7. Always warn people on the stage and grid before moving
a batten during set-in and load-out.
8. Before each cue, check the cue sheet to be sure which
set to move, which direction, and any special timing problems.

165
Part 5 Motorized Rigging

5.01 Introduction
The basic hemp rigging used for the stage changed little from the
time of the Greeks until the twentieth century. The need for greater
efficiency prompted the modification of hemp to counterweight,
which is still the most common type of rigging equipment in use.
Today, the desire for increased efficiency and more dynamic
scenic effects is fueling a greater use of motorized equipment.
Stage-rigging manufacturers combine industrial-grade mo-
tors, speed reducers, brakes, controls, and special components
to produce motorized rigging equipment for the entertainment
industry. A motorized system must be properly designed for its
application by a competent engineer. Because motorized rigging
equipment is used to suspend objects over people, it requires
operational safety devices not found on winches used in indus-
try. Truck winches, industrial hoists, and boat winches are ex-

166
 tremely dangerous to use for stage rigging as are homemade
systems, unmodified industrial systems, and Rube Goldberg
equipment. Do not use them.
Most theatrical rigging-equipment manufacturers offer mo-
torized equipment as standard products (figs. 5.1 and 5.2). Es-
calating labor costs and the equipment’s versatility have helped
hasten the acceptance of motorized equipment. Broadway, tour-
ing productions, and regional professional companies use mo-
torized equipment as a matter of course.
As the cost of motorized equipment has come down in rela-
tion to counterweight systems, more and more high school, col-
lege, and regional theatres are installing motorized equipment.
There is a safety element that appeals to high schools in that mo-
torized systems eliminate the need to load and unload counter-
weight. Motorized systems are the state of the art in rigging equip-
ment today.
It is beyond the scope of this book to describe all of the types
of systems in existence. Instead, you will find descriptions of
the most common systems in the United States and their spe-
cific operating procedures.
The operator of motorized rigging does not have physical
contact with the moving object that is present when using hemp
and counterweight systems. You cannot feel when something
changes or goes wrong. Special operating procedures and pre-
cautions for motorized rigging must be followed.

5.02 Systems Descriptions

The following descriptions are of general system types. Some
of the advantages and problems are listed for each system.

A. Motorized Counterweight Systems

A motorized counterweight system is basically a counterweight
set that uses a motor to do the pulling. The motors do not need
to be as large in horsepower as a dead haul (noncounterweight)
motorized rigging system. One type requires counterweights to
balance the load, so the same basic loading and unloading pro-
cedures used for a counterweight set should be followed. An-
other type of motorized counterweight system is designed to
run out of balance, with the counterweight balancing only part
of the load.

167
 Fig. 5.1. Electric
motorized winches.
Courtesy of Peter
Albrecht Corp.

Fig. 5.2. Electric

motorized
winches.
Courtesy of
Peter Albrecht
Corp.

168
 Fig. 5.3. Chain-
drive motorized
counterweight set

169
 1. Chain-Drive, Wind-on-Wind-off Systems
Chain-drive systems (fig. 5.3) use a roller chain attached to the
arbor, very much the same way that the hand line is attached to
the arbor of a manual counterweight set. The chain goes from
the top of the arbor, over a head-block sprocket, down around
a sprocket below the arbor, and finally to the underside of the
arbor where it attaches.

Fig. 5.4. Wind-on

wind-off winch

The winch is usually mounted on the stage floor, the grid, or

below the stage-floor level. The wind-on-wind-off winch uses a
drive cable in place of a roller chain, but the basic operation prin-
ciple is the same. One end of the cable is attached to the bot-
tom of the arbor, and the other end to the arbor top. One end of
the cable winds on the drum as the other winds off (fig. 5.4). Both
of these systems are typically used for unbalanced applications,
such as electric battens and lighting bridges. This type of sys-
tem can be designed so that the winches can be moved from
one line set to another.
2. Power-Assist Units
Power-assist units are packaged units that attach to counterweight
systems to automate particular line sets, especially electric and
orchestra ceiling sets (fig. 5.5). They are designed either for new
construction or existing counterweight systems as retrofits and
are not designed to be moved from set to set. They eliminate the
need for loading weight on electric sets and make heavy sets
much easier to move.

170
Fig. 5.5. Power-
assist unit.
Copyright ©
J. R. Clancy

3. Traction-Drive Systems

Traction-drive systems are generally used for constant-weight

systems, such as acoustical reflectors, speaker clusters, large
fire curtains, and movable ceiling panels (figs. 5.6 and 5.7). Once
the arbor is loaded and the weight balanced, the weight is never
changed. In this system, the head block is usually machined with
tight V-shaped grooves for the lift lines. The head block is driven
by the motor and provides the force to move the load. As the

171
 Fig. 5.6. Traction-
drive motorized
counterweight set

Fig. 5.7.
Traction-drive
fire-curtain
winch

172
 head block turns, the V grooves grip the cable and move the load.
Special care should be taken to inspect the cable and traction
head blocks for wear.

B. Dead-Haul Winch Types

Dead-haul winch systems use only the winch to move and hold
the load. This type of system usually requires a larger motor and
gear reducer than does a motorized counterweight system. It is
very efficient on rigging sets with changing loads. Setup and take-
down are greatly reduced, because no counterweights need to
be loaded or unloaded.
1. Drum Winch
The simplest dead-haul winch is a drum type (fig. 5.8). All of the
lift lines wind on a single drum. This is the least-expensive type
of dead haul winch but can have the greatest fleet-angle problems.

Fig. 5.8.
Constant-speed
electric winch.
Courtesy of Peter
Albrecht Corp.

173
 2. Line-Shaft Systems
Line-shaft systems use a grooved drum at each lift line instead
of running all of the lines back to a single drum (fig. 5.9). The
drums are connected to the motor and to each other by a com-
mon shaft. If the lift lines drop straight down from each drum,
there are no horizontal forces on the support steel, and fleet-
angle problems are minimized.

Fig. 5.9. Line-

shaft winch

3. Packaged-Hoist Systems
Packaged-hoist systems are self-contained winch units, such as
Vortek, developed by Hoffend, or Power Lift, manufactured by
J. R. Clancy (fig. 5.10). The winch unit is mounted to a frame
with the head blocks attached. These units are fast and efficient
to install and have no fleet-angle issues. Because they are man-
ufactured as standardized units, they are less expensive than
custom-designed winches.

Fig. 5.10. Packaged

hoist system.
Copyright ©
J. R. Clancy

174
5.03 Motor Types
There are several types of motors that are generally used for mo-
torized rigging. Each has characteristics that make it more use-
ful for some applications than others.

A. AC Electric Motor
AC motors are the least expensive and easiest motor to operate.
Until a few years ago they were mainly used for fixed-speed ap-
plications. With the great improvement in variable-frequency
drives, they are now the preferred motor for both fixed-speed
and variable-speed applications.

B. DC Electric Motor
For years, DC motors were the only reliable variable-speed
electric motors and were almost exclusively used for electric
variable-speed applications.

C. Servo Motor
Servo motors are a fairly new product in the entertainment in-
dustry. They can be either AC or DC, and at this time, they are
being used for special production applications. Compared to
standard AC and DC motors, they are small and compact. They
have rapid response to control commands and are very accu-
rate. The small diameter of the motor provides low inertia for
fast starts, stops, and reversals. They operate at a range of
speeds without overheating and, like any closed-loop AC or DC
motor, have the ability to operate at zero speed and retain suf-
ficient torque to hold a load in position.

D. Hydraulic Motor
Two types of rotary hydraulic motors are used for theatrical ap-
plications (fig. 5.11). The most common has an impeller blade
mounted on a shaft that can either be a direct drive to the out-
put shaft or be coupled to a speed reducer to increase the out-
put torque. Pressurized hydraulic fluid is forced through a valve,
into an input port (making the impeller turn), then out through a
return port. Reversing the direction of the fluid flow reverses the
direction of the motor. The speed is controlled by operating the
valve to regulate the flow of the hydraulic fluid.

175
Fig. 5.11 . Hydraulic
motor on line-
shaft winch

A radial hydraulic motor is somewhat more complex, oper-

ating like a rotary aircraft engine. A number of pistons are mounted
radially around the drive shaft. Fluid is forced sequentially into
the cylinder heads, forcing the pistons toward the drive shaft.

Fig. 5.12. Hydraulic

ram. Load moves 2´
for every 1´ of ram
movement

176
 As the pistons move toward the shaft, they force the shaft to
turn and produce rotary motion to turn a cable drum.
Another type—the linear hydraulic motor, or hydraulic ram—
consists of a cylinder with a piston inside. Fluid is pumped
through a valve on one side of the piston, forcing the piston to
move along the length of the cylinder. The end of the piston is
connected by a rod to the object that is to be moved. The most
common use of the hydraulic ram is for stage and orchestra lifts,
in which high speed and heavy load capacity are required. For
rigging purposes, the end of the rod can be attached to a multi-
sheave block, allowing a travel greater than the stroke of the pis-
ton (fig. 5.12). With sufficient pressure, very high speeds can be
attained with this type of system.

5.04 Electric-Winch Components

Fig. 5.13.
Electric-winch
components

Electric winches usually consist of the following components

(fig. 5.13): (A) motor, (B) gear reducer, (C) brake, (D) drum, and
(E) controls.

A. Motor
The motor is the device that converts electrical energy into me-
chanical energy. The motor is either AC or DC.

177
B. Gear Reducer
The gear reducer converts a high number of revolutions with low
torque into a lower number of revolutions with high torque (or
lifting power). For many applications, self-locking gear reducers
are preferred. These reducers require power to lower an object
as well as to raise it. Some gear ratios are high enough so that
the load cannot exert enough force on its own to move the gears,
even if no motor brake is attached to the system. The self-lock-
ing feature should never be used alone. A properly sized brake
is always required on a motorized rigging system.
Non–self-locking, or overhauling, gear reducers work con-
versely. These reducers are often used where very high efficiency
is required or where the winches are self-climbing, such as in
television studios. In this case, when the brake is released on
the system, the load is capable of back-driving the gears, and
the load descends without the motor running.

C. Brakes
Most electric winches use a motor brake, which is electrically
held open when the winch is running. When the power is turned
off, the brake closes and holds the load in place. The brake must
be properly sized for the application, usually with a minimum re-
tarding torque of 200% of the motor torque to ensure that the
load can be both stopped and held in place. The brakes sup-
plied on theatrical winches are usually a fast-acting type to en-
sure that they release quickly on startup.
Some winch systems employ a second brake system on the
outboard end of the drum. This serves as a backup brake. There
are three types. One is similar to the motor brake. It is electri-
cally held open when the winch is running and only sets when
power to the machine is turned off. There have been some prob-
lems with this type of brake being synchronized to operate prop-
erly. Another type is an overspeed brake. This is a centrifugal
brake that only kicks in if the winch starts to run past a preset
speed and brings the load to a controlled stop. This brake is
not a parking brake and only operates in a runaway condition.
Recently, some manufacturers have started using a drive-
through brake. This brake is engaged when the load is being
lowered or at rest and is released only when the load is being
raised. When the load is being lowered, the winch is driving
through the brake.

178
D. Drum
On a dead-haul electric winch, the lift lines wind on a grooved
drum. The drum’s grooves match the size of the cable being
used. A minimum of two dead wraps of cable should be main-
tained on the drum.
Nongrooved pile-on drums, such as those found on hand
winches, are sometimes used. As the wire rope winds on suc-
cessive layers, the wire rope underneath is subjected to abra-
sion and crushing. Inspect the wire rope carefully, and replace it
at the first sign of wear.
The yo-yo drum is another type of pile-on drum. This drum
has a narrow groove that guides the wire rope to pile up on top
of itself, just like a yo-yo. Because the radius from the wire rope
to the center of the drum is constantly changing, the torque on
the drum and speed of the wire rope are also constantly chang-
ing, thus making it a poor choice for variable-speed systems.
Yo-yo drums are often found on self-climbing battens and mo-
torized acoustic-curtain systems. The main advantage of the
yo-yo drum is that it eliminates any fleet-angle problems.

E. Controls
Motorized rigging can be controlled in a number of different ways.
Some of the typical components and methods are as follows.
1. Limit Switches
All winches should have a set of four hard-limit switches. The
primary limits are adjusted for the maximum high and low trims.
Once the limit has been reached, the winch can travel in the op-
posite direction. The second set of limits are overtravel switches
that serve as backups for the limit switches in case the primary
limits fail. Should the limit switch fail, the overtravel switch will
stop the movement of the winch before damage can occur. Over-
travel limits are wired to the emergency-stop contactor, and when
activated, the winch cannot back off the overtravel without man-
ually resetting the system. This type of circuitry serves as an in-
dicator that the primary limit switch has failed. Figures 5.14 and
5.15 show two types of rotary limit switches. There are several
other types of direct-struck limit switches that are activated by
a moving part of the load physically striking an arm or button.
Soft-limit switches are programmable limits that are set
through the operation software when a programmable logic con-

179
 Fig. 5.14.
Four-element
rotary limit
switch

Fig. 5.15.
Traveling-nut
limit switch

troller (PLC) or computer is used to operate the line sets. The

soft limits can be set for any number of intermediate positions.
2. Movement Controls
These controls can be categorized in two groups: hold-to-run
(or deadman) and latching. The hold-to-run type requires con-
stant hand pressure on the switch to keep the winch running. If
pressure is removed, the winch stops. This type of control is the

180
Fig. 5.16. Joy-stick
winch control.
Courtesy of Peter
Albrecht Corp.

safest. Hold-to-run controls can be the push-button type or the

joystick type. The push-button type is self explanatory. The joy
stick is usually found on variable-speed systems. The farther the
stick is pushed, the faster the winch runs (fig. 5.16). Pushing the
stick in the opposite direction moves the winch in the opposite
direction. The center position stops winch movement and sets
the brake.
Latching-type controls require only that the control is acti-
vated to start the action. The control then is “latched in,” and
the winch will run until a preset limit is reached. A separate con-
trol must be activated to stop the winch in case of an emergency.
Latching controls require extra attention when the winch is op-
erating because the operator needs more time to stop the winch
than with the hold-to-run type: the operator must find the stop
button and hit it. Using the hold-to-run control, the operator merely
releases pressure. It may appear that a motorized rigging set
runs very slowly, but when something fails, and an object falls,
it is extremely fast. It takes only about 2.5 seconds for some-
thing to fall from a 90-foot-high grid to hit the floor.

181
 3. Emergency-Stop Button
All motorized winch systems should have an emergency-stop
button (E-stop). The button should be large, easy to see, easy
to reach, and require pressure to activate. This switch should
not require electrical power to operate. The E-stop should oper-
ate a contactor that removes power from all of the winches. On
hydraulic systems, it should stop the pumps, thus removing power
from the winches. An E-stop control that only removes power to
the control circuit is not reliable. Electronic-control circuits can
fail in such a way that the E-stop will not work. The E-stop is
fail-safe only when it is on the power side of the system, not on
the control side. On multiwinch systems, a single E-stop button
should stop all of the machines.
4. Speed Controls
With variable-speed systems, you can select and adjust the speed
of the winches. They must also have a tachometer that shows
how fast the winch is turning. Some systems are designed to
allow the synchronizing of several machines.
5. Position Control
Many systems have some sort of device to allow for stopping
the batten at a particular position. The important feature of po-
sitioning is repeatability. The load must stop every time at the
same place when coming from the same direction. This feature
is essential for the proper running of shows.
6. Other Safety Features
The slack-cable switch detects any slack cable on the winch set
and stops the movement of the machine. These devices are dif-
ficult to use and often not reliable. They are prone to false tripping.
A load-sensing device measures the weight of the load on
the batten through two or three cycles after the line set is loaded.
It will then automatically stop the system if the load is increased
or decreased beyond the programmed parameters.
7. Computer Control
A number of different computer-control consoles are available
for motorized rigging systems. Some of them use Programma-
ble Logic Controller (PLC) technology, while others use specially
designed software. All computerized systems require the winch
components listed above, including limit switches, a tachometer,

182
 a position-feedback device, and so on, as well as the computer.
No attempt is made here to describe the current computer-con-
trol systems available. The design of these systems changes as
quickly as new advances are made in computer technology, so
any description written today will be out of date by the time this
edition is published.
For safe operation, there must be E-stop buttons located at
strategic places. With computer controls, the operator has a
wealth of information available on the monitor screens, but none
of it is as critical as watching the moving object. If the operator
cannot see the object that is moving, spotters must be used, and
they must have the ability to communicate quickly with the op-
erator or stop the object themselves in case of emergency. Video
monitors are not substitutes for direct visual contact. The reso-
lution on the monitor is so low that an accident can occur with-
out the operator being aware of what is happening.

F. Rigging Components
The rigging components of motorized systems (the loft blocks,
cables, battens, etc.) are the same as those used in counter-
weight rigging. The same care and precautions should be used
on these components as on a counterweight system (see parts
4, 7, and 8).

5.05 Hydraulic-Winch Components

Hydraulic power for the stage is transmitted by controlled circu-
lation of pressurized fluid in a closed system (fig. 5.17). In addi-
tion to the required rigging components, a hydraulic system used
for theatre work usually consists of

1. Electric power supply

2. Hydraulic pump
3. Hydraulic-fluid feed line
4. Hydraulic-fluid return line
5. Forward-reverse speed-control manifold
6. Hydraulic motor
7. Forward fluid line
8. Reverse fluid line
9. Control wiring to manifold
10. Control panel
11. Control wiring to pump

183
Fig. 5.17. Hydraulic-
system components

These systems are very efficient, but they require more main-
tenance than electric motors. Particular care should be given to
filters, fluid, valves, and hoses.

5.06 Hand Winch

Fig. 5.18. Hand

winch with wire
rope wound the
wrong way

Many different types of hand winches are on the market. They

are used for pulling boats onto trailers, raising basketball nets,
and various other nontheatrical things. Most of them are not de-
signed to hold objects safely over people’s heads. Be sure that
the hand winch that you are using is designed for both the load
and the application for which you are using it.
Some hand winches are designed to be run with drill motors.
Most are not. Running a hand winch with a motor produces op-

184
 erating speeds that are much faster than the gears were designed
for. The gears will wear faster and eventually break, causing the
load to fall. If the wire rope on your hand winch looks like figure
5.18, it is not wound on the drum in the correct direction. This
leads to excessive crushing and reduces the life span of the

Fig. 5.19. Winding

wire rope on a
smooth drum.
Courtesy of
American Iron and
Steel Institute,
Wire Rope Users
Manual, 4th ed.

wire rope. See figure 5.19 for the proper winding directions.

5.07 Operation of Motorized Rigging

A single person can simultaneously operate many motorized rig-
ging sets. This is both an advantage and a danger. Because the
operator does not have physical contact with the moving load
through a hand line, it is imperative that visual contact with the
moving load be maintained. If this is not possible, because of
control location or because of the number of winches operating
at one time, spotters—in audio contact with the winch opera-
tor—must be used.
It is absolutely necessary that the operator knows the mo-
torized equipment thoroughly. Answers to the following ques-
tions are essential before using any motorized system safely.
1. What is the capacity of each winch?
2. Are the gear reducers self-locking or overhauling?
3. Are there overtravel switches on the limit switches?
4. How do the controls work? (Hold-to-run? Latching?)
5. How does the emergency-stop switch work? (Disconnect
the power to the winches or only to the controls?)

185
A. Safety Inspection of All Components
As with any rigging system, motorized rigging sets must be pe-
riodically inspected. In addition to inspecting the normal rigging
components (see part 7), check the following:
1. Be sure the correct size of fuse is installed.
2. Check all limit and overtravel switches.
3. Maintain oil in gear reducer or hydraulic systems accord-
ing to manufacturers’ instructions. Change the oil when
necessary.
4. Test all controls for proper functioning.
5. Inspect winch mounting devices. They can pull loose!
6. Check the brake. If it chatters, or the drum continues to
turn after the winch is stopped, the brake may need
adjustment.

B. System Capacity

It is essential to know the designed capacity of a motorized rig-

ging set. Most are designed with the motor as the weakest part
of the system. Any attempt to overload the system should result
in the motor stalling out. However, not all systems are designed
in this manner. Overloading the system can result in deflecting
support steel or straining a component beyond its limit. Find out
the capacity of the system; display it where it can be seen, and stay
within it!

C. Loading and Unloading

1. Motorized Counterweight System

With a balanced-load motorized counterweight system, it is nec-
essary to balance the load with weight on the arbor before op-
erating the line set. As with a counterweight system, keep the
weight down when loading or unloading. With this type of sys-
tem, there is usually a clutch that will slip, or the motor will quickly
overheat and cut out if the system is out of balance. Listening
to the motor run in both directions can help determine whether
the system is balanced or not. Using an amp probe to measure
the current draw in both directions is more accurate.
With a line set that is designed to run out of balance, the
motor is the limiting factor. You should know the load capacity
of the line set and the weight of the load that you place on it. If
the line set is severely out of balance, a great deal of strain is
placed on the drive chain or cable and motor. Overloading this

186
 type of system usually causes the motor to overheat, tripping
the overload relay.
2. Dead-Haul Motorized System
Calculate the weight of the load before attaching it to the winch.
If the machine stalls or the overload relay trips or sounds as if it
is straining, the winch is overloaded. Do not use it in this condition.

D. Showtime Operation
When the equipment is in safe operating condition, the operator
thoroughly understands the controls, and all loads have been
correctly attached, the motorized equipment is ready to be used
during performance.
If there are severe air currents backstage or tight clearances
that may cause problems, do a preshow check of any pieces
that might foul. Either maintain visual contact with the moving
pieces, or use a spotter. Read the cue sheets carefully! Be sure
the right piece is moving on cue.
Listen carefully for any unusual sounds. Stop the moving
piece immediately if a strange noise is heard.
Most motorized systems will stop much faster than a per-
son can stop a counterweight system. This is a safety advan-
tage in case of fouling.

5.08 Operation Summary

1. Know the system.
2. Safety inspect all components at regular intervals.
3. Always follow safe practice when loading and unloading.
4. Be sure that everyone and everything is clear before
moving a piece.
5. Maintain visual contact, or use a spotter.
6. Always warn people onstage and on the grid before acti-
vating a winch during set-in or strike.
7. Before each cue, check your cue sheet to see which
piece to move, which direction, and any special concerns.

5.09 Safety-Inspection Summary

1. Check all rigging components (see part 7).
2. Check all lubricated parts on the winches: (a) gearbox,
(b) pillow blocks, and (c) motor bearings. Caution. Do not
over-lubricate.

187
3. Check all hydraulic connections, fluid level, filters.
4. Check limit and overtravel switches.
5. Check the control system.
6. Check the brakes.
7. Check the emergency-stop controls.

188
Part 6 Cutting and Terminating Rope,
Attaching Loads, and Dealing
with Special Problems

6.01 Fiber Rope

Fiber rope is made of natural or synthetic fibers that are either
twisted or braided into yarns and then into rope.

A. Cutting
There are specific procedures for cutting different kinds of rope.
1. Natural Fiber
Twisted natural-fiber rope should be taped with electrician’s fric-
tion tape before cutting. This tape is easy to remove and will
keep the ends from fraying. Tape about a 2˝ length of rope where
the cut is to be made. Use a pair of garden pruning shears to cut
the rope in the center of the tape (fig. 6.1). After the rope is cut,
remove the tape, and whip the end, using small twine (fig. 6.2).

189
 Fig. 6.1. Cutting
fiber rope

Fig. 6.2. Whipping

fiber rope

Braided natural fiber, such as cotton sash cord, need not be

taped for cutting; pruning shears work best for the job. If the rope
is to be used for a long time, whipping, dipping the ends in glue,
or taping will keep the ends neat. Braided rope is not as suscep-
tible to fraying as twisted rope.
2. Synthetic Fiber
Synthetic-fiber rope is best cut with a heated knife designed for
the purpose. Live flame can be substituted if the knife is unavail-
able. Hold the rope in both hands, and rotate it over a flame. Gen-
tly pull it apart as you rotate it. The ends can be shaped before
they completely cool by pushing them against a hard surface.
This method not only cuts the rope but binds the fiber ends to-
gether to prevent unraveling (fig. 6.3).

190
Fig. 6.3. Cutting
nylon rope

B. Knots
A knot is used to attach a rope to an object. Knots reduce the
breaking strength of rope and can slip or come untied if misap-
plied. Therefore, the proper knot for a specific application must
be used. Knot efficiency is the remaining strength of a rope after
a knot has been tied in it. Table 6.1 is a list of the efficiencies of
common stage knots. These are average values and will vary
depending on a number of conditions.

Table 6.1. Knots and Their Efficiencies

Knot Type Efficiency (%)
Bowline 60
Figure-8 64
Two half hitches
around a 15-mm-diameter ring 60
around a 96-mm-diameter post 65
Square knot 43
Clove hitch 75
Clove hitch with two half hitches 65
Eye splice with thimble 95

191
Fig. 6.4. Bowline

Fig. 6.5. Clove

hitch with two
half hitches

Fig. 6.6.
Stopper hitch

192
 Fig. 6.7.
Prusik knot

1. Bowline
Use this knot (fig. 6.4) when tying a loop in the end of a rope.
2. Clove Hitch
This knot is used for tying a rope to a rigid object, such as a
batten. When properly tied, it does not slip sideways (fig. 6.5).
3. Stopper Hitch
A stopper hitch (fig. 6.6) is used to tie the safety rope on a coun-
terweight hand line (see section 4.11.A.1).
4. Prusik
Another knot used to tie a safety line on a counterweight hand
line is a prusik. It can also be used to attach a rope sunday to a
hand line for use with a block and tackle (fig. 6.7).
5. Half Hitch
The half hitch (fig. 6.8) can be used to secure the counterweight
safety rope to the lock rail.
6. Figure-8
The figure-8 knot (fig. 6.9) is used at the end of a spot line to hold
a length of pipe as a weight (see section 3.08).

193
 Fig. 6.8. Two
half hitches

Fig. 6.9.
Figure-8 knot

7. Trucker’s Hitch
The trucker’s hitch (fig. 6.10) is used when flying framed scenery
with hemp or when tying a batten down to a floor hold. Figure
6.10 shows one of many ways to tie this knot.

6.02 Wire Rope

Cutting, handling, and terminating wire rope all require special
care. Carelessness can result in damage and loss of strength to
the wire rope.

A. Cutting
Several different kinds of wire-rope cutters are available on the
market. For sizes up through 1 8̸ ˝, small hand-held cutters can be

194
 Fig. 6.10.
Trucker’s hitch

used (fig. 6.11). For larger sizes, two hand cutters or a cold
chisel must be used (fig. 6.12).
never try to use a standard pair of wire cutters! Not only will
they do a poor job but they will be ruined in the process.
Tape the wire rope before cutting. If the wire rope is to have
a free end, seizing is required. Seizing is whipping the end with
thin wire (fig. 6.13).

B. Unreeling and Uncoiling

Great care should be taken when unreeling or uncoiling wire rope.
Carelessness can cause kinking. A kink can never be removed
and must be cut out. When taking wire rope from a reel, place
the reel on an axle so that it can rotate. Grasp the wire rope, and
walk away from the reel. Take care that the reel does not turn too
fast and dump wire rope in a pile on the ground.
If the reel is too large to be supported by an axle, let the
end of the wire rope rest on the floor, and roll the reel away
from the end.
Coiled lengths of wire rope must be handled carefully. Un-
roll the coil in your hand as you walk along, or roll it along the
floor. Do not uncoil by pulling one end.

195
 Fig. 6.11.
Small-wire-
rope cutter

Fig. 6.12.
Large-wire-
rope cutter

Fig. 6.13.
Seizing wire
rope. Courtesy
of American
Iron and Steel
Institute, Wire
Rope Users
Manual, 4th ed.

6.03 Terminating
Terminating (attaching the end of wire rope to an object) must
be done carefully. It is important to maintain maximum wire-
rope strength. It is also necessary to be sure that the termina-
tion will not slip.
A thimble is always used when forming a loop in the end of
a wire rope. The rope is fastened using either wire-rope clips or
compression sleeves.

A. Wire-Rope Clips
Wire-rope clips are manufactured from two types of material:
forged steel or cast malleable iron (fig. 6.14). For load-bearing
applications, use only forged clips.

196
 Fig. 6.14.
Malleable clip
saddle (left),
forged clip
saddle

Fig. 6.15. Two

malleable
saddles—note
differences in
size and quality

The saddles for malleable clips are cast, and the quality of
the castings varies widely (fig. 6.15). The casting process can
produce hidden voids, which cause weaknesses and are not
visible to the naked eye. The hidden voids usually cause failure
when the clip is being tightened or, more seriously, under shock
load. Only one U.S. company manufactures malleable clips do-
mestically and puts its name on the product. All other malleable
clips are manufactured offshore and have only the country of
origin stamped on them, making it impossible to trace or obtain
application information about them.
Malleable clips are not rated for load-bearing application and
should not be used for rigging applications. They are designed
for non–load-bearing uses, such as guy wires.
Forged clips are designed to be used for load-bearing appli-
cations. Hot steel is beaten into shape by forging dies to form
the saddle, eliminating any chance of hidden voids. The U-bolt
and nuts are larger than those used for the malleable clips.
The number of clips, the spacing of the clips, and the proper
tightening of the clips are necessary to make a correct termina-
tion. If you use the correct number of clips and the proper tight-

197
 Fig. 6.16. Clips
installed too
close together

ening torque, you reduce the tendency for the clips to slip under
load. The proper spacing on the clips is necessary to keep the
clips from slipping if the top clip is pulled up into a sheave or
against some other object (fig. 6.16). When pulled against an ob-
ject, the top clip tends to slip along the live line, and the dead
end tends to bend out and pook away from the live line. The
resulting kink helps keep the dead end of the line from pulling
out of the clips.
Fig. 6.17. Forged
U-bolt wire-rope
clip. Courtesy
of American
Iron and Steel
Institute, Wire
Rope Users
Manual, 4th ed.
Two types of forged wire-rope clips are commonly used for
stage rigging: U-bolt (fig. 6.17) and fist grip (fig. 6.20). The ef-
ficiency of both types is the same.

198
 When using U-bolt clips, extreme care must be exercised to
make certain that they are attached correctly; that is, the U-bolt
must be applied so that the U-section is in contact with the dead
end of the rope and the saddle on the live end. Remember, never
saddle a dead horse. Also, the tightening and retightening of the
nuts must be accomplished as required.
1. How to apply U-bolt clips. The following steps are the rec-
ommended method of applying U-bolt clips to get maximum
holding power of the clip. Refer to figure 6.18 for the proper in-
stallation order, to figure 6.19 for the proper orientation of the
clips, and to table 6.2 for parameters.

Fig. 6.18. Order

of installing
clips. Courtesy
of Columbus
McKinnon Corp.

Fig. 6.19. Clip

application.
Courtesy of
American
Iron and Steel
Institute, Wire
Rope Users
Manual, 4th ed.

199
Table 6.2. U-Bolt Clip Installation Parameters
Clip Size Minimum No. Amount of Rope Torque
(in.) of Clips to Turn Back (in.) (lb./ft.)
1
/8 2 3 1/4 4.5
3
/16 2 3 3/4 7.5
1
/4 2 4 3/4 15.0
5
/16 2 5 1/4 30.0
3
/8 2 6 1/2 45.0
7
/16 2 7 65.0
1
/2 3 11 1/2 65.0
Source: From the Crosby Group. Refer to the Crosby general catalog
for more information.

a. Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble.

Apply the first clip one base-width from the dead end of
the wire rope (U-bolt over dead end; live end rests in clip
saddle). Tighten the nuts evenly.
b. Apply the next clip as near to the loop as possible. Turn
nuts firmly but do not tighten.
c. Space additional clips, if required, equally between the
first two. Turn nuts, take up rope slack, and tighten all
nuts evenly on all clips to recommended torque.
d. notice: Apply the initial load, and retighten nuts to the rec-
ommended torque. Rope will stretch and be reduced in
diameter when loads are applied. Inspect periodically,
and retighten to recommended torque.

A termination made in accordance with the above instruc-

tions and using the number of clips shown has approximately an
80% efficiency rating. This rating is based on the catalog break-
ing strength of wire rope. If a pulley is used in place of a thimble
for turning back the rope, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown is based on using right regular-
lay or lang-lay wire rope, 7 × 19, 6 × 19, or 6 × 37 class, fiber-core
or IWRC, IPS or XIPS. If Seale construction or similar large outer-
wire–type construction in the 6 × 19 class is to be used for sizes
1˝ and larger, add one additional clip. The number of clips
shown also applies to right regular-lay wire rope, 8 × 19 class,
fiber-core, IPS, sizes 1 ½˝ and smaller; and right regular-lay wire
rope, 18 × 7 class, fiber-core, IPS or XIPS, sizes 1 ¾˝ and
smaller (see table 6.2).
For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may
be necessary to add additional clips to the number shown.

200
 If a greater number of clips is used than shown in the table,
the amount of rope turn-back should be increased proportion-
ately. The above is based on the use of u-bolt clips on new wire rope.
important: Failure to make a termination in accordance with
the aforementioned instructions or failure to periodically check
and retighten to the recommended torque will cause a reduc-
tion in efficiency rating.
2. How to apply fist-grip clips. The following steps are the
recommended method of applying fist-grip clips (fig. 6.20). Re-
fer to table 6.3 for parameters.
Fig. 6.20.
Forged fist-
grip wire-rope
clip. Courtesy
of American
Iron and Steel
Institute, Wire
Rope Users
Manual, 4th ed.

Table 6.3. Fist-Grip Clip Installation Parameters

Clip Size Minimum No. Amount of Rope Torque
(in.) of Clips to Turn Back (in.) (lb./ft.)
3
/16 –1/4 2 4 30
5
/16 2 5 30
3
/8 2 5 1/4 45
7
/16 2 6 1/2 65
1
/2 3 11 65
Source: From the Crosby Group. Refer to the Crosby General Catalog
for more information

a. Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble.

Apply the first clip one base-width from the dead end of
the wire rope. Tighten nuts evenly to recommended torque.
b. Apply the next clip as near to the loop as possible. Turn
nuts firmly, but do not tighten.
c. Space additional clips, if required, equally between the
first two. Turn nuts, take up rope slack, and tighten all
nuts evenly on all clips to recommended torque.
d. notice: Apply the initial load, and retighten nuts to the rec-
ommended torque. Rope will stretch and be reduced in
diameter when loads are applied. Inspect periodically,
and retighten to recommended torque.

201
 A termination made in accordance with the above instruc-
tions and using the number of clips shown has an efficiency rat-
ing of approximately 80%, based on the catalog breaking strength
of wire rope. If a pulley is used in place of a thimble for turning
back the rope, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown is based on using right regular-
lay or lang-lay wire rope, 7 × 19, 6 × 19, or 6 × 37 class, fiber-core
or IWRC, IPS or XIPS. If Seale construction or similar large outer-
wire–type construction in the 6 × 19 class is to be used for sizes
1˝ and larger, add one additional clip. The number of clips shown
also applies to right regular-lay wire rope, 8 × 19 class, fiber-core,
IPS, sizes 1 ½˝ and smaller; and right regular-lay wire rope, 18 × 7
class, fiber-core, IPS or XIPS, sizes 1 ¾˝ and smaller.
For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may
be necessary to add additional clips to the number shown.
If a greater number of clips are used than shown in the ta-
ble, the amount of rope turn-back should be increased propor-
tionately. The above is based on the use of fist-grip clips on new
wire rope.
important: Failure to make a termination in accordance with
aforementioned instructions or failure to periodically check and
retighten to the recommended torque will cause a reduction in
efficiency rating.
Fist-grip clips do not damage the wire rope the way U-bolt
clips do. For this reason, fist-grip clips are preferred for tempo-
rary uses, such as hanging scenery.

B. Compression Sleeves
When properly applied to 7 × 19 galvanized aircraft cable or 6 × 19
IWRC classification plow-steel wire rope, copper compression
sleeves, also called Nicopress sleeves (Nicopress is a registered
trademark of the National Telephone Supply Company), provide
an eye-splice termination equal to the breaking strength of the
wire rope. That is, the wire rope will break usually at or above
the catalog breaking strength, and the sleeve will not slip.
The telephone companies use compression sleeves for ter-
minating steel cable to support large multicable telephone lines.
The aircraft industry uses the termination method on control ca-
bles on airplanes. To ensure uniformity, copper sleeves and plated,
copper sleeves used on airplane control cables are manufactured
to Mil Spec MS 51844. Aluminum sleeves are softer and can slip,
especially under shock load. They are not allowed in the aircraft

202
 Fig. 6.21.
Nicopress
crimping tool
and sleeve

industry because they not manufactured to any standard. Do not

use aluminum sleeves for stage-rigging applications.
The sleeve must be crimped to the proper tightness in order
to prevent slipping (fig. 6.21). If the tool is not adjusted properly,
thereby not supplying the proper amount of force, the wire rope
can slip out of the sleeve. Always do a test crimp, and check the
tool adjustment before starting on a load-bearing termination. If
the crimp does not pass a go-gauge test, adjust the tool per the
manufacturer’s recommendations, and test again. As shown be-
low, it is also important to use the specific gauge that is furnished
with the crimping tool to test the compressions. The thickness
of the jaws on the tools varies, and each tool requires a specific
number of crimps to achieve a 100% efficient termination.
A number of manufacturers make compression tools. The
two most popular and reliable brands are Nicopress, made by
National Telephone Supply Co., and LocoLoc, made by Loos &
Co. These two companies manufacture the tools that conform
to the Mil Spec and FAA standard and put their guarantees in
writing. It is not a good idea to use any swaging tool that does
not come with a go-gauge and does not state the efficiency of
the termination in writing.

1. Nicopress Tools
National Telephone Supply developed the compression-sleeve
termination system (marketed under the trade name Nicopress)
for the telephone industry, so its parts-numbering system is a
bit confusing to us in the entertainment industry. Listed below
are the numbers of the nonhydraulic tools, both hand held and
bench mounted, used for the common sizes of wire rope, as
well as the required number of crimps for each tool. The hydrau-
lic bench-mounted tool No. 635 and hand-held hydraulic tool
No. 3512 require separate sets of dies for each wire-rope size.
The hydraulic tools each crimp the entire sleeve with a single
compression (fig. 6.22).

203
 Fig. 6.22.
Hydraulically
swaged sleeve

Nicopress sleeves are made of various materials and designed

for different purposes. The Nicopress part-number prefixes in
table 6.4 indicate the material of which a given sleeve is made.
Stage use usually requires either galvanized aircraft cable or non-
galvanized wire rope—not stainless steel.

Table 6.4. Nicopress Sleeves, by Material and Use

Type of Sleeve Use
18-xx copper preferred for stage use
28-xx zinc-plated copper OK for stage use
168-xx stainless steel Only for stainless-steel
wire rope
188-xx aluminum not for use in overhead
applications
428-xx tin-plated copper OK for stage use and stainless
wire rope
871-xx copper stop sleeve OK for stage use
878-xx aluminum stop sleeve not for use in overhead
applications
Source: National Telephone Supply Co.

204
 The tool head numbers listed in table 6.5 can be either hand
held or bench mounted. The number of compressions are clearly
visible on a crimped sleeve (fig. 6.23). Larger sizes of wire rope
require the use of a hydraulic swaging tool.

Table 6.5 Presses and Tools for Nicopress Sleeves

Cable Size Tool Tool No. of
(in.) Material No. Groove Presses
/16
1
stainless 51-B4-887 oval B4 1
all others 51-C-887 oval C 1
all others 64-CGMP oval C 1
all others 3-C-887 oval C 1
all others 3V-CGMP oval C 1
3
/32 stainless 51-C-887 oval C 1
all others 51-G-887 oval G 1
all others 64-CGMP oval G 1
188-3-VG 51-G-887 oval G 2 overlapped
188-3-VG 64-CGMP oval G 2 overlapped
stainless 3-C-887 oval C 1
all others 3-G-887 oval G 1
all others 3V-CGMP oval G 1
188-3-VG 3-G-887 oval G 2 overlapped
188-3-VG 3V-CGMP oval G 2 overlapped
1
/8 stainless 51-G-887 oval G 1
all others 51-M-850 oval M 3
all others 64-CGMP oval M 3
all others 63V-XPM oval M 3
all others 51-MJ M 2
stainless 3-G-887 oval G 1
all others 3-M-850 oval M 1
all others 3V-CGMP oval M 2
all others 3V-XPM oval M 2
all others 3V-F6:X:M oval M 2
all others 3-MJ M 2
5
/32 stainless 51-M-850 oval M 3
all others 51-P-850 oval P 3
all others 64-CGMP oval P 3
all others 63V-XPM oval P 3
stainless 3-M-850 oval M 1
all others 3-P-850 oval P 1
all others 3V-CGMP oval P 2
all others 3V-XPM oval P 2

205
 /16
3
stainless 51-P-850 oval P 4
all others 51-X-850 oval X 4
all others 63V-XPM oval X 4
all others 3-X-850 oval X 2
all others 3V-XPM oval X 2
all others 3V-F6:X:M oval X 2
7
/32 all others 51-F2-850 oval F2 4
all others 3-F2-850 oval F2 2
1
/4 all others 3-F6-950 oval F6 3
all others 3V-F6:X:M oval F6 3
5
/16 all others 3-G9-950 oval G9 3
188-10-VG 923-G9-950 oval G9 4
Source: National Telephone Supply Co. Nicopress is a registered
trademark of the National Telephone Supply Company.

Fig. 6.23. Hand-

swaged sleeve

As oval sleeves are crimped, the length of the sleeve increases.

Table 6.6 shows the unpressed length and the pressed lengths
for the various-sized oval copper sleeves.
Table 6.7 shows the number of presses required for copper
and aluminum stop sleeves using Nicopress tools. The table
shows the results of holding strength tests performed by Nico-
press to determine the approximate holding strength of the stop
sleeves. The approximate holding power indicates where the

206
wire rope pulled out of the sleeve. Stop sleeves are not 100%
efficient and will not form a termination equal to the rated breaking
strength of the wire rope. Contact Nicopress for additional infor-
mation concerning the use of these sleeves.

Table 6.6. Oval Copper Sleeves, Unpressed

and Pressed Lengths
Size (in.) Unpressed Length (in.) Pressed Length (in.)
1
/16 3
/8 7
/16
3
/32 3
/8 7
/16
1
/8 9
/16 3
/4
5
/32 5
/8 7
/8
3
/16 15
/16 1 3/16
7
/32 7
/8 1 1/16
1
/4 1 1/8 1 1/2
5
/16 1 1/16 1 3/8
3
/8 1 1/4 1 5/8
7
/16 1 3/4 2 5/16
1
/2 1 7/8 2 1/2
9
/16 2 2 5/8
5
/8 2 3/8 3 1/8
Source: National Telephone Supply Co.

Table 6.7. Presses Needed for Copper

and Aluminum Stop Sleeves
Approximate
Size Tool Tool No. of Holding Power (lb.)
(in.) No. Groove Presses Copper Aluminum
1
/16 51-C-887 oval C 1 430 250
32-VC:VG VC 1
33V-CGB4 VC 1
64-CGMP oval C 1
3-C-887 oval C 1
3V-CGMP oval C 1
3-Q-929 Q 1
3
/32 51-MJ J 1 600 300
51-Q-929 Q 1
3-MJ J 1
3-Q-929 Q 1
1
/8 51-MJ J 1 900 350
3-MJ J 1

207
 5
/32 51-MJ M 1 1,200 500
3-MJ M 1
3
/16 51-MJ M 1 1,600 500
3-MJ M 1
7
/32 51-MJ M 2 2,500
3-MJ M 2
1
/4 3-F6–950 oval F6 2 3,500 1,500
3V-F6:X:M oval F6 2
9
/32 3-F6–950 oval F6 2 4,000
3V-F6:X:M oval F6 2
5
/16 3-F6–950 oval F6 2 4,000 1,500
3V-F6:X:M oval F6 2
3
/8 3-F6–950 oval F6 2 5,000
3V-F6:X:M oval F6 2
Source: National Telephone Supply Company. Used with permission.

For sizes 3/32˝ and below, the ratings are for 7 × 7 galvanized air-
craft cable. For sizes 1/8˝ and above, the ratings are for 7 × 19
aircraft cable.
The only way to tell if a swaging tool is properly adjusted and
the crimp is properly made is to check the crimps with a go-gauge
(fig. 6.24). Each type of Nicopress tool is designed to provide a
fixed amount of compression. There is a difference in the diam-
eter of the finished compression-sleeve size between the hand

Fig. 6.24.
Checking crimp
with go-gauge

208
 Fig. 6.25.
Nicopress
gauges

and bench mounted tools and the hydraulic tools. Figure 6.25
shows five typical Nicopress gauges. Use the slot in the gauge
that matches the tool groove number. Gauges A and B are fur-
nished with the 635 hydraulic tool and should be used on sleeves
swaged with that tool. Gauge C is furnished with the 3512 hand-
held hydraulic tool and should be used on sleeves swaged with
that tool. The compressions made with the hydraulic tools are a
few thousands of an inch larger in diameter than the compres-
sions made with the hand-operated tools, and the slots in the
gauges are sized for those compressions. Gauges D and E should
only be used on swages made with hand-operated tools. They
will not fit swages made with a hydraulic tool.
Nicopress tools have two recessed allen-adjustment screws
on the handle. The lower screw is a lock screw. To adjust the tool,

209
loosen the lower lock screw two turns, tighten the upper-adjust-
ment screw a quarter-turn, and make a test compression. Repeat
adjusting the top screw in quarter-turn increments until a com-
pression passes the go-gauge test. Tighten the locking screw.
Continually monitor the adjustment by testing the competed
crimps with the go-gauge. Adjust the tool as needed.
2. Locoloc Tools
Loos & Co. makes very good swaging tools under the brand
name Locoloc that will produce terminations conforming to the
military and FAA standards. Table 6.8 shows the number of com-
pressions required on copper or aluminum sleeves for Loos hand-
operated tools.

Table 6.8. Compressions Required on Copper or Aluminum

Oval and Stop Sleeves, Hand-Operated Tools
No. of Presses
Size (in.) Oval Sleeves Stop Sleeves
1/16 2 1
11/32 2 2
1/8 3 2
5/32 3 2
3/16 4 2
7/32 4 2
1/4 4 3
9/32 4 3
5/16 4 copper 3
5/16 5 aluminum n.a.
n.a., not available.
Source: National Telephone Supply Co.

The notches in the Locoloc gauges shown in figure 6.26 are

slightly different from the notches in the Nicopress gauges by a
few thousandths of an inch. Locoloc gauges should be used only
on swages made with Locoloc hand tools. The labels on the Lo-
coloc gauges tend to wear off, so it is a good idea to engrave the
size information on a new gauge so that when the label wears
off, you will still be able to identify the proper slot on the gauge.
The Locoloc hand tools have one adjustment screw on the
handle. Adjust the tool by tightening the allen screw in quarter-
turn increments until a compression passes a go-gauge test.
Locoloc makes hydraulic swaging tools. Use only the gauge sup-
plied with these tools to test compressions.

210
 Fig. 6.26.
Locoloc gauges

To make a proper termination using any tool:

a. Use the correct-size copper sleeve.
b. The wire rope must extend all the way through the sleeve.
c. The sleeve should be spaced far enough from the thimble
so the thimble will not deform when the sleeve is crimped.
d. The crimping tool must be properly adjusted.
e. Use the correct number of compressions.
f. Make the first crimp, and test with a gauge.
g. Make the required number of crimps in the proper order
(fig. 6.27).
One of the corrections made in this edition of Stage Rigging
Handbook is the order of making crimps in a sleeve. Three cor-
rect crimping-sequences are shown in the top row of figure 6.27.
The author was taught to make the crimps in the order shown in
previous editions. However, after a great deal of discussion with
engineers at both Loos & Co. and Nicopress, one of the orders

211
 Fig. 6.27. Three
correct orders of
crimping (top);
incorrect order
(bottom)

of compressions shown in figure 6.27 (the bottom one) is not

recommended, due to the elongation of the sleeve that occurs
during this swaging process.
At the beginning of this section, it was stated that properly
applying compression sleeves to 7 × 19 GAC or 6 × 19 classifi-
cation wire rope will produce 100% efficient eye splices. Other
constructions of wire rope such as 1 × 19 may not have deep
enough grooves to hold the sleeve from slipping. In case there
is any doubt, apply two sleeves as shown in figure 6.28. The or-
der of compressions shown will prevent the elongating sleeves
from running into each other and causing stress in the wire rope.

212
Fig. 6.28. Correct
order of crimping
two sleeves

If you have any doubt about the strength of the termination,

have a sample tested.
3. Quarter-Inch Terminations

Fig. 6.29.
Number of
crimps for 1/4˝
wire rope

Quarter-inch galvanized aircraft cable is one of the most com-

mon sizes of wire rope terminated with compression fittings. It
is important to remember that the Nicopress hand tool requires
three crimps and the Locoloc hand tool requires four crimps
(fig. 6.29).

213
 Fig. 6.30.
Trim chains
on a batten

C. Trim Chains

Trim chains are used in many ways to attach loads to battens.

A typical scenery trim chain consists of a welded or forged steel
ring, a length of chain, and a device to attach the chain to itself
(usually a snap hook).
Take care to find out the safe working load of a trim chain
before using it. Manufacturers’ catalogs will usually give that
information on the chain and the ring. It is almost impossible to
find a rating for snap hooks. Because snap hooks are unrated,
they should not be used for any heavy load. Many theatres are
replacing the snap hooks with shackles. The chain can either be
attached to the batten by sliding the ring on the batten between
the lift lines, passing the chain around the batten and through
the ring, or wrapping the chain around the batten 1½ times and
attaching it to itself (fig. 6.30).

214
 If the strength of the trim chain is in doubt, do not use it, or
use more chain to distribute the load. If the strength of the snap
hook is in doubt, use a shackle.

6.04 Bolts
A great deal of rigging hardware is clamped together by bolts.
One of the primary examples of this is clamping head and loft
blocks to the support steel; and an examination of any rigging
system will reveal many other examples of bolts clamping com-
ponents together. In a clamping application, as the nut is tight-
ened, the bolt is put in tension and actually stretches. The nuts
are made of a slightly softer material than the bolts. There is a
tolerance between the threads of the nut and the threads of the
bolt. You can feel the slop by wiggling a new nut on a new bolt.
As the nut tightens, the threads of the nut deform and become
fully engaged with the threads on the bolt. This maximum con-
tact allows enough force to stretch the bolt. Once the threads in
a nut have been deformed, they are never as strong again because
they have been stretched past their yield point. If you are “kick-
ing sheaves” or have to disassemble a component that has been
clamped together, it is a good idea to replace the nuts. The bolt
manufacturers purposely make the nut the softer material be-
cause it is easier and cheaper to replace than the bolt.
Bolts are tightened with a torsional force that is far more de-
structive than the compression force on the pieces of metal that
they are clamping together. If the bolt and the metal pieces be-
ing clamped are the same strength material, it is fairly easy to
strip the bolt or wring the head off. There are three major grades
of bolts readily available, and using the right grade for a specific
application is essential to having a safe rigging system. The grade
is based on the ultimate breaking strength of the material from
which the bolt and nut are made. The nut and bolt must be the
same grade. If you mix the grades, the weakest component will
easily strip, and you will not be able to get the proper tension in
the bolt.
Figure 6.31 shows the markings for the three grades of nuts
and bolts. Grade 2 bolts are the common variety found in local
hardware stores. These work fine for clamping legs on platforms
or any wood-to-metal application. Grade 5 bolts should usually
be used for all rigging components. Grade 8 bolts are used for
clamping high-strength steel together and special applications.

215
 Fig. 6.31. Nut
and bolt-head
markings (the
asterisk [*] is a
manufacturer’s
identification mark)

6.05 Attaching Loads

A. Curtains
Curtains are attached to battens by using tie lines. Some of the
standard procedures for tying curtains follow.
1. Knots
Always use bow knots. This knot will securely hold the load, and
untying the curtain will be easy.
2. Full-Stage-Width Curtains
On full-stage-width curtains, start tying in the center of the batten.
3. Excess Curtain Width
Fold excess curtain back on the offstage side.
4. Overlap Panels
Overlap panels by at least one tie line. Overlapping by two will
ensure a less obvious break in the panels.
5. Tied-In Fullness
When tying fullness into a flat-sewn curtain, tie the ends first (fig.
6.32). Then tie the center tie to a center point on the batten be-
tween the two end ties. Continue tying the center tie of the re-
maining section of curtain to the center of the remaining spaces.
This will produce even fullness in the goods.

216
 Fig. 6.32.
Tying fullness
in a curtain

6. Soft-Edge Legs
For a softer look on the onstage edge of legs, fold the sewn edge
back one or more ties.
7. Bent Batten
If the legs on the batten are very heavy and bend the batten, ap-
ply weight to the center of the batten; sandbags or a length of
pipe can be tied, chained or clamped to the batten.

B. Drops
If drops are not made with grommets and ties, sandwich bat-
tens must be used along the top edge.
1. Grommets and Ties
Tie a drop to a batten the same way that a full-stage-width cur-
tain is tied. Start at the center point, and work toward the off-
stage ends.
2. Sandwich Batten
The top of a drop can be sandwiched between two pieces of 1˝
× 3˝ pine that are screwed together. The drop is pierced just be-
low the sandwich batten near the ends and about every 10´. Trim
chains can then be used to attach the drop to the pipe batten.
The chains are attached to the pipe batten by passing the free
end around the batten and through the ring. The chains are pulled
snug to the pipe batten. The free end is then passed through the

217
drop and attached back on the chain. This method allows easy
leveling of crooked drops.
An alternate method is to drill ½˝ holes through the sandwich
batten and use no. 8 sash cord to tie the drop to the pipe batten.
3. Pipe Weight
A common method of adding weight to a drop is to sew a pocket
into the bottom and insert a length of ½˝ pipe as a weight. Be
sure the ends of the pipe are secured to the drop to prevent the
pipe from slipping out if one end of the drop should foul.
4. Pipe-Weight Safety
Use small-diameter wire ropes for safety if the drop requires a
pipe larger than ½˝, and it is so close to another object that there is
danger of the pipe pocket tearing and the pipe falling out.
Attach 1/16 ˝ or 1/8˝ wire rope to the pipe batten every 10´ or
12´ and near the ends of the drop. Let the wire ropes hang down
on the back side of the drop. Pierce the pipe pocket on the back
side, then secure the other end of the wire ropes to the batten
weight pipe, using a clove hitch and wire-rope clip. Even if the
drop tears completely away, the safety wire ropes will hold the
weight pipe. Safety cables are a must for all drops used in a vista
changes. Wire rope 1/16˝ is usually strong enough and, if painted
black, is not be noticeable even through a scrim.

C. Vertical Framed Scenery

Vertical framed scenery is anything that has a rigid frame and
hangs in a vertical plane.
1. Hardware Attachment
Put at least one bolt through every piece of hardware on a flying
unit. This is especially important on all hanger irons used to at-
tach the unit to fly lines.
2. Calculate Load
The load will probably not be evenly distributed to all support
lines (see figure. 3.16). Be sure the support lines have a mini-
mum design factor of 5:1. If people must move under the load
while it is moving, increase the design factor to 10:1.
3. Point of Attachment
Traditionally, the point of attachment for hard-framed scenery has
been at the bottom for two reasons. First, it is easier to level the

218
 unit if the adjustment devices are at the bottom. Second, by at-
taching at the bottom, the framing members are in compression
instead of tension. With wooden flats held together with nails
and corrugated fasteners, having the joints in compression pro-
vides added strength to the joints. The disadvantage of attach-
ing the support lines at the bottom is that the scenic unit tends
to tilt and not hang plumb.
Placing the point of attachment at the top requires using a
ladder to level the unit. It also places the framing members in ten-
sion and adds stress to the joints. With proper design of the fram-
ing members and joints, issues of strength can be resolved. The
advantage of top attachment is that the unit generally will not tilt.
4. Attaching with Rope

Fig. 6.33. Framed

scenery attached
to batten with
fiber rope
1. Bottom hanger
iron
2. Trucker’s hitch
3. Top hanger iron
4. Clove hitch
5. Batten

Rope is used when the weight of the unit is within the load lim-
its of rope and when the attaching lines will not be visible (fig.
6.33). Tie the rope to the batten with a clove hitch and two half
hitches. Pass the rope through the top hanger irons (fig. 6.34).
Attach it to the bottom hanger irons (fig. 6.35) using a trucker’s
hitch. The hitch will allow easy adjustment for leveling the unit.
If the unit is properly designed, the hitch can be applied to the
top hanging hardware.

219
 Fig. 6.34. Top
hanger iron

Fig. 6.35.
Bottom
hanger iron

5. Attaching with Wire Rope

Attach the wire rope to the batten by wrapping it around the bat-
ten with a clove hitch and fastening the end with clips. An alter-
nate method is to make a loop around a thimble, using wire-rope
clips or compression sleeves. This loop is then attached to a trim
chain on the batten. The wire rope is then run through a boat eye
(fig. 6.36) and attached to a jaw-eye turnbuckle.
The jaw end is attached to the bottom hanger iron. Leveling
of the piece can then be easily accomplished from the bottom
(fig. 6.37). The wire rope can also be attached to a properly de-
signed top hanger. For attaching at the top, the turnbuckle can
be either at the scenery or batten end of the wire rope.

Fig. 6.36. Boat

or line eye

220
 Fig. 6.37.
Framed
scenic unit
hung with
wire rope
1. Bottom
hanger iron
2. Turnbuckle
3. Boat eye
4. Trim chain

D. Horizontal Framed Scenery

Horizontal framed scenery units (fig. 6.38), such as ceilings, hang
parallel to the stage floor. It is important to have enough pickup
points to distribute the load on the frame. Ceiling plates (fig. 6.39),
bolted to the frame, are used to attach pickup lines of either
hemp or wire rope.

Fig. 6.38.
Horizontal
framed scenery

221
 Fig. 6.39.
Ceiling plate

E. Point Loads
A point load is the load on a single support point (fig. 6.40). The
point must be capable of supporting the load imposed on it.
When attaching a load to a batten, it is best to keep the attach-
ment points as close to the lift lines as possible. This will keep
the batten from bending and lift line wire ropes from becoming
slack (fig. 6.41).
1. Truss Batten
One method of distributing the load more evenly is to use a truss
batten (fig. 6.42). The truss is made of two battens (spaced from
several inches to a foot apart) with welded or bolted support
members. If the truss is overloaded, the top member will tend

Fig. 6.40. Point

load on a batten

222
Fig. 6.41. Point
load bending
a batten

Fig. 6.42. Point

load on a
truss batten

to buckle and bend outward. A box or triangular truss is more

resistant to buckling and can generally hold heavier loads than
two-dimensional trusses.

2. Bridling
Bridling is another way to distribute the load (fig. 6.43). The same
technique can be used to distribute dead-hung loads attached
to the grid (fig. 6.44). See section 1.05 for load-calculation infor-
mation on bridles.

223
 Fig. 6.43. Load
on a bridle

Fig. 6.44. Bridle-

line detail

6.06 Special Problems

A. Breasting
There are times when it is necessary to move a flown piece in a
horizontal, as well as a vertical, direction. This can be done by
breasting the piece (fig. 6.45). Breasting is a form of bridling, and
the loading must be calculated accordingly.

224
Fig. 6.45.
Breasting

B. Tripping
Tripping is a method of flying a very high drop where the grid is
too low (fig. 6.46). A second set of lift lines is attached to the
weight pipe in the bottom of the drop. As the trip lines are raised,
the load on the main flying set is reduced. The hand line of the
main flying set should be tied off with a safety hitch before rais-
ing the trip lines.

Fig. 6.46.
Tripping

225
C. Guiding
In very close quarters, a drop or piece of scenery may require
guide cables to keep from fouling (fig. 6.47). If guide cables are
not possible, lengths of rope, called tag lines, can be attached
to the end of the batten or an adjacent batten (fig. 6.48). As
the piece is moving in or out, crew members guide it with the
tailing ropes.

D. Dead Hanging
Units may be dead hung from the grid. When necessary, dis-
tribute the load to more than one grid member (fig. 6.49). If bri-
dling is not possible, pass the support line through the grid, and
attach it to a piece of steel or wood that has been placed on
the grid. This will help to distribute the load. Typically, a piece
of 3˝ pipe about 30˝ long is used to support a chain hoist in this
configuration.

E. Flying People
Flying people for the entertainment industry is a very special skill.
If the goal of flying people is to just lift them up in the air, then
mountain-climbing, rescue, or fall-protection techniques can be
used. Contact experts in those fields for assistance. But if the
goal is to create magic and give the illusion that a person is fly-
ing through space with no visible means of support, then the
services, expertise, and special equipment of a company spe-
cializing in flying people are required.
The rigging equipment used for these special effects is not
for sale from theatrical-supply houses. Much of it is designed
and manufactured by these specialized companies. The equip-
ment is designed to be used under very strict supervision. It is
rigorously tested before installation and meticulously inspected
before every performance. Because of the high degree of risk
involved with flying people, only professionally manufactured
equipment installed under the supervision of an experienced fly-
ing technician should be used.
Never use homemade equipment for flying people. Standard
heavy-duty traveler-track hardware, blocks, and other compo-
nents will not stand up to the complex dynamic forces of flying
a person. A number of former Peter Pans and ex–Santa Clauses
still suffer from the injuries they sustained while being flown on
homemade equipment.

226
 Fig. 6.47.
Guide lines
on a drop

Fig. 6.48.
Tag lines
on a batten

227
 Fig. 6.49.
Distributing a
dead-hung
load on a grid

228
Part 7 Inspection of Rigging Systems

7.01 Keep the Equipment in Safe Working Order

One of the questions asked after an accident is whether the rig-
ging equipment has been inspected and maintained on a regular
basis. Rigging equipment is machinery and, as such, requires
care and maintenance. Because it suspends objects over the
heads of people, it poses a high degree of risk to life and limb.
Failure to care for rigging equipment is negligent behavior. Per-
forming regular inspections and correcting problems as they
occur are required procedures to ensure the safety of everyone
working on the stage or under any suspended object.

Frequency of Inspection
7.02
How often you should inspect the rigging depends on the usage
and degree of risk it poses.

229
A. Daily
Every time you use a line set, be aware of anything that sounds,
feels, or smells out of the ordinary. As Wally Blount said when
teaching classes on chain hoists for Columbus McKinnon, “If it
looks bad, if it sounds bad, it is bad.”
Always investigate a strange noise, feel, or smell to find out
what is causing the problem. Then, if necessary, immediately re-
pair it, or take the line set out of service. The problem may re-
quire canceling a performance, which can be a tough decision
to make. Remember, the show does not have to go on. No per-
formance is so important that a performer, crew member, or au-
dience member be put at risk. If the rigging equipment is prop-
erly maintained, canceling a performance because of unsafe
rigging should never need to happen.

B. Scheduled
Thorough inspections must be performed on a regular basis to
find any worn parts or potential problems, and repairs should
be done before parts break, pose a risk, or endanger a person.
The more the rigging system is used, the more frequently the
equipment needs to be inspected.
1. Every rigging system, regardless of number of perfor-
mances, should have a thorough inspection at least once
a year.
2. Equipment in busy roadhouses—those with several hun-
dred performances a year—should be inspected more fre-
quently. This is especially true if line sets have been taken out for
a show and reinstalled. When line sets are hurriedly restored
early in the morning after an all-night load-out, it is very com-
mon to miss something. Before the next show is loaded in,
carefully inspect every restored set from arbor to batten.
3. Long-running shows with heavy rigging use require more
frequent inspection. Thoroughly inspect a line set at least every
300 cycles. The number of cycles is the number of times the line
set is used, not the number of performances. If a blackout cur-
tain is run in and out 8 times during a performance, then the line
set should be inspected every 38 performances.
4. Flying performers poses a much-higher degree of risk than
almost any other type of flying. The entire flying-rig should be
inspected before every performance.

230
7.03 Preparation
To inspect the rigging efficiently and thoroughly, take some time
to prepare. It is important to have a guide to the inspection, a
record of the inspection, and a record of any repairs that need
to be made. Here are three documents that will help with the
inspection process.

A. Rail Log
Memories fade, and people change jobs. The rigging equipment
remains in the theatre, but no one can remember what was done
when. A rail log is a record of anything and everything that hap-
pens to the rigging system.
A simple but effective way to create a rail log is to use a loose-
leaf notebook. On the first page, list the manufacturer, installer,
and their contact information. Include the date that the equipment
was installed. Using a separate sheet of paper for each line set,
list every problem, repair, and component replacement that has
affected that line set. Set up a separate section to list every in-
spection of the equipment. List the dates of the inspections and
the names of the people conducting them.
The sheets can be prepared on a computer, but printing out
hard copies to put in a binder makes them more accessible to
the entire rigging crew. (The other advantage of paper records is
that they do not crash.)

B. Repair List
As you inspect, create a list of the items requiring repair or re-
placement. Create a second list of those items not sufficiently
worn to require immediate replacement but that bear watching.
As items are repaired, enter the information on the appropriate
line-set sheets in the rail log.

C. Inspection Checklist
The inspection checklist is a list of all of the components you are
going to inspect. It is a guide to the inspection and helps ensure
that you do not forget anything. See the sections below for sam-
ple check sheets.

231
7.04 What to Look For
You will look for typical things as well as unusual things. A good
rule-of-thumb for an inspection is to remember what you may
have learned watching Sesame Street, “One of these things is
not like the other, one of these things just doesn’t belong.” Al-
ways look for the “something” that seems out of place. Several
of the more typical things to look for are listed below.

A. Overstressed Components
When a component has been loaded beyond its elastic limit, it
can become permanently deformed. Any deformed piece of
hardware or support member is suspect. Radial pressure marks
on loft blocks are also typical signs of overloading. See Section
4.06.A.

B. Impact Loading
Inspect the crash bars for broken wood fibers and bent steel
angles. A severe crash could bend arbors and shock load lift
lines, battens, and the entire system.

C. Fatigue
Fatigue is the equivalent of carpal-tunnel stress for rigging com-
ponents. Repeated bending of wire rope over sheaves eventually
weakens the wire, and the strands will begin to break. Bearings
eventually wear and cause excessive play in sheave rotation on
head blocks and loft blocks.

D. Loose or Missing Bolts

Look for loose and missing bolts.

E. Defective Hardware
Sometimes, defective hardware gets installed. Believe your eyes.
If something does not look right, take a second look. When you
install hardware, inspect it before you install it. You are the final
inspector of all of the hardware that you install.

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 F. Corrosion
Look for signs of corrosion, or rust, on components. If you can
rub it off with your fingers, it is surface rust. Sometimes, apply-
ing a coat of rust inhibiting paint or light oil will stop the oxida-
tion from continuing. If you cannot rub it off with your finger, it
may be penetrating rust, which can be very dangerous. As rust
penetrates a component, the surface of the metal expands, caus-
ing microscopic cracks in it. Deeply corroded components should
be replaced.

G. Incorrectly Installed Hardware

Examples of incorrectly installed hardware include running rope
or cable over retainers, misaligned blocks and guides, improp-
erly installed wire-rope clips, Nicopress sleeves, and any other
type of termination. The list of incorrectly installed hardware is
almost as long as this book. Use the other sections for reference.

H. Wrong Hardware for the Job

Some examples of the wrong hardware include undersized com-
ponents, such as wire rope, incorrect sheave diameter, and in-
correct sheave-groove size. All of these things will usually cause
the hardware to wear out more quickly.

I. Organic Degradation
Organic degradation occurs any time you use natural-fiber prod-
ucts, such as Manila rope and cotton curtains.

7.05 Inspection Procedure

The inspection will be efficient and thorough if you start with a
plan. The object of the inspection is to look at all of the parts and
components of each line set. One way of doing this is to use a
checklist roughly organized in the same order that you are going
to perform the inspection. Sample checklists for different types
of rigging systems are listed below.
It is critical that you operate each line set during the inspec-
tion to determine if there are any operational problems. Conduct
the inspection when the theatre is quiet, so you can hear the

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sounds the rigging makes. Performing an inspection correctly
takes concentration and the use of all of your senses. Begin at
one end of the line sets, and work your way through the entire
system. A good method is to begin with the battens. Use a Ge-
nie to access any battens that cannot be lowered in.
A word on using Genies—always use the outriggers! Every
year, stagehands are injured—even killed—by Genie lifts tipping
over. The decision not to use the outriggers is generally made in
the name of convenience and speed. After the accident, it is ob-
vious that the decision to hot-wire the outriggers or move the lift
with someone in it was a stupid one. The erroneous assumption
is that if the Genie falls, the stagehand can hold onto the batten
until rescued. But think about it for a moment. If the Genie tips
over, how will the rescue take place?
Before going up in the lift and volunteering to be pushed
around, do a little self-test. Lower a batten so that it is just about
6˝ higher than you can reach. Snub the hand line to the lock rail
so it will not slip through the lock. Jump up and hang from the
batten, and time yourself to see how long you are comfortable
hanging there waiting to be rescued. More than likely, there will
be a curtain hanging on the batten that will make climbing up
on the batten difficult, if not impossible. You will probably decide
at this point that your rescue plan is flawed. The few extra min-
utes using the outriggers and lowering the lift is time well spent.
After checking all of the battens that cannot be lowered, start
letting in each line-set. If done with bare hands, you will be able
to feel problems with the hand line before you see them in the
dim light of the theatre (your hands may be uncomfortable, how-
ever). Your senses of touch and sound will tell you if the line set
is running smoothly. On counterweight sets, as soon as you re-
lease the rope lock, the feel of it will indicate if it adjusted cor-
rectly. If the hand lines are Manila, your sense of smell will tell
you if mildew or rot is in the rope.
Use the following checklists as a guide to creating venue-
specific checklists. Add or subtract items to reflect the system
under inspection. The details of how hardware should perform,
be selected, and installed are in the other sections of this book.
Section 7.04 lists typical things to look for with most of the
components. Be familiar with these details before starting the
inspection. Although every effort has been made to make the
information in this book as complete and accurate as possible,
you may come upon situations for which there is no reference.
In that situation, contact a reputable rigging inspector, manu-
facturer, or installer.

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7.06 Fire-Curtain-Inspection Checklist
A. Lower the curtain manually, or run it with the motor. It should
seal to the floor with no gaps for smoke to leak through.
B. Perform a drop test by releasing the emergency-release line.
It should come in smoothly and stay down.
C. Fire curtain
1. Tears or holes
2. Curtain guides
3. Yield pad
4. Top smoke seal
D. Batten
1. Straight
2. Level
3. Terminations
E. Guides
1. Loose cable or turnbuckles
2. Loose or bent track
F. Arbor
1. Lock plate
2. Guides
3. Terminations
4. Rods
G. Arbor guide track
1. Plumb
2. Loose fasteners
3. Arbor stops
4. Terminations
H. Overbalance system
1. Not installed
2. Out of adjustment
I. Release system
1. Inaccessible
2. Inoperable
3. Improperly secured
4. Fusible links missing
5. Signs missing
6. Rate-of-rise device not working
J. Checking device
1. Not installed

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 2. Inoperable
3. Leaking fluid
4. Improperly adjusted
For motorized systems, also check each of the following items
to see that they are working properly.
K. Limit switches
1. Up and down limits
2. Overtravel limits
L. Emergency-stop button
M. Clutch-release device
N. Clutch adjustment (fire curtains)
O. Drive chain and sprockets
P. Motor brake
Q. Drum brake
R. Oil in gearbox

7.07 Hemp-System-Inspection Checklist

A. Batten
1. Level
2. Straight
3. Terminations
4. Splices
B. Rope
1. Frayed or worn
2. Rotting
3. Out of balance
C. Loft blocks
1. Mounting
a. Base angles
b. Clips
c. J-bolts
d. Support steel (bent, deformed)
2. Sheave groove
a. Size
b. Excessive radial pressure
3. Sheave bearings
4. Side plates

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 5. Retainers
6. Alignment
D. Head blocks
1. Mounting
a. Base angles
b. Clips
c. J-bolts
d. Support steel (bent, deformed)
2. Sheave groove
a. Size
b. Radial pressure
3. Sheave bearings
4. Side plates
5. Retainers
6. Alignment
E. Pin rail
1. Mounting bolts
2. Rail
a. Wood split
b. Bent
3. Pins
a. Wood worn from spinning
b. Bent
c. Missing
F. Sandbags and weight pipes
1. Holes or leaking
2. Missing hooks
G. Sundays
1. Knots secure
2. Kinked
3. Proper size
H. Trim clamps
1. Missing bolts
2. Missing jaws
3. Cracked casting

7.08 Counterweight-Inspection Checklist

A. Batten
1. Level or bent
2. Size

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 3. Splices
B. Wire rope
1. Type and size
2. Kinked
3. Worn, abraded, broken wires
4. Bird cage opening up
5. Rubbing on obstructions
6. Corrosion
C. Terminations
1. Wire-rope clips
2. Nicopress sleeves
3. Trim chains
4. Turnbuckles
5. Batten clamps
D. Lock rail
1. Mounting bolts
2. Uprights
3. Diagonal braces
4. Cardholders
E. Rope locks
1. Housing
2. Handles
3. Jaws
4. Mounting bolts (all 4)
5. Adjustment
F. Hand line
1. Terminations
2. Undersize
3. Worn
4. Rot
G. Tension blocks
1. Sheave
2. Bearings
3. Side plates
4. Guides
a. Missing bolts
b. Bent
c. Will not move
d. Moves too freely

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H. T-bar guides
1. Missing bolts
2. Bent
3. Bad splices
4. Horizontal supports
5. Wall knees

I. Arbor stops
1. Broken wood
2. Bent angle supports
3. Missing bolts
4. Missing neoprene pads
5. Incorrect position

J. Loft blocks
1. Mounting
a. Base angles
b. Clips
c. J-bolts
d. Support steel (bent, deformed)
2. Sheave groove
a. Size
b. Radial pressure
3. Sheave bearings
4. Side plates
5. Retainers
6. Alignment
7. Idler pulleys
8. Sag bars

K. Mule blocks
1. Mounting
a. Base angles
b. Clips
c. J-bolts
d. Support steel
2. Sheave groove
a. Size
b. Radial pressure
3. Sheave bearings
4. Side plates
5. Retainers
6. Alignment

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 7. Idler pulleys
8. Sag bars
L. Head blocks
1. Mounting
a. Base angles
b. Clips
c. Support steel (bent, deformed)
2. Sheave groove
a. Size
b. Radial pressure
3. Sheave bearings
4. Side plates
5. Retainers
6. Alignment
M. Arbor
1. Guides
2. Rods
3. Rod nuts
4. Bottom plate
5. Top plate
6. Terminations
7. Lock plate and collars
8. Spreader plates
a. Insufficient quantity
b. Not used properly

7.09 Motorized-Inspection Checklist

A. See the counterweight section above (7.08) for rigging
components.
B. Mounting
1. Mounting bolts
2. Support steel
C. Motor—is bearing lubricant required?
D. Gear reducer
1. Check oil
2. Leaks
3. Change oil
E. Pillow blocks
1. Housing

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 2. Bearings
3. Lubrication (do not overlubricate)
F. Motor brake
1. Worn shoes
2. Adjust release
G. Drum brake
H. Limit switches
1. Primary limits
2. Overtravel limits
I. E-stop
1. Check connection. The E-stop should disconnect power
to the winch, not low-voltage control power. If it does not
disconnect power to the winch, there may be a code viola-
tion. See Section 5.04.E.3.
2. Test the switch.
J. Overload indicator
K. Slack-cable switch
L. Other control devices

7.10 Installation Checklists

This section is intended as a guide for installers and makes no
claim to being complete. You may photocopy the checklists or
use them as guides to create your own job-specific checklists.
The goal for installing the rigging system should be a no note
punch list. Redoing parts of the installation is time consuming
and expensive. Doing it right the first time saves the installer time
and money and produces client confidence and satisfaction.
Usually, the installer hires a local labor force, frequently made
up of people with no experience installing stage rigging and no
idea how the equipment will be used after it is installed. Follow-
ing these checklists will help ensure that rigging is installed prop-
erly and safely.
Set an attitude for excellence. By your tone and actions, you
convey to the crew what kind of work you expect from them. Set
your sights high. The crew will never perform better than your
expectations.
One of the most common errors in installations is improper
wire-rope terminations. To avoid having a termination fail or

241
having to redo the terminations, follow section A, Termination
Instructions.

A. Termination Instructions

1. Wire-Rope Clips
a. Show the installers the proper amount of turn-back.
b. Show them which side of the cable the U-bolt goes on.
c. Devise a method to properly tighten the clips. See Sec-
tion 6.03.A.1 and tables 6.2 and 6.3 for the proper torque
rating for various-size clips.

2. Nicopress Sleeves
a. Verify the proper size and type of sleeve for the job. Usu-
ally, only copper or plated copper sleeves are used. Alumi-
num sleeves should not be used for overhead installation.
b. Check the tool and the instructions to determine how
many crimps are required. See the tables in Section 6.03.
B.1 and tables 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 on Nicopress fittings.
c. Do a test sleeve before starting to be sure the tool is
properly adjusted.
d. Give the installers a gauge, and show them how to use it.
e. Check the first few sleeves to be sure they are correct.
f. As the installation progresses, periodically check the
sleeves to see that the tool has not gotten out of adjust-
ment. Have the installers tell you when the tool needs ad-
justment. Improperly crimped sleeves are one of the most
common problems on new installations, and recrimping
them is expensive and time consuming. If the sleeves are
not crimped properly and the wire rope pulls out, the in-
stallation company owns the liability.

B. Counterweight-System Checklist
1. Run each batten to low trim. Operate the line sets before
any curtains or other objects are attached to the battens.
__ Check the rope lock for proper adjustment. It should
not bind the rope during operation.
__ Close the lock and make sure the rope will not pull
through.
__ Run each batten all the way in to check for smooth
operation.

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 __ Listen for strange noises and find the cause.
__ Fix any arbor that is binding on the T-bars.
2. While the battens are down, do the following.
__ Check to see that the lift lines are in the correct posi-
tion on the batten.
__ Check to see that the trim chains are not crossed.
__ Check to see that the wire-rope clip quantity, spacing,
and torque are correct.
__ Check to see that the ends of wire rope are either taped
or heat-shrunk.
__ Do a random check of Nicopress sleeves with gauge.
__ Check to see that all turnbuckles are moused.
__ Check to see that all shackles are tightened and moused.
__ Check to see that all safety bolts have washers and
Nylock nuts.
__ Check batten splice-bolts.
__ Check to see that all battens are level and straight.
__ Check batten end-caps.
3. At the lock rail, do the following.
__ Check all mounting bolts and welds. Check bolts for
tightness.
__ Check all rope-lock mounting bolts.
__ Check that there are no cracks in the tops of the rope
lock housings.
__ Check that tension blocks float.
__ Check that hand line is run properly around tension
blocks.
__ Hit T-bars with the heel of your hand, and listen for
loose bolts.
__ Check bottom arbor stop.
4. On the loading bridge or grid, do the following.
__Check that arbor-rod nuts on underside of arbor top
are tight.
__ Check hand line and wire-rope terminations.
5. Check the head blocks.
__ Check that all rope and cable are inside the retainers.
__ Check wire-rope alignment.
6. Check the loft blocks.
__ Check mounting bolts.
__ Check that cable is inside the retainers and idlers.
__ Check that cable is not rubbing on side plates.

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 7. Raise the battens. Stop the arbors high enough so that you
can easily see the bottom of the arbors. Have three or more peo-
ple spread out on the grid in a line near the set to be run. Have
someone operate each line set and run the battens back up to
high trim. Listen for strange noises and determine their cause.
Do this for each line set.
After all the sets have been run, go to one side of the grid,
and sight down the line of lift lines for each line set. This checks
the alignment for the loft blocks for each line set.
__ Check to see that all idlers are turning and all cables
are in the proper groove.
__ Check to see that all cables are above the sag bars.
__ Check all lift lines to be sure they are not cutting into
grid hangers, sprinkler pipes, multi-cable, or other
obstructions.
8. While all arbors are down, do the following.
__ Hit the T-bars at the loading bridge level, checking for
loose bolts.
__ Check the top arbor stop.
__ Using a flashlight, look up from the loading bridge to
check that all head block mounting bolts have been
installed.
__ Check all electric-cable pickups.
__ Check all orchestra-shell and lighting sets to be sure
additional arbor stops have been installed where
needed.
__ Check hand-line terminations on arbor bottoms.
__ Check that all spreader plates are on top of the counter-
weights and not marking pipe weight.
__ When loading the arbors after hanging curtains and
lighting battens, be sure the spreader plates are prop-
erly positioned.

C. Motorized-System Checklist
1. Operate each winch before any curtains or other objects
are attached to the battens. Listen. Lower the battens to low
trim. Find the source of any strange noise.
__ Check for proper fleet-angle for each cable coming off
the drum.
__ Check winch-mounting bolts and support steel.
__ Check fleet angle for each loft block.

244
 __ Check to see that the arbor does not bind on motorized
counterweight sets.
__ Check all limit switches.
__ Check overtravel switches by tripping them and trying
to move the batten in the opposite direction.
__ Check all E-stops.
2. When the batten is down, follow the appropriate parts of
the counterweight checklist in Section 7.10.B.

D. Hand-Winch Checklist
1. Operate each hand winch before any curtains or other ob-
jects are attached to the batten. Lower the battens to low trim.
Listen for any strange noise.
__ Check clew travel and guides.
__ Check terminations at clew.
__ Check winch mounting bolts.
2. See above counterweight section for batten, wire rope
terminations, loft, and head-block checklists.

E. Fire-Curtain Checklist
1. Operate the fire curtain manually, either by hand or with
the up and down push-button controls if it is motorized. Bring it
all the way in.
__ Check for proper balance with manual operation.
__ Check yield-pad seal at floor.
__ Check smoke seal at top of curtain.
__ Check curtain-guide–system for smooth operation.
__ Check arbor for smooth operation.
__ Check arbor stops on lattice track.
__ Check lattice-track mounting bolts.
__ Check arbor for loose bolts.
__ Check arbor spreader plates and lock plate.
__ Check cable terminations at arbor.
__ Check mousing on turnbuckles.
__ Check mousing on shackles.
__ Check smoke pockets for gaps between the pocket
and the wall.
__ Check lift lines on batten for position.
__ Check lift line terminations at batten.

245
 __ Check safety-stay–chain terminations at grid and batten.
__ Check all bolts on chain to see that they have two flat
washers and lock nuts.
__ Check hand-line tension.
__ Check tension-block mounting bolts and operation.
__ Check to see that hand line does not run over head-
and tension-block retainers.
__ Check head-block mounting and operation.
__ Check lift lines to be sure they are not cutting into loft-
block retainers, side plates, or other obstructions.
__ Check loft-block–mounting bolts and operation.
__ Check fire-line–pulley operation and mounting.
__ Pull out curtain. It should be properly balanced and
able to be pulled out with a reasonable amount of force.
2. Operate fire-curtain emergency-release system on both
sides of the stage. The curtain should come in within 30 sec-
onds and stay in with no gaps between the yield pad and the
floor. Most codes require the curtain to take at least 5 seconds
to travel the last 8´ before hitting the floor.
__ Check that fire-line release signs are installed.
__ Test rate-of-rise release system.
__ Check deceleration device for proper adjustment.
__ Check overbalance system.
3. For motorized systems, run the curtain from all control
stations.
__ Check winch mounting bolts.
__ Check push-button controls.
__ Check E-stop.
__ Check clutch-reset operation.
__ Do a test drop from both sides of the stage.

F. Brail–Fire-Curtain Checklist
1. Lower the fire curtain.
__ Check yield pad seal at floor.
__ Check smoke seal at top of curtain.
__ Check curtain-guide system for smooth operation.
__ Check smoke pockets for gaps between the pocket
and the wall.
__ Check lift-line position on batten.
__ Check lift-line terminations at batten.
__ Check safety-stay-chain terminations at grid and batten.

246
 __ Check all bolts on chain to see that they have 2 flat
washers and lock nuts.
__ Check all turnbuckles to make sure they are moused.
__ Check all shackles to make sure they are tight and
moused.
__ Check head-block mounting and operation.
__ Check head blocks to be sure that all cables are within
spacers.
__ Check loft-block mounting bolts and operation.
__ Check lift-line travel to be sure that lines are not cut-
ting into side plates or retainers.
__ Check clew travel.
__ Check clew guide-cables.
__ Check wire-rope terminations at clew.
__ Check winch mounting bolts.
__ Check mounting bolts on fire-line pulleys.
__ Check fire-line pulley operation and mounting.
2. Test the curtain-release system by operating it from both
sides of the proscenium. The curtain should come in within 30
seconds and not bounce. Most codes require the curtain to take
at least 5 seconds to travel the last 8´ before hitting the floor.
__ Verify that the fire-line release signs installed.
__ Test rate-of-rise release system.
__ Check hydraulic speed governor for leaks and proper
adjustment.
__ Listen for any strange noise, and locate its source.
__ Check trigger-release system.
__ Check brake-line counterweight travel.
__ Check mounting bolts on round weight guard.

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Part 8 Operation and Training

8.01 ETCP Certification

In the fall of 2005, the first national certification examination in
the entertainment industry was given to riggers (arena) and fly-
men (theatre). The examination was part of the Entertainment
Technician Certification Program (ETCP), a voluntary process
that grants recognition to individuals who have demonstrated
certain abilities, skills, and knowledge as riggers and flymen.
The ETCP is widely supported and funded by many groups and
individuals in the entertainment industry, including the Alliance
of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP); Canadian
Institute for Theatre Technology (CITT); Clear Channel; Interna-
tional Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE); Interna-
tional Association of Assembly Managers (IAAM); InfoComm
International; League of American Theatres and Producers; Pro-
duction Resource Group (PRG); Themed Entertainment Asso-

248
 ciation (TEA); and United States Institute for Theatre Technology
(USITT). The ETCP is under the supervision and auspices of the
Entertainment Services and Technology Association (ESTA).
The tests can now be taken at various testing centers through-
out the country. Applicants must prove that they have had a cer-
tain amount of work experience as riggers or flymen before they
are eligible to take the test. It is the goal of the industry to even-
tually have a certified rigger as a lead in every major venue in
North America. Contact ETCP on its Web site ([Link]
.org) for additional information about the test.

8.02 Venue-Specific Training

All of the flymen in a venue need not be certified by the ETCP.
However, the rigging equipment in each venue is unique, and
operating it safely requires venue-specific training. Even though
the hardware in two different venues may be from the same man-
ufacturer, the rigging may operate differently due to the unique
structure of each theatre. To ensure that the crew in your theatre
can operate the rigging system safely and efficiently, a training
program for your venue should be set up and implemented.
Creating a training program sounds daunting. The sugges-
tions that follow may help to take some of the anxiety out of the
process. The list is a suggestion only. Add items not listed that
pertain to your venue, and delete items that are not relevant.
First, determine where the specific work stations are. Then
decide what job skills are needed to work at each station, and
list those job skills. Try to limit the checklist to no more than the
two sides of a sheet of paper. Put a line on the top of the check-
list for the trainee’s name. As the person demonstrates knowl-
edge and proficiency for each item, check it off. When all the
items are checked, the person should be a proficient flyman for
that venue.

8.03 General Subjects for All Rigging Systems

Every person working with the rigging system on a regular basis
should be familiar with the following information. Take time to
acquaint the new person with this information. You might con-
sider assigning new hires the responsibility for keeping the rail
log and writing the line set schedules and cue sheets to help
them really learn your system.

249
A. Paperwork
1. Rail log. See Section 7.03 for a description of a rail log.
Every person working with the fly system on a regular basis
should be familiar with the contents and location of the rail log.
2. Inspection reports. These should be available to all regu-
lar hands so they can quickly determine if a strange noise or an
odd-looking piece of hardware has been noted before.
3. Line set schedule. This is a listing of all of the line sets,
their location from the plaster line, their use, and their capacity.
This list serves as a reference for what can be hung for a show
and where. A line-set schedule is created for each production.
4. Cue sheet. It is a good idea to have a standard way of
writing cue sheets for every show. All rail operators should be
familiar with the format for your theatre.
5. Repair and project list. Keep an ongoing list of items that
require repair, as well as other projects to maintain and improve
the operation.
6. Hardware shopping list. Keep an ongoing, written list of
items that need to be purchased. Teach the new hires the pet
names for things that you use so that they will know what you
are talking about.

B. Rail-Operation Checklist
__ 1. Rope-lock adjustment
__ 2. Moving the tension block
__ 3. Adjusting the hand line
__ 4. Identifying the line sets on the rail
__ 5. Verbal commands/communication
__ 6. Order of loading and unloading
__ 7. Securing the hand line for loading and unloading

C. Operating a Line Set

1. Cue sequence
2. Cue sheet
3. Setting trim marks
4. Pull line in and out to trim marks

D. Loading-Bridge Procedure
1. Commands, when to load and unload
2. Responses to commands

250
 3. Reaching the arbor
4. Lock-plate and spreader-plate use
5. Loading weight
6. Unloading weight
7. Stacking weight
8. Fall-protection system

E. Mid-Rail (Jump-Rail) Operation

1. Rope-lock operation (open locks at floor)
2. Tag lines on arbors
3. Setting trim marks
4. Loading and unloading weights
5. Hemp-set operation (see section 8.03.K)

F. Motorized Rigging Operation

1. Visual contact or spotters
2. Control-panel operation
3. Limit switches
4. E-stop
5. Trim marks or position indicator
6. Special controls

G. Runaway Procedure
(See also section 4.11.C.)
1. Shout a warning.
2. Get out of the way, and do not try to stop the line set.
3. Leave the stage.
4. Drop and cover on the loading bridge.

H. Knot Tying
1. Bowline
2. Clove hitch
3. Figure-8
4. Half hitch
5. Snub or prusik

I. Fire-Curtain Operation
1. Manual operation

251
 2. Emergency release
3. Automatic release
4. Fire alarm
5. Resetting curtain

J. Grid Operation
1. Kicking loft blocks
2. Using diverter rollers
3. Spot-line rigging
4. Setting up chain hoists

K. Hemp-Set Operation
1. Attaching load to batten
2. Removing loads
3. Bagging a set
a. Using sundays
b. Using trim clamps
4. Tying off on the rail
5. Setting high and low trims
6. Show time operation

8.04 Keep Your Concentration

A part of any rigging-competency training program should in-
clude training in developing good work habits. The fourth and
final K—Keep your concentration—is a learned skill. Insisting
that the flyman operate the rigging for a number of performances
without an error before certification is one way of accomplishing
this. One facility requires 100 consecutive perfect shows before
issuing a competency certificate. If the flyman blows a cue on
the 99th show, it’s back to the beginning of the count for that
crew member. This is a true test of keeping concentration while
running a show.

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Part 9 Fire Curtains

9.01 Introduction
A proscenium theatre of a certain size generally requires a fire
curtain or, as it is referred to in the various codes, a proscenium
curtain. The primary purpose of the fire curtain is to contain an
onstage fire (and its resultant smoke) long enough for the audi-
ence to evacuate safely. The fire curtain has been a standard fire-
protection device in theatres for more than 100 years, but the
sad reality is that many curtains in existing theatres do not work.
If a theatre has a fire curtain, it must work! If it does not work, the
theatre can be closed for failure to comply with the fire code. On-
going discussion continues in the entertainment industry about
the need to revise codes to provide for alternate fire-protection
systems, but in the meantime, this book focuses on types of fire
curtains that are currently in use.
A specific fire curtain must comply with the governing code
at the time of its installation. However, if architectural modifica-

253
 tions have been made to the stage, the fire curtain most prob-
ably will be affected by newer codes.

9.02 Codes and Regulations

The design and operation of fire curtains are governed by a
number of codes.

A. Building Codes
Until the year 2000, several building codes were used in the United
States, including the Uniform Building Code (UBC), the Standard
Building Code (SBC), and Building Officials and Code Adminis-
trators code (BOCA). The UBC and SBC were similar, both giv-
ing specific requirements as to how the fire-curtain system was
to be constructed. The BOCA code differed from the other two
in a number of ways, and the differences caused so many prob-
lems that a new code, the International Building Code (IBC),
was written to replace them all.
The IBC is a general performance code and does not go into
detail of how the fire curtain is constructed. It states, “The cur-
tain shall be designed and installed to intercept hot gases, flames
and smoke, and to prevent a glow from a severe fire on stage
from showing on the auditorium side for a period of 20 minutes”
(section 410.3.5). It also gives test criteria for the curtain fabric.
Individual states and municipalities are free to adopt any, or none,
of the codes, and to modify them as they see fit.
All building codes require the use of a fire curtain in prosce-
nium theatres meeting certain criteria. Older codes specified the
type and size of theatres that required fire curtains, how the cur-
tains should operate, and criteria for the materials from which
they were made. Over the years, as codes were revised and
changed, design criteria have also changed. Main operation pa-
rameters have not changed, however.

1. The curtain must prevent smoke, hot gases, and flame

from reaching the audience.
2. The curtain must be able to be closed manually. This can
be accomplished by pulling a hand line or operating the
controls on a winch-driven system.
3. The curtain must close automatically and require no elec-
trical power when fire-detection devices are activated.

254
 4. The curtain should close within 30 seconds but take at
least 5 seconds to travel the last 8´.
5. Scenery and other items must not be placed so as to
prevent the curtain from closing, unless the local author-
ity having jurisdiction (AHJ) has given permission (see
9.02.C below).
6. Most fire curtains have some sort of emergency-release
device to quickly lower the curtain, even though not spe-
cifically required in the new code.

The various fire-curtain systems are described in detail in sec-

tions 9.03, 9.04, 9.05, and 9.06.
The fire curtain may also be designed to operate in conjunc-
tion with other fire-and smoke-control systems, such as a smoke-
evacuation system, or a sprinkler system over the stage. Those
systems are beyond the scope of this book.

B. Life Safety Code

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) publishes a
number of codes including NFPA 101, Life Safety Code. The
description of the design and operation of the fire curtain is
more detailed in this code than in other building codes. One
major difference is cited in section [Link].2-G of the 2003 NFPA
101: “All proscenium curtains shall be in the closed position ex-
cept during performances, rehearsals, or similar activities.” That
sentence is restated in section [Link].4.
Few theatres follow this rule for two reasons: (1) water-deluge
curtains and brail curtains do not lend themselves to being closed
on a daily basis, and (2) most theatres with straight-lift curtains
are unaware of this code requirement. One of the main advan-
tages of keeping the fire curtain closed is to limit smoke damage
to one side of the curtain in case a fire occurs when the stage is
not in use. Another advantage to closing the curtain daily is to
exercise the hardware regularly, ensuring that the curtain will at
least operate manually.

C. Authority Having Jurisdiction

Because there is no national enforcement agency for the codes,
enforcement is by local jurisdiction, in the hands of the local in-
spectors referred to as the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ).
Unfortunately, many of the local inspectors are not aware of the

255
 codes governing fire curtains, so they neglect to inspect them.
This does not relieve the theatre from the responsibility of hav-
ing a working fire curtain that complies with the local regulations.

9.03 Water Curtains

Two types of water curtain devices used to separate the stage
from the auditorium in case of fire are (1) water-deluge system
and (2) water-spray system. Both devices release large quanti-
ties of water on the stage at the proscenium line. Accidental ac-
tivation of the devices can cause substantial water damage, so
insurance premiums may be affected by the presence of a wa-
ter-curtain system in the theatre. If you are contemplating in-
stalling a water curtain system in your theatre and are not self-
insured, check with your insurance company to get a premium
estimate before making a final decision.

A. Water-Deluge System
The water-deluge system has open sprinkler heads, or water can-
nons, that dispense a large volume of water, creating almost a
wall of water all across the proscenium opening. Working in con-
junction with smoke hatches or other types of smoke-evacua-
tion systems, the deluge system prevents fire and smoke from
crossing the opening. This system is a good choice where it is
impossible for a curtain to close off the proscenium opening
due to architectural design, or when scenery or other objects
must block the curtain travel.

B. Water-Spray Curtain
The water-spray curtain requires a noncombustible, opaque, fab-
ric curtain to close automatically without power. A fixed-spray
system that soaks the fabric is automatically activated and must
be capable of keeping the fabric wet for at least 30 minutes.

C. Maintenance and Testing

The water-flow systems, including activation devices, sensing
devices, deluge valves, and alarms, should be tested annually
by a qualified person. This can be done without turning on the
water. The automatic mechanical operation of the fabric curtain

256
 should also be regularly tested but only after determining that
the water-spray activation system has been bypassed.

9.04 Fabric Curtains

Traditional fire curtains are made from fabric and operate with-
out a water spray. There are several types of fabrics, and some
versions of the codes require the curtain to be framed if it is over
50´ wide or 30´ high.

A. Types of Fabrics
1. Asbestos
Until the 1970s, asbestos was the traditional fabric used for fire
curtains. The asbestos fibers were encapsulated to prevent them
from becoming airborne. It was also common practice to paint
the fire curtain with a noncombustible paint that further encap-
sulated the asbestos. An asbestos curtain usually poses no dan-
ger unless the fabric is torn or the curtain rubs against the wall
or smoke pockets when it is operated. Quite often the stuff you
see floating in the air when the curtain runs is dust and contains
no asbestos fibers. If you are in doubt, contact an independent
testing laboratory to have the curtain tested.
2. Fiberglass
Currently, most fire curtains are made from fiberglass. Many are
coated with a vermiculite slurry during manufacturing. Painting
the curtain or getting it wet may remove the coating. Painting it
voids the certified listing of the curtain. If the curtain has gotten
wet or been painted, contact the manufacturer or installer.

B. Types of Curtains
There are several types of construction for fabric fire curtains.
The most common types are brail and straight-lift curtains.
1. Brail Curtains
Brail curtains are used when there is not sufficient room over the
stage for a straight-lift curtain (fig. 9.1). The lift lines run through
rings or battens on the curtain to gather it up like a furled sail on
a ship. As the curtain is raised, it becomes heavier and heavier,

257
 Fig. 9.1.
Brail curtain
schematic.
Courtesy of Dan
Culhane and
SECOA

thus making it almost impossible to raise by hand. Typically, a

hand-operated brail winch is used to lift and control the cur-
tain operation.
The brail-winch device consists of several parts, including a
gear reducer and a chain drive that rotates a drum with a single
cable attached (fig. 9.2). This cable goes to a clew that attaches

Fig. 9.2.
Brail winch.
Courtesy
of H & H
Specialties, Inc.

258
to the lift lines. A brake locks the drum and keeps it from turning.
The operation arm of the brake is held in the on position by the
curtain-release line. When the line is released, the brake lets go
and the curtain falls. A small, closed-loop hydraulic governor is
connected to the drum by a roller chain. The hydraulic governor
controls the descent of the curtain. A valve in the hydraulic line
controls the rate of flow of the hydraulic fluid and thus controls
the speed of the drum as it unwinds.
When resetting this device, be sure to turn the hand crank
in the proper direction to raise the curtain. If it is turned in the
other direction, the cable will wind in the wrong direction on the
drum. Then, when the curtain is released, oil will flow backwards
through the hydraulic governor and cause the curtain to rapidly
descend completely uncontrolled. The brail curtain is difficult to
raise and therefore not practical to be closed on a daily basis.

2. Straight-Lift Fire Curtains

Most fire curtains are the straight-lift type (see figs. 9.7, 9.11,
and 9.14). The straight-lift curtain is used when there is suffi-
cient height over the stage to store the curtain in the open posi-
tion. If the curtain is not framed, it usually is operated manually.
In some cases unframed curtains are operated with a winch, but
all framed curtains are heavy enough to require a winch.

C. Curtain Construction
Fire curtains are constructed to prevent smoke and hot gases
from crossing the proscenium line and entering the auditorium,
which can impede the audience’s evacuation from the premises.
The curtain fabric must meet the code requirements for flame
retardancy and have the required perimeter devices attached to
contain the smoke and gases.

1. Smoke Seal
The smoke seal is a two-part device at the top of the curtain. One
part is attached to the wall above the proscenium. The second
part is attached to the top of the fire curtain. When the curtain is
in the down position, the two parts of the seal interlock and pre-
vent smoke from passing over the top of the curtain.
2. Yield Pad
The yield pad is a thick, soft pad of fireproof material sewn into
the bottom of the curtain. The curtain has a heavy pipeweight in

259
 the bottom pocket above the pad. When the curtain is lowered
to the floor, the weight of the pipe pushes down on the yield pad
and creates a seal to prevent smoke from passing under the cur-
tain. Obviously, in order for this to work, the bottom of the cur-
tain must be level with the floor, and the curtain must close all
the way. Any obstruction such as scenery, electric cords, props,
musical instruments, or anything else that prevents the curtain
from sealing to the floor is a violation of the fire code.

3. Smoke Pockets and Curtain Guides

The steel pockets on the sides of the proscenium in which the
edges of the curtain run are called smoke pockets. Inside the
smoke pockets are either guide tracks or taut steel cables that
run from the floor to the top of the pockets. Guides on the sides
of the curtain fit into either these cables or the tracks. Smoke
pockets and side guides keep smoke and heat pressure from
blowing the sides of the curtain out into the house, thus prevent-
ing smoke from passing around the sides of the curtain. There
should be no obstructions inside the smoke pockets, such as
sound or electric cables.

9.05 Operation Devices

If fire curtains were operated only manually, rigging them would
be as simple as running a standard counterweight set. Requir-
ing the fire curtain to close automatically if fire is detected back-
stage makes its operation a good deal more complicated. Gen-
erally, the curtain is either overweighted and held open by an
automatic-release device, or the release device causes the cur-
tain to be overweighted and come in. A number of the release
devices are discussed below.
The codes do not specifically detail the precise construction
of fire-curtain-operation devices. Their design has been left to
the rigging manufacturers, and consequently, many different
systems exist. It is impossible to discuss them all, but the most
common types are covered here.

A. Release Lines
All fire curtains have release-line systems that serve two pur-
poses: (1) they are part of the primary automatic-release mech-
anism for lowering the fire curtain, and (2) they provide a quick

260
way to manually release the fire curtain from either side of the
proscenium in case of an emergency. You can use the release
system to test the automatic drop of the curtain. Typically, the
release line is anchored to one side of the proscenium about 5´
above the floor and runs up the side of the proscenium, across
the top of the stage slightly above the grid, and down the other
side of the proscenium to another termination. Various devices
are installed on the release line to hold the fire curtain open. Some
release systems include a weight device in the release line to
provide enough tension for it to work properly (see item A in fig.
9.1.) The line contains various devices that automatically brake
it in case of fire, releasing tension, and allow the curtain to come
in by itself. These devices are discussed later in section 9.05.C.

B. Manual-Release Devices
In older systems, the release line, called a cut line, is made from
Manila rope and tied to anchor points on either side of the stage.
A knife, or other type of cutting device, should be chained to
the wall near the termination with a sign that reads “In case of
fire, cut rope.” Often, the knives have disappeared or are so dull
that they cannot cut the rope. If you have one of these cut lines
in your theatres, replace it with a release device that does not
require a knife. Some of the newer devices are described under
1. ring-and-peg release, 2. pull-pin release, and 3. latching re-
lease device.
1. Ring-and-Peg Release
Replacing the release line with 1 8̸ ˝ wire rope eliminates the prob-
lems associated with organic rope. Because knots do not work
well in wire rope, a different type of release device must be used.
The simplest device is the ring-and-peg release (fig. 9.3). The
end of the release line is attached to a steel ring with a thimble
and Nicopress sleeve. A steel peg is welded to a plate and bolted
to the wall. The ring is hooked over the peg. The wire rope has
the usual automatic-release devices on it. To manually release
the curtain, the ring is pulled off the peg.
2. Pull-Pin Release
The pull-pin release uses a pair of steel plates with holes drilled
in them (fig. 9.4). The ring is brought down between the steel
plates, and a pull-pin is inserted into the holes in the plates. Pull-
ing the pin releases the release line.

261
Fig. 9.3. Ring-and-
peg release

Fig. 9.4. Pull-pin release. Courtesy

of Dan Culhane and SECOA

This type of release can be open construction or enclosed

in a box with a glass faceplate. The open construction, like the
free-end ball and the ring and peg, can be prone to unwanted
release. They are not recommended for schools. Enclosing the
pull-pin release with a glass-plate cover reduces the chance of
unwanted release, because the glass must be broken in order
to reach the pull pin. Instead of a knife, a small hammer or steel
bar is tethered to the box for breaking the glass. The glass can
be removed with a screwdriver for testing.
3. Latching Release
A third type, the latching release device, has a hinged release
held in place by the glass faceplate. When the glass is broken,
the latch is free to pivot up, and the line is released. Again, re-
move the glass with a screwdriver to test.
4. Signage
Regardless of the type of release employed, a wall-mounted sign
should be at each release station indicating the type of action
required, and the area around the releases must be kept clear.
If breaking glass is a required part of the release, teach the crew
members to shield their eyes.

C. Automatic-Release Devices
The codes require that the fire curtain will automatically close in
case of a fire. This action is accomplished by installing devices
that automatically open the release line when the temperature
reaches a certain point backstage.

262
 1. Fusible Links

Fig. 9.5.
Fusible link.
Courtesy of
Dan Culhane
and SECOA

The oldest device is a fusible link (fig. 9.5). This consists of two
pieces of metal held together with a solder that will melt at or
above a certain temperature. For theatrical use, that tempera-
ture is usually between 135° and 165° F. When the ambient tem-
perature reaches the critical point, the solder melts, and the links
separate, effectively dropping the fire curtain. Typically there are
six fusible links in the release line, two along the top and two on
both sides of the stage. There are several limits to this type of
link. First, the heat must be generated near the proscenium to
trigger them. Even if there is a lot of smoke, the fusible links may
not get hot enough to part if the fire starts upstage. Second, the
solder on these devices deteriorates with age. Fusible links have
been known to open and lower the curtain at inappropriate times.
The manufacturer recommends replacing them annually. It is a
good idea to have some spare fusible links on hand.
The links typically found in the theatre are rated for about
30 lb. of tension. Higher load ratings are available. If the links
are breaking due to overstress, use two or more together. De-
vices are also available that provide a mechanical advantage to
increase the holding power of the fusible link.

2. Electrothermal Links (ETL)

Electrothermal links operate by having an electric current melt
the solder holding the link together (fig 9.6). The links are acti-
vated through the alarm system, which receives a signal from
rate-of-rise heat sensors deployed throughout the stage. If the
sensors determine a temperature rise of 15° to 20° F. within one
minute, they activate the alarm system and send the melting
current to the thermal links. One advantage of this system is its
ability to sense fire upstage, away from the proscenium, and
activate the fire curtain without waiting for the flame to spread
downstage. Some theatres incorporate smoke sensors in the

263
 alarm system. Select them carefully so they are not activated by
stage smoke and fog effects.

Fig. 9.6.
Electrothermal
link. Courtesy
of Dan Culhane
and SECOA

3. Resettable Thermal Release

The Sur-Guard, manufactured by J. R. Clancy, is a resettable
thermal release device. It connects to the alarm and heat-sens-
ing system in the same way as an ETL. The advantage of the
Sur-Guard is that it can be tested and reset.

D. Overbalance Systems

1. Free-End Ball Release

This system requires that the fire-curtain side of the system be
heavier than the arbor side (fig. 9.7). A heavy ball made of steel
or lead is affixed to the end of the release line and is tied to the
operating line to keep the curtain open (figs. 9.8 and 9.9). When
one of the automatic devices in the release line opens, the slack
in the line allows the ball to fall to the floor releasing the knot on
the operating line, and the overweighted curtain comes in. The
release line has emergency-release devices on either side of the
stage. Releasing the ball by hand allows manual operation of the
curtain. There are weight limitations to this type of curtain, and
they are very hard to properly balance. Fire curtains can absorb
moisture out of the air. Changing humidity can change the weight
of the curtain and affect balance of the system. If the arbor side
is too heavy, the curtain can bounce and not stay down. Usually,
this system does not use a dashpot (see 9.05.E), so if the cur-

264
 Fig. 9.7. Straight-lift
curtain with free-
end ball on release
line. Courtesy of Dan
Culhane and SECOA

Fig. 9.8.
Rigging detail
for free-end
ball. Courtesy
of Dan Culhane
and SECOA

Fig. 9.9. Free-end ball knot. Courtesy

of Dan Culhane and SECOA

265
 tain side is too heavy, it can come in dangerously fast. And be-
cause the curtain side is always heavy, it can be very hard to
raise the curtain.
Another dangerous problem with this type of release is that
many stagehands do not know how to tie off the release line with
the proper ball knot. Do not tie the line around both sides of the
operation line, as that will cause it to slip and not hold the cur-
tain. Do not use any knot (including an overhand knot or a clove
hitch) other than the one shown in figure 9.9, or it will not release
properly. Figure 9.9 shows the proper way to tie off the release
line to the operating line.
2. Lever-Arm Release

Fig. 9.10.
Lever-arm
release system.
Copyright ©
J. R. Clancy

The lever-arm release in figure 9.10 is an alternative to the free-

end ball system. A separate cable is attached to the bottom of
the arbor (in addition to the hand line) and runs down the wall to
a convenient height. The free end is attached to a D-ring that
slips over a pivoting lever mounted on the wall. Tension is ap-
plied to the lever by the release line, which holds the arbor in
the down position. When the release line goes slack, the lever
rotates, releasing the D-ring and allowing the overweighted cur-
tain to come in.
Resetting the fire curtain requires at least two people. If the
curtain is well balanced, one person raises the curtain, and a
second person secures the free-end ball on the lift line. If the
curtain is not well balanced, more than one person may be re-
quired to raise the curtain.
3. Overbalance Bar
To solve the problem of raising an out-of-weight curtain, several
methods of overweighting the curtain can be used. For these

266
 systems, the curtain and arbor are balanced, allowing easier man-
ual operation of the curtain. One method, called the overbalance
bar, uses a weight bar above the curtain that is guided by the
center lift lines (figs. 9.11 and 9.12). When the release line loses
tension, the bar is released, slides down on top of the curtain, and
makes the curtain heavy. This extra weight provides a force to
get the curtain moving. The chains supporting the overweight
bar are attached to the grid to prevent the bar from riding the
curtain all the way down and to facilitate resetting it. A lever sys-
tem can be used to release the chain from its stored position to
allow it to fall on the curtain (fig. 9.13).
Resetting this system requires two or more people, depend-
ing on the weight of the bar. The curtain is raised, and the release
line is reset at stage level. One or more persons on the grid pull
the chains attached to the bar up and reconnect them to the
release mechanism.

Fig. 9.11. Straight-

lift curtain with
overbalance bar.
Courtesy of
Dan Culhane
and SECOA

267
 Fig. 9.12.
Overbalance-bar
detail. Courtesy
Dan of Culhane
and SECOA

Fig. 9.13.
Lever-release
system. Courtesy
Dan of Culhane
and SECOA

Another version of the overbalance-bar system has pulleys

attached to the top of the overbalance bar. The release line runs
through the pulleys holding the bar in the stored position. When
the release line is let go, the bar falls and operates as above. This
system can be reset from the floor by pulling the release line. It

268
 is a good idea to tie a decent-sized rope to the release line when
testing this type of system. It is very difficult to raise the weight
bar by pulling on 1/8˝ wire rope.
4. Overbalance Arbor
The overbalance arbor system employs a second, small, wire-
guide arbor, usually mounted high on the stage wall (fig. 9.14).
This arbor has two parts. The lower section has a cable attached
that travels up through the top section, through the weights,
through a block, and over to another block that attaches to the
top of the main-curtain arbor (fig 9.15). There is just enough
weight on the lower arbor section to keep tension on the cable.
The upper section of the wire-guide arbor is located below
the grid and is held in place by the fire-release line. When the
line goes slack, the upper arbor falls on the lower arbor, which
pulls up on the curtain arbor and adds weight to the equation

Fig. 9.14.
Straight-lift
curtain with
overbalance
arbor. Courtesy
of Dan Culhane
and SECOA

269
 Fig. 9.15.
Overbalance-
arbor detail.
Courtesy of Dan
Culhane and
SECOA

on the curtain side. Overhauling the curtain raises the overbal-

ance arbor near the stored position, enabling the release line to
be reset. Again, when testing the system, it is a good idea to tie
a piece of rope to the release line to aid in resetting.

E. Deceleration Devices
When automatically released, the codes require that the last 8´
traveled by the fire curtain must take at least 5 seconds. On brail
curtains, the closed-system hydraulic motor controls the rate of
descent. They are also occasionally used on straight-lift curtains.
More commonly, a dashpot is used to control the decelera-
tion of a straight-lift curtain (figs. 9.16 and 9.17). The dashpot is
a closed-loop hydraulic cylinder that has an internal plunger with
a sheave attached to its top. A cable is attached either to the
bottom of the arbor or to the curtain batten. The cable runs over
blocks, down to the sheave on top of the dashpot plunger, up
to the grid, and over a head block. It has a weight attached to
the free moving end. As the curtain descends, the weight trav-
els up until it is stopped by the grid or sheave. This causes the
plunger to be pulled upward, forcing the hydraulic fluid toward
the top of the cylinder and through the return pipe and back into
the bottom of the cylinder. A valve on the return pipe controls
the rate of descent. Slowing the curtain in its deceleration allows
time for someone under the curtain to get out of the way and
reduces the chance of the curtain bouncing when it hits the floor.
Look for signs of leaks round the dashpot. The seals can
dry out if the device is not operated regularly.

270
 Fig. 9.16.
Dashpot-system
drawing. Courtesy
of Dan Culhane
and SECOA

Fig. 9.17.
Dashpot detail.
Courtesy of Dan
Culhane and
SECOA

271
9.06 Motorized Fire Curtains
Large fire curtains, especially the framed units, are heavy. When
a curtain gets too big to easily raise by hand, it is motorized. Usu-
ally, a traction drive winch is used to power the head block that
raises the curtain (see part 5.02.A.3 and fig. 5.6). In recent years,
line-shaft systems have sometimes been used on fire curtains.
The release line is used to hold a clutch in place. When the line
goes slack, a captured falling weight releases the clutch, allow-
ing the curtain to close. The release line has the required auto-
matic heat- and emergency-release devices described above
(see section 9.05.E). Manual operation is by pushbutton control.
Follow the normal maintenance procedures associated with
a winch. The clutch must also be properly adjusted. Signs of a
slipping clutch include the curtain slipping when it is being raised,
the curtain not going out when the winch is running, or the cur-
tain coming in by itself without the release line being activated.
There are various ways to adjust a clutch. Find out how to do
this before you need to, and have the proper tools on hand.

9.07 Maintenance
Like all rigging equipment, the fire-curtain system requires regu-
lar inspection and maintenance so it will work when needed. Op-
erate it on a regular basis. No matter how hard it is to raise, op-
erating it at least every 60 days will help keep the sheave bearings
lubricated and the cables from getting a permanent set. A test
drop should be performed at least once a year. If rigging or con-
struction work has been performed near any of the operating
parts, the curtain should be tested. A common practice in some
professional theatres is to do a test drop before the opening night
of every show. Allow sufficient time to repair it if needed.
If the curtain is easy to operate, comply with the Life Safety
Code (see 9.02.B). Keeping the curtain closed when the stage is
not in use is a responsible way to be sure that the curtain oper-
ates properly in the manual mode.

272
Glossary
Selected Bibliography
Index
Glossary

act curtain. Also called a front curtain or main curtain; the cur-
tain closest to the proscenium that opens and closes to ex-
pose the stage area to the audience.
apron. The area of the stage that is in front of the proscenium.
arbor pit. An open space in the floor directly under the counter-
weight system that allows the arbors to travel below floor level.
arbor stop. See crash bar.
auditorium. The area where the audience is seated; also called
the house.
a vista. A scene change that occurs in full view of the audience.
batten. A steel pipe or wooden bar used to support scenery, cur-
tains, and lights, usually suspended from the grid or roof
structure on the lift or lead lines of a rigging set.
bridge. A movable steel structure suspended over the stage or
audience area, usually used for suspending lighting instruments.
captured stage equipment. Machinery that is part of the struc-
ture of the building or is contained in a temporary stage floor,
such as electromechanically or hydraulically driven wagons
or turntables.
catching device. A protective shield that prevents the system
operator from injury should a counterweight become dis-
lodged and fall from the counterweight arbor.
catwalk. A steel structure over the stage, the audience area, or
both, used by stage personnel to access lighting, rigging, or
other stage equipment.
clew. A metal plate with several holes on one side and a single
hole on the other, used to join several lift lines on one side
to a single tow line on the other.
competent person. A person who is capable of identifying ex-
isting and predictable hazards or dangerous conditions in
the rigging equipment.
controlled stop. A timed deceleration of a moving device.

275
counterweight carriage. A metal frame that holds the counter-
weights used to balance the weight of flown scenery; also
referred to as the arbor or cradle.
counterweights. Cast iron, steel, or lead weights placed on the
arbor to balance the load on the batten.
crash bar. A horizontal member, usually attached near the top
and bottom of the T-bars, that limits the travel of the arbors.
Also called an arbor stop.
dead hung. Battens or similar equipment that is permanently
supported from the grid and cannot be easily lowered to the
stage floor.
deflecting device. Same as catching device.
fid. A tapered pin (usually wood) used in opening the strands of
a rope.
fire curtain. A nonflammable curtain immediately behind the
proscenium, contained in the smoke pocket, used to pro-
tect the audience from possible smoke and fire originating
from the stage area.
fly. To move scenery or similar devices vertically on the stage.
fly gallery. A platform attached to the side wall of the stage
house used to operate the rigging devices.
fly loft. The space above the grid and below the roof.
grid. A steel framework above the stage area that is used to
support the rigging system; short for gridiron.
hard contact. A sudden or uncontrolled stop of the counterweight
carriage caused by hitting the upper or lower crash bars.
hemp system. A system of hemp (Manila fiber) ropes used for
support to raise or lower scenery.
house. See auditorium.
line set. A unit of rigging consisting of the batten and all other
support cables, sheaves, and mountings.
loading gallery. A platform used for the loading or unloading of
the counterweight carriages.
loft block. The pulleys or sheaves directly above the batten used
to change the direction of the working lines from horizontal
to vertical.

276
marlinespike. A metal (usually iron) version of a fid.
motorized rigging. A system of electric or hydraulic motors used
to raise and lower battens or counterweight carriages.
mouse. (1) To wire the throat of a hook to prevent a cable or
line from jumping out of the hook; (2) to interweave the bar-
rel of a turnbuckle with wire to keep it from unscrewing; (3) to
place wire or cotterpins through holes drilled in the endfit-
tings of a turnbuckle or shackle pins.
orchestra lift. An elevator in the orchestra pit used to raise and
lower the floor of the pit.
pin rail. A part of a hemp system consisting of a metal pipe or
wooden rail attached to the fly gallery and fitted with remov-
able steel or wooden pins used in tying off the working lines.
pit. A recessed area in front of the stage used principally by
musicians; can also be covered and used as an extended
forestage.
proper training. Training from a reputable school, college, uni-
versity, venue, or IATSE local that has a formalized appren-
tice program.
proscenium. The wall between the stage and the audience
containing the proscenium arch.
proscenium curtain. See fire curtain.
qualified person. A person with a recognized degree or profes-
sional certificate and extensive knowledge and experience
in the subject field who is capable of design, analysis, eval-
uation, and developing specifications in the subject work,
project, or product.
rigging. The general term describing systems used to raise,
lower, or move the stage equipment overhead.
set. See line set.
sheave. A grooved wheel in a block or pulley.
spreader plates. Movable steel plates on a counterweight ar-
bor used to keep the arbor rods from spreading and coun-
terweights from falling out in case of a sudden stop.
stage house. That portion of a theatre building containing the
stage area, fly loft, grid, and galleries.

277
supervisor. A person charged with the responsibility of direct-
ing the work of others and the safe operation of stage
equipment.
technical stage equipment. A general term referring to the
equipment or machinery used on a stage to support the
movement of scenery, lighting equipment, or people.
thrust stage. An extension of the stage floor into the audito-
rium, allowing the audience to be seated on three sides.
traps. Sections of the stage floor that can be removed to ac-
cess the understage area.
turntable. A rotating platform or portion of the stage floor.
wagon. A movable platform usually on casters or wheels.
well. The space between the beams on the grid over which
the loft blocks and the working lines are placed to drop to
the batten.
winch. A manual or power-operated device used to wind cable
to raise and lower stage equipment.

278
Selected Bibliography

Books
American Institute of Steel Construction. Manual of Steel Con-
struction. 13th ed. Chicago: American Institute of Steel
Construction, 2006. This edition combines Allowable Stress
Design and Load and Resistance Factor Design with most
current information on all currently milled structural-steel
shapes, design and strength information, and mill practice.
Good reference book. It is available by contacting the AISC,
One E. Wacker Dr., Ste. 700, Chicago, IL 60601. 312-670-
2400. [Link].
American Iron and Steel Institute. Wire Rope Sling User’s Man-
ual. 2d ed. Washington, DC: American Iron and Steel Institute,
1999. See Wire Rope User’s Manual.
———. Wire Rope User’s Manual. 4th ed. Washington, DC: Ameri-
can Iron and Steel Institute, 2005. Good general information
on wire rope and wire-rope slings. The book is available
through WRTB Fulfillment, 44 S. Carriage Dr., St. Joseph,
MO 64506. 1-888-289-9782.
Ashley, Clifford W. The Ashley Book of Knots. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1944. This is the most complete book of knots
available.
Bigon, Mario, and Guido Regazzoni. The Morrow Guide to Knots.
Trans. Maria Piotrowska. New York: Quill, 1982. Excellent
book on knot tying; very-easy-to-follow photographs.
Burris-Meyer, Harold, and Edward C. Cole. Scenery for the The-
atre. 2d ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971. Excellent resource for
traditional scenic applications.
Construction Safety Association of Ontario. Rigging Manual.
Etobicoke, Ontario: Construction Safety Association, 1975.
Excellent information on construction rigging. Available by
contacting the CSAO, 21 Voyager Ct. S., Etobicoke, Ontario,
Canada M9W 5M7. 800-781-2726. [Link].
Donovan, Harry. Entertainment Rigging: A Practical Guide for Rig-
gers, Designers and Managers. Seattle: Rigging Seminars,
2002. Detailed treatment of all facets of entertainment rig-

279
 ging, and the best book available on arena and concert rig-
ging. Available by contacting Rigging Seminars, 2416 Third
Ave. W., Seattle, WA 98119. 206-283-4419.
[Link].
Ellis, J. Nigel. Introduction to Fall Protection. 2d ed. Des Plaines,
IL: American Society of Safety Engineers, 1993. As the name
implies, it is a good introduction to fall protection and the
rigging required to set up safe systems. Available by con-
tacting the ASSE, 1800 E. Oakton St., Des Plaines, IL 60018.
847-699-2929.
Gillette, A. S. Stage Scenery: Its Construction and Rigging. 2d
ed. New York: Harper, 1972. Good schematics for solving
rigging problems with traditional scenery.
Gordon, J. E. The New Science of Strong Materials or Why You
Don’t Fall through the Floor. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1976.
Interesting discussion of the properties of structural materi-
als. As with all of his books, it is fun to read.
———. Structures, or Why Things Don’t Fall Down. Princeton:
Princeton UP, 1978. Excellent information of the effect of
forces and reactions on structures and materials. Fun to read.
Graumont, Raoul, and John Hensel. Splicing Wire and Fiber
Rope. Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime, 1945. Good illustra-
tions on splicing wire rope. [Link].
Holden, Alys E., and Bronislaw J. Sammler. Structural Design
for the Stage. Boston: Focal (Butterworth-Heinemann), 1999.
This excellent book applies the principles of statics and
strength of materials to common structural problems en-
countered in the entertainment industry.
Huntington, John. Control Systems for Live Entertainment. 2d
ed. Boston: Focal (Butterworth-Heinemann), 2004. An in-
depth discussion of computer control systems commonly
used for lighting, sound, rigging, and motion control.
Jensen, Alfred, and Harry H. Chenoweth. Statics and Strength
of Materials. Highstown, NJ: McGraw-Hill, 1982. Good re-
source for more information on these subjects.
Long, John. How to Rock Climb! 4th ed. Guilford, CT: Falcon
(Globe Pequot), 2003. Good source on climbing techniques,
repelling, and knots. Available in mountain-climbing equip-
ment stores.
Merry, Barbara, and John Darwin. The Splicing Handbook: Tech-
niques for Modern and Traditional Ropes. 2d edition. Cam-
den, ME: International Marine, 2000. Covers splicing stranded,

280
 braided, and parallel core-fiber ropes. Good illustrations
and directions.
Newberry, W. G. Handbook for Riggers. Calgary, Alberta: Self-
published, 1967. Pocket handbook of construction rigging
with good information on rigging components. Available by
contacting Newberry Investments Co., Ltd., P.O. Box 2999,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2P 2M7. 403-281-1957.
[Link].
Padgett, Allen, and Bruce Smith. On Rope II. Huntsville, AL: Na-
tional Speleological Society, 1997. Information on rope se-
lection, knots, and techniques for climbing and descending
rope. Available by contacting the NSS, 2813 Cave Ave.,
Huntsville, AL 35810. 256-852-1300. [Link].
Rossnagle, W. E., Lindley R. Higgens, and Joseph A. MacDon-
ald. Handbook of Rigging. Highstown, NJ: McGraw-Hill,
1988. Excellent reference on construction rigging, compo-
nents, block and tackle, and friction factors.
Sammler, Bronislaw J., and Don Harvey, eds. Technical Design
Solutions for the Theatre: The Technical Brief Collection.
Vols. 1 and 2. Woburn, MA: Focal (Elsevier Science), 2002.
Well-documented one-focus articles presenting solutions to
a number of specific rigging problems.
Wulpi, Donald J. Understanding How Components Fail. 2d ed.
Materials Park, OH: American Society of Materials (ASM)
International, 1999. Good explanations of component fail-
ure. Easy to understand without engineering and mathe-
matical background. [Link].

Catalogs
CM Lifting, Pulling, and Binding Products Manual. Columbus
McKinnon Corp., 140 John James Audubon Pkwy., Amherst,
NY 14228. 716-689-5400. Good information on chain de-
sign and inspection, shackles, and Columbus McKinnon
hardware. [Link].
Cordage Institute, Publications Department, 994 Old Eagle School
Rd., Ste. 1019, Wayne, PA 19087. 610-971-4854. Various
publications available on fiber rope. [Link].
Crosby Catalog, The. The Crosby Group, P.O. Box 3128, Tulsa,
OK 74101. 918-834-4611. Excellent information on miscel-
laneous hardware and fittings. [Link].

281
Macwhyte Wire Rope Catalog G-18. Wire Rope Corporation of
America, P.O. Box 288, St. Joseph, MO 64502. 816-233-
0287. Excellent information about wire rope.
Ver Sales Catalog. Ver Sales, 2509 N. Naomi St., Burbank, CA
91504. 818-567-3000. Excellent source of information about
all types of wire rope and wire-rope termination devices.
Very knowledgeable sales staff. [Link].

282
Index

abrasion, 74 horizontal bracing and, 28–29

abrasion resistance, 117–18 inspection of, 236, 237–38
aircraft cable, 36–37, 39–40, installation checklists for,
119–22 242–43
air currents, 162 lighting, 162
allowable deflection, 34–35 sandwich, 217–18
allowable load limit (ALL), 38 truss, 222–23
allowable load (AL) beams, 4
bridle tension and, 28–29 allowable deflection of, 34–35
design factors and, 38–41 continuous, 12–13
allowable working load (AWL), 38 strength characteristics of, 2–3
for rope, 73–75 using moments to calculate
angles reactions on, 9–12
fleet, 102–3, 173 bearing-friction factors, 52–55
and law of sines, 14–15 bearings, 43, 48, 55, 82
applied forces, 30–31, 85 Becker value, 70–71
arbors (racks), 68, 97–101, 105, 112 becket, 44
carpet hoist and, 157–58 belaying, 92
counterweight rigging, 137–41, belaying pin, 145–46
163–64 Bell curve, 33–34
guide systems, 139–40 block-and-tackle rigging, 42
inspection of, 235, 239, 240 anatomy of, 43–45
attaching loads, 216–23 counterweight rigging, 151,
curtains, 216–17 156–57, 162
drops, 217–18 dynamic load and, 47–49
hemp rigging, 104, 106–7 four-line system, 50
horizontal framed scenery, friction and, 48–49
221–24 inertia and, 47–48
vertical framed scenery, inspecting, 60–61
218–20 lacing and reeving of blocks,
See also loading procedure 59–60
authority having jurisdiction (AHJ), load distribution on block, 45–49
255–56 mechanical advantage of,
49–59
basket hitch, 46–47, 63, 125, 129 metal blocks, 44–45
batten loading, 85–86 using, 62–64
batten tie-down, 162 wooden blocks, 44
battens, 67, 152 blocks
double-purchase counter- hemp-rigging, 82–91
weight system and, 114–15 wire-rope, 132–36

283
Blount, Wally, 230 computer-aided drafting system
boat, or line, eye, 220 (CAD), 18
body, defined, 3 concentration, 1, 252
bolts, 215, 232 construction stretch, 118
border light cable, 162 corrosion, 233
Bo’sun’s chair, 81 counterweight rigging
brail curtains, 246–47, 257–59 arbor, 137–41
brail winch, 258–59 double-purchase
breaking point, 33–34 counterweight system, 114–
breasting, 224–25 15, 141–42
breech, 44 hand line, 141–42
bridle analysis, 17–29 inspection checklist, 237–40
bridle tension, 21–23, 25–29 installation checklist, 242–44
bridle-length calculation, introduction, 112–13
18–19 loading and unloading with a
hanging points of different loading bridge, 144–53
heights, 23–26 loading and unloading without
ratio of horizontal to vertical loading bridge, 153–59
distance, 26–27 loading bridge, 142–44
vertical and horizontal forces, lock rails, 136–37
19–21 miscellaneous hardware,
bridle tension, 21–23, 25–29 114–15
allowable loads and, 28–29 operation summary, 164–65
horizontal distance and, 26–27 showtime operation, 159–62
bridling, 223–24 single-purchase counterweight
building codes, 254–55 system, 113–14, 141
bull line method, 151, 154–55 special problems, 162–64
bull winch/capstan method, 151, wire rope, 116–32
154–56 wire rope blocks, 132–36
crew
carpet hoist, 157–59, 163 communications, 152
center of moments, 7 flyman, 144
chain-drive motorized loading-bridge crew, 151–52
counterweight set, 169 rail operator, 106–7, 144–51
chain-drive wind-on-wind-off runaway set, 152–53
systems, 170 stage crew, 152–53
choker hitch, 46–47, 63 cuing, 161
clove hitch, 127–29 curtains, attaching, 216–17
communications, 152 See also fire curtains
components cut lines, 261
capacity of, 2
design factor of, 38–41 dashpot, 270–71
compression sleeves, 202–13 D/d ratio, 117
Locoloc tools, 210–13 dead hanging, 226, 228
Nicopress tools, 203–10 dead-haul winch types, 173–74,
compressive forces, 30, 31 187
computer control, 182–83 dead-hung type grids, 45–46

284
deceleration devices, 270–71 automatic-release devices,
deflection, allowable, 34–35 262–63
design factors (DF), 38–41, 75 curtains, 246–47, 257–59
for miscellaneous hardware, checklists, 235–36, 245–47,
116 251–52
of rope, 73–74 codes and regulations, 254–56
deus ex machina, 111 construction, 259–60
diagonal-force vector, 17 electrothermal links (ETL),
direction of force, 5 263–64
double-pin rail, 92, 93 fabric curtains, 257
double-purchase counterweight latching release device, 262
system, 114–15, 141–42 maintenance, 272
dressing, pin rail, 109 manual-release devices,
drops, 217–18 260–61
drum winch, 173 motorized, 272
dynamic load, 52 operation devices, 260–71
overbalance systems, 264–70
elasticity, 32–33, 69 pull-pin release, 261–62
elastic range, 32–33 release lines, 260–61
electric motorized winches, 168 resettable thermal release, 264
electric motors, 175 ring-and-peg release, 261
electric-winch components, signage, 262
177–83 straight-lift, 259
brakes, 178, 241 types, 257–59
controls, 179–83 water curtains, 256–57
drums, 179 fixed-pin rail, 92
gear reducer, 178, 240 fleet angles, 102–3, 117, 173
electrothermal links (ETL), 263–64 flying people, 226, 230
emergency-stop button, 182, 241 flyman, 144
engineers, 3–4 force law of equilibrium, 3
Entertainment Services and forces
Technology Association applied, 30–31, 85
(ESTA), 249 definition of, 2
Entertainment Technician horizontal and vertical, 5–6, 8,
Certification Program (ETCP), 19–21
248–49 inertial, 47–48
equilibrium moment of, 7–9
force law of, 3 positive and negative, 5–6
static, 2–3 reactive, 4
equipment, capacity of, 2 summation of, 5–7, 9–14
unpredictable, 35–38
fatigue, 121, 232 See also resultant forces
fatigue stress, 36 4 Ks of rigging, 1, 42, 61, 229
FBD (free-body diagram), 3–4, 6 four-line set, rope identification,
fiber core (FC) rope, 119 67
fiber rope, 39, 61, 189–92 free-body diagram (FBD), 3–4, 6
fire curtains, 253–54 free fall distance, 36

285
friction, 48–49, 134 inspection, 104–6
friction factor, 57–58 inspection checklist, 236–37
fulcrum, 4, 6–7 jack line, 101
fusible link, 263 lashing with small tie line,
108–9
Genie lifts, 234 multiple-line systems, 66–67,
go-gauge, 208–10 78
Greeks, ancient, 110–11 operation of, 104–10
grid steel, 2 pin rail, 92–97
grommets and ties, 217 retrimming, 109
guide shoes, 140 rope, 69–82
guide systems, 139–40 running rope, 104
guiding, 226, 227 sandbags and arbors, 97–101
showtime operation, 110
hand line, 141–42, 238 single-line systems, 65–66
block and tackle, 151, 156–57 spot-line rigging, 101–4
bull line method, 151, 154–55 trim marks, 107–8
bull winch/capstan winch See also knots; rope
method, 151, 154–56 hockle, 75
Line Lok (Uncle Buddy) hold-to-run controls, 180–81
method, 148–51 hook (shackle), 44, 63
safety hitch method, 147–49, Hooke, Robert, 32
157–58 Hooke’s law, 32
safety wrap on, 144–45 horizontal distance, bridle tension
twist method, 145–47 and, 26–27
hand winch, 184–85, 245 horizontal forces, 5–6, 8
hanger irons, 219, 220 bridle analysis, 19–21
hanging points horizontal framed scenery,
of different heights, 23–26 221–24
effect of bridles on, 28–29 human method of securing a
hardware, 114–15 batten, 154
head blocks humidity, effect on rope, 135
inspection of, 237, 240, 243 hydraulic motors, 175–77
traction-drive systems, 86–87, hydraulic-winch components,
171–73 183–84
wire rope, 134–36
hemp rigging idler pulleys, 88
aligning blocks, 103–4 impact loading, 232
attaching loads, 106–7 independent-wire-rope core
attaching weight to rope, 104 (IWRC), 119
batten loading, 85–86 inertia, 39, 47–48
blocks, 82–91 inspection
coiling and dressing, 109 counterweight checklist,
fleet angles, 102–3 237–40
head blocks, 86–87 fire-curtain checklist, 235–36
hemp systems, 65–68 frequency of, 229–30
historical summary, 110–11 hemp rigging, 104–6

286
 hemp-system checklist, Line Lok (Uncle Buddy), 136,
236–37 148–51
installation checklists, 241– linear hydraulic motor, 177
47 line-shaft systems, 174
motorized rigging, 186, 187– load, definition of, 2
88, 240–41 load binder, 162, 163
preparation, 231 load-increase factors, 74–75
procedure, 233–34 loading-bridge crew, 151–52
rope, 78–79 loading bridges, 115, 142–44,
what to look for, 232–33 243
wire rope, 123–24, 238 loading procedure, 250
installation checklists, 241–47 bull line method, 151, 154–55
bull winch/capstan winch
jack line, 101 method, 151, 154–56
J-bars, 140 carpet hoist, 157–59, 163
human method, 154
knots, 75, 104, 251 loading and unloading with a
bowline knot, 192, 193 loading bridge, 144–53
clove hitch, 192, 193 loading and unloading without
design factor and, 39, 40 loading bridge, 153–59
fiber rope, 191–92 partial loads, 153–54
figure 8, 192, 193 sandbag substitution, 157
half hitch, 192, 193 unbalanced large loads,
Line Lok (Uncle Buddy), 136, 154–59
148–51 See also attaching loads
prusik knot, 147, 148, 192, 193 loads
stopper hitch, 147, 192, 193 applied and resultant forces,
trucker’s hitch, 192, 193 85
See also rope batten loading, 85–86
knowing rigging systems, 1, 2–3 supporting, 3–13
knuckle buster, 159 variable, 162–64
load-sensing device, 182
lacing of blocks, 59–60 lock plate, 138–39
latching controls, 180–81 lock rails, 136–37, 159, 238, 243
law of sines, 14–15 Locoloc tools, 210–13
lead-line pull (LLP), 51–55 loft blocks, 66, 88, 89
lead lines (lift lines; LL), 46, 49, inspection, 236, 239, 243
67, 85–86 positioning, 101–2
lead weights, 144, 163–64 loose-pin rail, 92
length of supporting member, 5
lever arm, 7–8, 136–37 machina, 111
liability, 43 magnitude of known forces, 5
Life Safety Code, 255 Manila rope, 65–66
lift lines. See lead lines humidity and, 76, 78
lighting battens, 162 retying, 141
limit switches, 179–80 safety hitch method, 74, 147
line identification, 67 testing, 80–81

287
materials, strength of, 29–30, electric-winch components,
36–37 177–83
allowable deflection, 34–35 hand winch, 184–85, 245
breaking point, 33–34 hydraulic-winch components,
design factor of components, 183–84
38–41 inspection, 186, 187–88
fatigue stress, 36 inspection checklist, 240–41,
stress, strain, and Hooke’s law, 244–45
31–32 line-shaft systems, 174
torsion, 35 loading and unloading, 186–87
types of applied forces, 30–31 motor types, 175–77
unpredictable forces, 35–38 motorized counterweight
yield point and elasticity, systems, 167–73
32–33 operation, 185–87
measurement, expressed in force packaged-hoist systems, 174
and distance, 7 rigging components, 183
mechanical advantage (MA) showtime operation, 187
actual, 49–52, 54 system capacity, 186
apparent, 49 systems descriptions, 167–74
calculating lead-line pull, mounting device, 85
52–55 mousing, 63, 130, 131
calculating total load on mousing material, 63
system, 57 movement controls, 180–81
of common systems, 55–56 mule blocks, 56, 88, 90, 239–40
of complex systems, 58–59 multiplication factor (M), 54
rope and sheave wear, 57–58
mechanics, 3 National Telephone Supply, 203
mid-rail (jump-rail) operation, 251 Neslage, Reid, 36–37
minimum breaking strength, 34 Newton’s first law of physics, 47
minimum design factors, 39 Nicopress sleeves, 99, 242
moment arm, 7–8 Nicopress tools, 203–10
moment methods no note punch list, 241
for hanging points of different number of parts of line (N), 54
heights, 24–26 Nylatron, 133
three-moment theorem, 13 nylon rope, 71, 147
moment of force, 7–9
motor types, 175–77 offset blocks, 103–4
motorized counterweight operation and training
systems, 167–73 ETCP certification, 248–49
chain-drive wind-on-wind-off general subjects, 249–52
systems, 170 venue-specific, 249
power-assist units, 170–72 outriggers, 234
traction-drive systems, 171– overbalance systems, 264–70
73 free-end ball release, 264–66
motorized rigging, 2, 166–67, 251 lever-arm release, 266
dead-haul winch types, 173– arbor, 269–70
74, 187 overbalance bar, 266–69

288
paperwork, 250 reeving, 59–60
parallel core polyester, 72, 73 regular-lay/right-lay rope, 71, 76,
parallelogram method, 17 200
people, flying, 226, 230 repair list, 231
pillow blocks, 240 rescue blocks, 90, 91
pin rail, 66, 92–97 reserve strength, 116–17
inspection of, 237 resultant forces, 13–14, 45
tying off, 94–97 geometrical calculation of,
pins, 44, 92–94 16–17
pipe weight, 141, 218 hemp-rigging blocks and, 85
pitch diameters, 134 stacked head blocks and,
plastic state, 33 86–87
plow steel, 119, 121 table of multipliers for, 15–17
point load, 222–23 retainer, 84
point load force, 6 reverse bending, 117
point of application, 5 rigging
point of attachment, 218–19 4 Ks of, 1, 42, 61, 229
point of rotation, 7, 8 knowing system, 1, 2–3
polyester rope, 72–73 right triangle, 18
polypropylene rope, 71 right-lay/regular-lay rope, 71, 76,
position control, 182 200
positioning rigid body, 3
head blocks, 102 rise, fleet angle, 103
loft blocks, 101–2 risk, 74, 106
power-assist units, 170–72 rope, 69–82
Product Identification Code (PIC), abrasion, 77–78
115–16 balance, 75–79
Programmable Logic Controller Bo’sun’s chair, 81
(PLC) technology, 183 care of, 75–79
proscenium curtain. See fire chemicals and, 77, 79–80
curtains coiling and uncoiling, 76
pulleys (sheaves) cost and value of, 69–70
idler pulleys, 82, 88 cutting, 190, 192–95, 196
inspection, 236–37 dressing, 109
wear on, 57–58 drying, 77
Pythagorean theorem, 18–19, 22 effects of knotting, 75
factors affecting strength,
quick links, 127, 128 73–74
fiber, 39, 61, 189–92
radial hydraulic motors, 176 friction and, 48–49
radial pressure (RP), 132–33 humidity and, 76, 78, 112
rail log, 231, 250 indications of wear, 79–80
rail operator, 106–7, 144–51 inspection, 78–79, 236
ratio (R), 54 keeping clean, 77
reactive forces, 4, 6 length of, 74
recommended working load Manila, 65–66, 74, 76, 78,
(RWL), 38 80–81, 141, 147

289
rope (continued ) sense of force, 5
natural-fiber, 70–71 servo motors, 175
overload, 77 shaft, block, 83
parallel core polyester, 72, 73 shear, 30, 35
polyester rope, 72–73 shell (cheeks), 44
polypropylene, 71 shock loads, 36–37, 74, 78
rotating position, 79 showtime operation, 110, 187
selection, 81–82 counterweight rigging, 159–62
sharp bends and small hemp rigging, 110
sheaves, 77 side loading, 125, 136
shock load, 78 side plates, 83
Spectra, 99, 147 similar-triangle formula, 20, 25
storing, 76–77 sines, law of, 14–15
strength and allowable working single-pin rail, 92
load, 73–75 single-purchase counterweight
synthetic-fiber, 71–73, 190–91 system, 113–14, 141
taping, 189–90 single-shaft head block, 86–87
tensile strength/breaking sisal rope, 70
strength, 73 six-line set, rope identification, 67
testing, 80–81 six-part system, upside down, 56
three-strand twist, 72–73, 141 skena, 111
wear on, 57–58 slack-cable switch, 182, 241
whipping, 190 slings, 28
See also hemp rigging; knots; smoke pockets, 262
wire rope smoke seal, 259
rope lock, 136, 238 snatch blocks, 88–89, 91
run, 103 Spectra rope, 99, 147
runaway set, 152–53, 251 speed controls, 182
running (fall) block, 43 spot blocks, 66, 88, 90
running-wire rope, 39, 118 spot-line rigging, 101–4
spotters, 107, 161, 185
safe working load (SWL), 38 spreader plates or bars, 138–39,
safety 141
concentration and, 1, 252 stacked head block, 86–87
4 Ks of rigging, 1, 42, 61, 229 stage crew, 152–53
See also inspection stainless-steel wire rope, 122
safety hitch method, 74, 147–49, standard deviation, 33–34
157–58 standing (fled) block, 43
safety wrap, 144–45 static equilibrium, 2–3
sag bars, 88, 91 static load, 45–46, 119
sandbags, 68, 97–101, 105, 157, statics, 3
237 stopper hitch, 147
sandwich batten, 217–18 storage
sash cord, 129 of block-and-tackle rigging,
scale drawing, 18 63–64
seesaw example, 3–9 of rope, 76–77
self-test, 234 strain, 31–32

290
straps, 44 ultra-high-molecular-weight
strength reduction factors (SRF), (UHMW) plastic, 88
39, 74 Uncle Buddy (Line Lok), 136,
stress, 31–32 148–51
stress-strain diagram, 32, 33
structural engineering, 3 vector drawings
summation of forces, 5–7 for bridle analysis, 17, 18,
examples of, 9–12 20–23
resultant force and, 13–14 for hanging point of different
sundays, 67, 99–100, 158–59, 237 heights, 23–24
supporting line (S), 49 venue-specific training, 249
supporting member, attaching vertical distance, bridle tension
standing block to, 62–63 and, 26–27
swallows, 44 vertical forces, 5–6, 8
synthetic fiber rope, 71–73, bridle analysis, 19–21
190–91 vertical framed scenery, 218–20

tag lines, 227 wall units, 162

taking moments, 8 water curtains, 256–57
T-bar guide rails, 112, 139–40 weight of load, 74
T-bar guide system, 139–40, 239 weight-per-unit value, 24
tensile force, 30, 73, 118 weights
tension blocks, 135–36, 145, 238 identifying load limits and, 144
terminating, 39, 196–215, 238, lead, 144, 163–64
241–42 loading and unloading, 142–
compression sleeves, 202–13 43, 153
trim chains, 214–15 storing, 142
wire-rope clips, 39, 40, 196– wind-on-wind-off winch, 170
202, 242 wire rope
three-moment theorem, 13, 85 abrasion resistance of, 117–18
three-strand twist rope, 72–73, aircraft cable, 36–37, 39–40,
141 119–22
tip-to-tail method, 17 attaching to batten and arbor,
torsional force, 35 124–30
traction-drive systems, 171–73 classification of, 119–20
training. See operation and core construction of, 119
training counterweight rigging and,
trim chains, 125–27, 214–15 116–32
trim clamps, 100–101, 237 cutting, 192–95, 196
trim marks, 107–8, 159–60 extra-flexible, 122
tripping, 225 flexibility of, 117
truss batten, 222–23 grades of, 117–18, 120–24
turnbuckle, 129–30, 131 indications of wear to, 130–32
twist method, 145–47 inspection of, 123–24, 238
plow steel, 119, 121
ultimate breaking strength (UBS), properties of, 116–19
34, 38, 40–41, 115 purchasing new, 124

291
wire rope (contiued ) sizing, 133–34
reserve strength of, 116–17 tension blocks, 135–36
rotation-resistant, 122 wire-guide system, 139–40
sash cord, 122 wire-rope clips, 39, 40, 196–
shock loads and, 36–38 202, 242
size of, 117–18 fist grip, 198, 201
stainless-steel, 122 forged clips, 197–98
static-wire, 39 U-bolt, 198–200
straight comparison of, 123 wire-strand core (WSC, SC),
strength of, 118–19 119
tensile strength of, 118 working load limit (WLL), 38
terminating, 196–215 block-and-tackle rigging, 43
tiller rope, 123 for miscellaneous hardware,
unreeling and uncoiling, 195 116
See also rope trim chain and, 125
wire rope blocks, 132–36
head blocks, 134 yield pad, 259–60
materials, 132–33 yield point, 32–33, 115

292
Jay O. Glerum has worked in theatre and the entertainment in-
dustry for more than fifty years. During that time, he has worked
as a stagehand, designed scenery and lighting, taught technical
theatre at several universities, consulted on numerous theatre
and television studio projects, and worked as a systems design-
er for a major theatre-equipment company. Glerum regularly
teaches classes on stage rigging throughout the United States,
Canada, and Europe. He is the president of Jay O. Glerum and
Associates, Inc., a firm that specializes in theatre consulting, rig-
ging inspections, and accident investigation for the entertain-
ment industry.
THEATRE

“Stage Rigging Handbook should become a standard text for advanced

technical students and all individuals concerned with the safe and proper
maintenance and operation of stage-rigging systems.”
—Derek Hunt, Theatre Design and Technology

“Stage Rigging Handbook clearly explains the basics of how to maintain

your rigging system and operate it safely. This manual can also be a ready
reference and friend when rigging a show. This is a book to always keep
handy in a cubbyhole at the end of your pinrail.”
—Steve Nelson, Dramatics

Succinct and jargon free, Stage Rigging Handbook remains the only book in any lan-
guage that covers the design, operation, and maintenance of stage-rigging equipment.
It is written in an at-a-glance outline form, yet contains in-depth information available
nowhere else. This fully indexed third edition includes three new parts: the first, an
explanation of inspection procedures for rigging systems; the second, a discussion of
training in the operation of rigging systems; and the third, essential information about
fire curtains. The remaining six parts, as well as the glossary and bibliography, have
been updated. This edition also contains a new preface and many new illustrations.

Jay O. Glerum holds seminars on stage rigging throughout the United States, Canada,
and Europe. A fellow of the United States Institute for Theatre Technology, he has
served as chair of the Rigging and Stage Machinery Standards Committee of the In-
stitute and has taught at Seattle University, Marquette University, and the University of
Washington. He is president of Jay O. Glerum & Associates, Inc., a firm specializing in
consulting for the entertainment industry.

Southern Illinois University Press

1915 University Press Drive
MC 6806
Carbondale, IL 62901-6806
[Link]/~siupress

Cover illustration: Counterweight lock rail. Author’s collection

Printed in the United States of America