Structural Loads

Richard J. AQUINO, CE, EnP, Associate Professor V

Department of Civil Engineering

College of Engineering
Central Mindanao University
University Town, Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon, Philippines 8714

19 September 2023
Overview

1 Symbols and Notations

2 Load Path

3 Dead Load

4 Live Load

5 Roof Live Load

6 Wind Load

7 Earthquake Load
Symbols and Notations (NSCP 2015)
Load Path
Load Path: Dead and Live Loads
Dead Load (D) - Densities

Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design

Loads from Materials (kN/m3 )
Lauan (0.40) - 3.92
Molave (0.69) - 6.77
Malabayabas (0.90) - 8.83
Fresh Water - 9.8
Sea Water - 10.1
Clay and gravel, dry - 15.7
Sand and gravel, wet - 18.9
Plain concrete - 22.6
Reinforced concrete - 23.6
Glass - 25.1
Steel - 77
Dead Load (D) - Components

Table 204-2 Minimum Design Dead Loads

(kPa)
Mechanical duct allowance - 0.20
Gypsum board (per mm thickness) -
0.008
Ceramic or quarry tile (20mm) 0n
25mm mortar bed - 1.10
Deck, metal 20 gage - 0.12
Plywood (per mm thickness) - 0.0060
Wood shingles - 0.14
Frame Partitions - movable - 0.24
Frame Partitions - Wood studs 500 x
100, plastered two side - 0.96
Partition Load

Section 204.3 - Floors in office buildings and other buildings where partition locations
are subject to change shall be designed to support, in addition to all other loads, a
uniformly distributed dead load equal to 1.0 kPa.

Exception: Access floor systems shall be designed to support, in addition to all other
loads, a uniformly distributed dead load not less than 0.5 kPa.
Example: Compute the total dead load of the RC
flooring.

Given:
b = 300 mm, beam width
h = 500 mm, beam height
tf = 100 mm, slab thickness
L1 = 4 m, span length
L2 = 4 m, span length
γc = 23.6 kN/m3 for R.C. unit weight
1.1 kPa for floor finish (ceramic or quarry tile
(20mm) on 25 mm mortar bed
0.48 kPa for ceiling (suspended metal lath and
gypsum plaster)
Solution: Interior span
The tributary width, tw
L1 L2 4m 4m
tw = + = + = 4m
2 2 2 2
The cross-sectional area of the slab and
beam is,

A = tw × tf + b × (h − tf )
= 4m × 0.1m + 0.3m × (0.5m − 0.1m)
= 0.52 m2

The self-weight (SW) due to beam and

slab,

SW = 23.6kN/m3 × 0.52m2 = 12.27 kN/m

Solution: Interior span

The superimposed dead load (SDL) due to

ceiling and floor finishes (FF):

FF = 1.1 kPa × 4 m = 4.4 kN/m

Ceiling = 0.48kPa × 4m = 1.92 kN/m

The superimposed dead load is

SDL = 4.4 kN/m + 1.92 kN/m

= 6.32 kN/m

The total dead load (D) is

D = 12.27 + 6.32
= 18.59 kN/m
Section 205 — Live Loads

Section 205.1 General - Live loads shall be the maximum loads expected by the
intended use or occupancy but in no case shall be less than the loads required by
this section.
Section 205.2 Critical Distribution of Live Loads - Where structural members are
arranged to create continuity, members shall be designed using the loading
conditions, which would cause maximum shear and bending moments...
Section 205.3 Floor Live Loads - 205.3.1 Floors shall be designed for the unit live
loads as set forth in Table 205-1. These loads shall be taken as the minimum live
loads of horizontal projection to be used in the design of buildings for the
occupancies listed... Where it can be determined in designing floors that the
actual live load will be greater than the value shown in Table 205-1, the actual
live load shall be used in the design of such buildings or portions thereof. Special
provisions shall be made for machine and apparatus loads.
Section 205 — Live Loads

Section 205.3.2 Distribution of Uniform Floor Loads - Where uniform floor loads
are involved, consideration may be limited to full dead load on all spans in
combination with full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans.
Section 205.3.3 Concentrated Loads - Floors shall be designed to support safely
the uniformly distributed live loads prescribed in this section or the concentrated
load given in Table 205-1 whichever produces the greatest load effects. Unless
otherwise specified the indicated concentration shall be assume to be uniformly
distributed over an area 750-mm square and shall be located so as to produce the
maximum load effects in the structural member.
Section 205.3.4 Special Loads - Provision shall be made for the special vertical
and lateral loads as set forth in Table 205-2.
Live Load (L)
Live Load (L)
Live Load (L) - Restroom loads
Special Loads
Special Loads
Example: Compute the floor live load of the RC
flooring of the previous example.
The floor live load (if residential)

L = 1.9 kPa × 4 m = 7.6 kN/m

The floor live load (if office)

L = 2.4 kPa × 4 m = 9.6 kN/m

The floor live load (if retail store)

L = 4.8 kPa × 4 m = 19.2 kN/m

The floor live load (if light storage)

L = 6 kPa × 4 m = 24 kN/m
Roof Live Load (RL)
Reduction of Live Loads
NSCP Section 205.5

The design live load may be reduced on any member supporting more than 15 m2 ,
including flat slabs, except for floors in places of public assembly and for live loads
greater than 4.8 kPa, in accordance with the following equation.
Live Load Reduction, R

R = r (A − 15)

Note: For storage loads exceeding 4.8 kPa, no reduction shall be made, except that
design live loads on columns may be reduced 20 percent.
Reduction of Live Loads
NSCP Section 205.5

The reduction shall not exceed 40 percent for members receiving load from one level
only, 60 percent for other members or R, as determined by the following equation:
Live Load Reduction, R

R = 23.1(1 + D/L)

where,
A = area of floor or roof supported by the member, m2
R = reduction of percentage
r = rate of reduction equal to 0.08 for floors. See Table 205.3 for roofs.
Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction
NSCP Section 205.6

As an alternate to equation above, the unit live loads set forth in Table 205-1 may be
reduced in accordance to equation below, including flat slabs, having an influence area
of 40 m2 or more.
Live Load Reduction, R
  
1
L = L0 0.25 + 4.57 √
AI

where AI = influence area, L = reduced design live load, L0 = unreduced design live
load.

The influence area AI is four times the tributary area for a column, two times the
tributary area for a beam, equal to the panel area for a two-way slab, and equal to the
product of the span and the full flange width for a precast T-beam.
Wind Load (W)
Roof: Pressure Coefficients
Wall: Pressure Coefficients
Wind Loads - Main Wind Force-Resisting System
NSCP Section 207B.4
Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Rigid Buildings Design wind pressures for the
MWFRS of buildings of all heights shall be determined by the following equation:
Design Wind Pressure

p = qGCp − qi (GCpi ), in Pa

where
q = qz for windward walls evaluated at height z above the ground
q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, evaluated at heigh, h
qi = qh for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, and roofs of enclosed
buildings
qi = qz for positive internal pressure
G = gust-effect factor, see Section 207A.9
(GCpi ) = internal pressure coefficient from Table 207A.11-1
Steps to Determine MWFRS Wind Loads
Step 1: Occupancy Category
Step 2: Basic Wind Speed
Step 3: Wind Load Parameters
Wind directionality factor, Kd
Step 3: Wind Load Parameters
Exposure category
Surface Roughness Categories (207A.7.2)
Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain
Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights
generally less than 9 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.
Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category
includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.
Exposure Categories (207A.7.3)
Exposure B: For buildings with a mean roof height of less than or equal to 9 m.
Applied where the ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness B.
Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply for all cases where Exposures B or D do not
apply.
Exposure D: Exposure D shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as
defined by Surface Roughness D, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance
greater than 1500m or 20 times the building height, whichever is greater.
Step 3: Wind Load Parameters
Topographic factor, Kzt (207A.8.2)
The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the calculation of design wind loads by
using the factor Kzt :
Topographic Factor

Kzt = (1 + K1 + K2 + K3 )2

If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet all the conditions specified in
Section 207A.8.1 then Kzt = 1.0.
Step 3: Wind Load Parameters
Topographic factor, Kzt (207A.8.2)
Step 3: Wind Load Parameters
Gust effect factor, G (Section 207A.9.1)

The gust-effect factor for a rigid building or other structure is permitted to be taken as
0.85.
Step 3: Wind Load Parameters
Enclosure classification (Section 207A.10)

Open Buildings
Partially Enclosed Buildings
Enclosed Buildings
Step 3: Wind Load Parameters
Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi ) (Section 207A.11.1)
Step 4: Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz or Kz
(Table 207B.3-1)
Step 5: Velocity pressure, qz or qh (Section 207B.3.2)

Velocity pressure, qz , evaluated at height z shall be calculated by the following

equation:
Velocity pressure

qz = 0.613Kz Kzt Kd V 2 , in Pa where V in m/s

Kd = wind directionality factor, see Section 207A.6

Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient, see Section 207B.3.1
Kzt = topographic factor defined, see Section 207A.8.2
V = basic wind speed, see Section 207A.5
qz = velocity pressure calculated using Equation 207B.3-1 at heigth z
qzt = velocity pressure calculated using Equation 207B.3-1 at mean roof height h
Step 6: External pressure coefficient, Cp or CN
Step 6: External pressure coefficient, Cp or CN
Step 7: Calculate wind pressure, p
NSCP Section 207B.4

Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Rigid Buildings

p = qGCp − qi (GCpi ), in Pa

Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Flexible Buildings

p = qGf Cp − qi (GCpi ), in Pa

Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched or Troughed Free Roofs

p = qh GCN , in Pa
Application of Minimum Wind Load
NSCP Section 207B.4.7 and Figure C207B.4-1
The wind load to be used in the design of the MWFRS for an enclosed or partially
enclosed building shall not be less than 0.77 kN/m2 multiplied by tge wall area of the
building and 0.38 kN/m2 multiplied by the roof area of the building projected onto the
vertical plane normal to the assumed wind direction. Wall and roof loads shall be
applied simultaneously. The design wind force for open buildings shall not be less than
0.77 kN/m2 multiplied by the area Af .
Example: Wind Load
Adapted from Hibbeler (2015) Example 1.3

The enclosed building shown is used for

storage purposes and is located in
Bagontaas, Valencia City on open flat
terrain. When the wind is directed as
shown, determine the design wind pressure
acting on the roof and sides of the building
using the NSCP 2015 Specifications.
Solution:

Step 1: Occupancy category (OC) is IV Step 4: Velocity pressure exposure

Standard Occupancy Structures coefficient, Kz or Kh
Step 2: Basic wind speed, V at Valencia Roof height, h′ = 22.5m tan 10o = 3.97m
City for OC - IV is 275 km/hr (76.39 m/s). so that the mean roof height is 7.5m +
3.97m/2 = 9.48 m. By R&P, Kz =0.98+
Step 3:
(1.04-0.98)/(12-9)*(9.48-9) = 0.9896 ≈
Wind directionality factor for MWFRS,
Kd = 1.0 (since only wind loading is 0.99
being considered, else 0.85) Step 5: Velocity pressure, qz or qh
Exposure category for open flat terrain,
Surface Roughness C, thus, Exposure C qz = 0.613Kz Kzt Kd V 2
Topographic factor, Kzt = 1.0
Gust effect factor, G = 0.85
= 0.613(0.9896)(1.0)(1.0)(76.39)2
Enclosure classification is Enclosed = 3, 540 Pa = 3.54 kPa
Building
Internal pressure coefficient, (GCpi ) = Step 6: External pressure coefficient, Cp
±0.18 (Walls and Roofs) for all heights or CN . See Figure 207B.4-1.
 Solution:

Step 7: Wind pressure, p for Enclosed rigid z (m) Kz qz (kPa)

building. 0-4.5 0.85 3.01
Substituting necessary data 6.0 0.90 3.19
7.5 0.94 3.33
p = qGCp − qh (GCpi ) 9.48 0.9896 3.54
= q(0.85)Cp − (3.54)(±0.18) For windward wall: Here the pressure varies
= 0.85qCp ∓ 0.64 with height z since qz GCp must be used. For
all values of L/B, Cp = 0.8, so that from
The pressure loadings are obtained from equation of p
this equation using the calculated values
for qz as listed below in accordance with p0−4.5 = 0.85(3.01)(0.8) ∓ 0.64
the wind-pressure profile in Fig. 207B.4-1 = 1.41 kPa or 2.69 kPa
Solution:
p0−4.5 = 0.85(3.01)(0.8) ∓ 0.64 = 1.41 kPa or 2.69 kPa
p6 = 0.85(3.19)(0.8) ∓ 0.64 = 1.53 kPa or 2.81 kPa
p7.5 = 0.85(3.33)(0.8) ∓ 0.64 = 1.62 kPa or 2.90 kPa

Leeward wall: Here L/B = 2(22.5)/45 = 1, so that Cp = −0.5. Also, q = qh and so

p = 0.85(3.54)(−0.5) ∓ 0.64 = −2.14 kPa or − 0.86 kPa

Side walls: For all values of L/B, Cp = −0.7, and therefore since we must use
q = qh , we have

p = 0.85(3.54)(−0.7) ∓ 0.64 = −2.75 kPa or − 1.47 kPa

Windward Roof: Here h/L = 9.48/2(22.5) = 0.211 < 0.25, so that Cp = −0.7 and
q = qh . Thus,

p = 0.85(3.54)(−0.7) ∓ 0.64 = −2.75 kPa or − 1.47 kPa

Solution:
Leeward Roof: In this case Cp = −0.3; therefore with q = qh , we get

p = 0.85(3.54)(−0.3) ∓ 0.64 = −1.54 kPa or − 0.26 kPa

These two sets of loadings are shown on the elevation of the building, representing
either positive or negative (suction) internal building pressure. The main framing
structure of the building must resist these loadings as well as for separate loadings
calculated from wind blowing on the front or rear of the building.
Seismic Load

Earthquakes produce lateral loadings on a

structure through the structure’s
interaction with the ground. The
magnitude of an earthquake load depends
on the amount and type of ground
accelerations and the mass and stiffness
of the structure.
Consider the simple structural model
shown. This model represent a
single-storey building, where the block is
the “lumped” mass of the roof, and the
column has a total stiffness representing
all the building’s columns.

Reference: Hibbeler (2015), Structural Analysis 9th Edition.

Seismic Load

During an earthquake, the ground vibrates both horizontally and vertically.

The horizontal accelerations create shear forces in the column that put the
block in sequential motion with the ground.
If the column is stiff and the block has a small mass, the period of vibration of
the block will be short and the block will accelerate with the same motion as the
ground and undergo only slight relative displacements.
For an actual structure that is designed to have large amounts of bracing and
stiff connections, this can be beneficial, since less stress is developed in the
members.
On the other hand, if the column is very flexible and the block has a large
mass, then earthquake-induced motion will cause small accelerations of the block
and large relative displacements.

Reference: Hibbeler (2015), Structural Analysis 9th Edition.

Step 1: Occupancy Category
Seismic Importance Factor
Step 2: Seismic Zone Factor
Distribution of Active and Potential Faults in Region 10
Soil Profile Types
Seismic Source Types
Near-Source Factor and Seismic Coefficient
Step 3: Structural Framing Systems
R = numerical coefficient representative of the inherent over-strength and global
ductility capacity of lateral-force-resisting systems.
Ω0 = seismic force amplification factor, which is required to account for structural
over-strength
Step 4: Structure Period, T

Method A:
For all buildings, the value of T may be approximated from the following equation:

T = Ct (hn )3/4

where
Ct = 0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frames,
Ct = 0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames and eccentrically
braced frames,
Ct = 0.0488 for all other buildings
Step 5: Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
NSCP Section 208.5.2 Static Force Procedure
The total design base shear in a given direction shall be determined from the following
equation:
Cv I
V = W
RT
The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
2.5Ca I
V = W
R
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:

V = 0.11Ca IW

In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall also not be less than the
following:
0.8ZNv I
V = W
R
Example: Seismic Load
Adapted from Hibbeler (2015)
The 5-m high warehouse building shown is located in
Bagontaas, Valencia City. Note that the soil properties
are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil
profile type. Determine the total design base shear of
the building using the NSCP 2015 Specifications.
Solution:

Occupancy Category is IV Standard

Occupancy Structures for Warehouse Near-Source Factor, Nv = 1.47
Building Seismic Coefficient,
Seismic Importance Factor, I = 1.0 Ca = 0.44Na = 0.44
Seismic Zone Factor, Z = 0.4 Seismic Coefficient,
Cv = 0.64Nv = 0.939
Closest distance to known seismic
source, 3 km Special moment-resisting frame
(SMRF) - Steel, R = 8.0
Soil profile types, use SD
Structure Period, T = Ct (hn )3/4 =
Seismic Source Type, A
0.0853(5)0.75 = 0.285 s
Near-Source Factor, Na = 1.0
Step 5: Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
The total design base shear in a given direction shall be

Cv I (0.939)(1.0)
V = W = W = 0.412W
RT (8.0)(0.285)

The total design base shear need not exceed the following:

2.5Ca I 2.5(0.44)(1.0)
V = W = W = 0.1375W
R 8.0
The total design base shear shall not be less than

V = 0.11Ca IW = 0.11(0.44)(1.0)W = 0.0484W

In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall also not be less than
0.8ZNv I 0.8(0.4)(1.47)(1.0)
V = W = W = 0.0588W
R 8.0
Therefore, use V = 0.1375W.