Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Echague, Isabela

STUDY GUIDE

SEd/EEd Prof Ed. 214 - FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

Chapter 1: Introduction
Module 1: Metacognition
Introduction
The word metacognition is such a long broad word. In this module, you will learn
the concept of such word and be able to apply it in your learning throughout the end of
this lesson/topic.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss with in- depth knowledge the process of metacognition;
2. apply metacognitive strategies for learning; and
3. demonstrate appreciation on practicing metacognitive strategies and skills for
learning.
Learning Contents
The following topic and sub - topics will be learned in this module:
1. Metacognition
1.1 Meaning of Metacognition, Concepts and Importance
1.2 Metacognition and Cognitive Development
1.3 Elements of Metacognition
1.4 Teaching Metacognitive Skills
1.5 Research Connection
1.6 Recommended Instructional Strategies
1.7 Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning
1.8 Novice and Expert Learners
1.9 Metacognition and Learning
1.10 How to Improve Metacognition

Teaching and Learning Activities

1.1 Teaching Activities
 Metacognition: What is it? Why does it matter?
The most important goal of education is to teach students how to learn on their
own. The quotation on the side margins stresses this. It is vital that students acquire the
skills of how to learn; and that these skills enable them to learn not just while they are in
school but for a lifetime. This entails a deeper awareness of how one processes
information, the ability to evaluate his own thinking and to think of ways to make his own
learnings process more effective. All these involve metacognition.
What is metacognition? This appears to be such high-sounding word that some
people are confused about even before they actually spend time to find out what it really
means. It is not at all that complicated. In fact, we do metacognitive activities so often in
our daily lives. When you sense that you are experiencing some difficulty with a topic
you are studying, and you try out different strategies to learn better, you are practicing
metacognition. The word maybe long, seems to be so intangible but it is worth focusing
on because it can help you to be a more successful learner. When you become a
teacher, it can also help your students to learn more efficiently and effectively.

 Metacognition is one’s ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for

approaching a learning task; take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on
and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as needed. It helps learners
choose the right cognitive tool for the task and plays a critical role in successful
learning.
 It refers to awareness of one’s own knowledge—what one does and doesn’t
know—and one’s ability to understand, control, and manipulate one’s cognitive
processes (Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes knowing when and where to use
particular strategies for learning and problem solving as well as how and why to
use specific strategies. Metacognition is the ability to use prior knowledge to plan
a strategy for approaching a learning task; take necessary steps to problem
solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as needed.
Flavell (1976), who first used the term, offers the following example: I am
engaging in Metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A
than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact (p.
232).
Cognitive strategies are the basic mental abilities we use to think, study, and
learn (e.g., recalling information from memory, analyzing sounds and images,
making associations between or comparing/contrasting different pieces of
information, and making inferences or interpreting text). They help an individual
achieve a particular goal, such as comprehending text or solving a math problem,
and they can be individually identified and measured. In contrast, metacognitive
strategies are used to ensure that an overarching learning goal is being or has
been reached.
 Literally, “metacognition” refers to a process coming “after” or “beyond” (meta-”)
the act of acquiring knowledge (cognition). It is “thinking about thinking,” or the space
beyond thinking where we can plan, monitor, and assess our efforts to think, know, or
learn about something.

All people engage in metacognition to at least some extent. They plan on

developing knowledge or skill in a certain area. They think about strategies they can use
to develop those skills. They evaluate how well their chosen strategies work, as well as
their current level as they try to determine what challenges are appropriate to take on
next. And they revise their practice accordingly.

But many — perhaps most — of us do this without being fully conscious of what
we are doing it. It’s difficult to spend sufficient time or resources articulating our goals,
planning how to acquire skills, and monitoring progress. It’s much easier to just jump
into the work and play it by ear. But the costs of haste and lack of strategic planning can
be great.

Too often, metacognition remains in the background, engaged in only half-

consciously and half-heartedly. The result is too much time spent employing
unproductive learning strategies and spinning our wheels. More explicit metacognition
can help teachers, parents, and students work smarter and learn more efficiently.
Metacognition and Cognitive Development

The capacity for metacognition is a crucial step in children’s cognitive

development. Pioneering child psychologist Jean Piaget identified the “formal
operational stage” as the point at which children, around the age of 11, become capable
of reflecting on their thinking and working with more abstract ideas. But more recent
research has identified metacognitive abilities in much younger children, from around
the age of three where their curiosity with the things around them begins to function
actively. .

This has important implications for early childhood education. Research shows
that metacognitive awareness is a good predictor of school achievement. Moreover,
improvements in metacognitive awareness and practice are among the most
impactful students can make. As they learn to systematically reflect on their learning,
students learn to overcome frustrations and defeatism; they learn to recognize and take
pride in moments of mastery; they target new goals and are better motivated to reach
them.

How exactly can parents, educators, and students develop metacognitive habits of
mind? At every stage of the learning process, time must be devoted to making learning
goals and strategies explicit. At the outset of a new learning task, students should map
out goals and strategies. Teachers should model the kinds of reflective thinking they
want students to practice. One of the most effective tools is writing that encourages
reflection on what students need to learn and how they plan to go about learning it.
 This is sometimes at odds with standard educational practice, especially for
younger children, who might not ordinarily be thought ready for this higher-level
reflective thinking. But the results can be surprising and encouraging.

Elements of Metacognition
Researchers distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive regulation (Flavell, 1979, 1987; Schraw & Dennison, 1994).
Metacognitive knowledge refers to what individuals know about themselves as
cognitive processors, about different approaches that can be used for learning and
problem solving, and about the demands of a particular learning task.
Metacognitive regulation refers to adjustments individuals make to their processes
to help control their learning, such as planning, information management
strategies, comprehension monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and evaluation of
progress and goals. Flavell (1979) further divides metacognitive knowledge into
three categories:
 Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and
weaknesses in learning and processing information as well as individual
knowledge of one’s own learning processes. For example, you may be aware
that you study more effectively if you study very early in the morning than late in
the evening and that you work better in a quiet library rather than at home where
there are a lot of things that make it hard for you to focus and concentrate.
 Task variables: What one knows or can figure out about the nature of a task and
the processing demands required to complete the task—for example, knowledge
that it will take more time to read, comprehend, and remember a technical article
than it will a similar-length passage from a novel.
 Strategy variables: The strategies a person has “at the ready” to apply in a
flexible way to successfully accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to
activate prior knowledge before reading a technical article, using a glossary to
look up unfamiliar words, or recognizing that sometimes one has to reread a
paragraph several times before it makes sense.
Livingston (1997) provides an example of all three variables: “I know that I
(person variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer
the computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy
variable).”
Why Teach Metacognitive Skills?
Research shows that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to
improve their learning (Nietfeld & Shraw, 2002; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault,
2003).
 Constructing understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive
elements. Learners “construct knowledge” using cognitive strategies and they
guide, regulate, and evaluate their learning using metacognitive strategies. It is
through this “thinking about thinking,” this use of metacognitive strategies, that real
learning occurs. As students become more skilled at using metacognitive
strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent as learners.
Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills can think through a
problem or approach a learning task, select appropriate strategies, and make
decisions about a course of action to resolve the problem or successfully perform
the task. They often think about their own thinking processes, taking time to think
about and learn from mistakes or inaccuracies (North Central Regional
Educational Laboratory, 1995). Some instructional programs encourage students
to engage in “metacognitive conversations” with themselves so that they can “talk”
with themselves about their learning, the challenges they encounter, and the ways
in which they can self-correct and continue learning.
Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of metacognitive skills
perform better on exams and complete work more efficiently—they use the right
tool for the job, and they modify learning strategies as needed, identifying blocks to
learning and changing tools or strategies to ensure goal attainment. Because
Metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is imperative that
instructors help learners develop metacognitive.
What’s the Research Connection?
Metacognitive strategies can be taught (Halpern, 1996), they are associated
with successful learning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987). Successful learners
have a repertoire of strategies to select from and can transfer them to new settings
(Pressley, Borkowski, & Schneider, 1987). Instructors need to set tasks at an
appropriate level of difficulty (i.e., challenging enough so that students need to
apply metacognitive strategies to monitor success but not so challenging that
students become overwhelmed or frustrated), and instructors need to prompt
learners to think about what they are doing as they complete these tasks (Biemiller
& Meichenbaum, 1992). Instructors should take care not to do the thinking for
learners or tell them what to do because this runs the risk of making students
experts at seeking help rather than experts at thinking about and directing their
own learning. Instead, effective instructors continually prompt learners, asking
“What should you do next?”
McKeachie (1988) found that few college instructors explicitly teach
strategies for monitoring learning. They assume that students have already
learned these strategies in high school. But many have not and are unaware of the
metacognitive process and its importance to learning. Rote memorization is the
usual—and often the only—learning strategy employed by high school students
 when they enter college (Nist, 1993). Simpson and Nist (2000), in a review of the
literature on strategic learning, emphasize that instructors need to provide explicit
instruction on the use of study strategies. The implication for ABE programs is that
it is likely that ABE learners need explicit instruction in both cognitive and
metacognitive strategies. They need to know that they have choices about the
strategies they can employ in different contexts, and they need to monitor their use
of and success with these strategies.
Recommended Instructional Strategies
Instructors can encourage ABE learners to become more strategic thinkers
by helping them focus on the ways they process information. Self-questioning,
reflective journal writing, and discussing their thought processes with other
learners are among the ways that teachers can encourage learners to examine
and develop their metacognitive processes.
Fogarty (1994) suggests that Metacognition is a process that spans three
distinct phases, and that, to be successful thinkers, students must do the following:
 Develop a plan before approaching a learning task, such as reading for
comprehension or solving a math problem.
 Monitor their understanding; use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks
down.
 Evaluate their thinking after completing the task.
Goals of teaching Metacognitive Skills
Instructors can model the application of questions, and they can prompt
learners to ask themselves questions during each phase. They can incorporate
into lesson plans opportunities for learners to practice using these questions
during learning tasks, as illustrated in the following examples:
1. During the planning phase, learners can ask, what am I supposed to
learn? What prior knowledge will help me with this task? What should I do first?
What should I look for in this reading? How much time do I have to complete this?
In what direction do I want my thinking to take me?
2. During the monitoring phase, learners can ask, how am I doing? Am I on
the right track? How should I proceed? What information is important to
remember? Should I move in a different direction? Should I adjust the pace
because of the difficulty? What can I do if I do not understand?
3. During the evaluation phase, learners can ask, How well did I do? What
did I learn? Did I get the results I expected? What could I have done differently?
Can I apply this way of thinking to other problems or situations? Is there anything I
don’t understand—any gaps in my knowledge? Do I need to go back through the
 task to fill in any gaps in understanding? How might I apply this line of thinking to
other problems?
Rather than viewing reading, writing, science, social studies, and math only
as subjects or content to be taught, instructors can see them as opportunities for
learners to reflect on their learning processes. Examples follow for each content
area:
 Reading: Teach learners how to ask questions during reading and model “think
aloud.” Ask learners questions during read-aloud and teach them to monitor their
reading by constantly asking themselves if they understand what the text is
about. Teach them to take note or highlight important details, asking themselves,
“Why is this key phrase to highlight?” and “Why am I not highlighting this?”
 Writing: Model prewriting strategies for organizing thoughts, such as
brainstorming ideas using a word web, or using a graphic organizer to put ideas
into paragraphs, with the main idea at the top and the supporting details below it.
 Social Studies and Science: Teach learners the importance of using organizers
such as KWL charts, Venn diagrams, concept maps, and anticipation/reaction
charts to sort information and help them learn and understand content. Learners
can use organizers prior to a task to focus their attention on what they already
know and identify what they want to learn. They can use a Venn diagram to
identify similarities and differences between two related concepts.
 Math: Teach learners to use mnemonics to recall steps in a process, such as the
order of mathematical operations. Model your thought processes in solving
problems.
The goal of teaching metacognitive strategies is to help learners become
comfortable with these strategies so that they employ them automatically to
learning tasks, focusing their attention, deriving meaning, and making adjustments
if something goes wrong. They do not think about these skills while performing
them but, if asked what they are doing, they can usually accurately describe their
metacognitive processes.
Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning
Researches such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive awareness
was evident in pre-schoolers and in students as young as eight years old. Children
already have the capacity to be more aware and reflective of their own learning.
However, not many have been taught and encouraged to apply metacognition.
The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more activities that
would build the your students’ capacity to reflect on their own characteristics as
learners ( self-knowledge), the tasks they are to do (task knowledge) and the strategies
that they can use to learn(strategic knowledge). Remember, metacognition is like any
other thing you will teach. Metacognition involves knowledge and skills which you
and your students can learn and master.
Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:
(Work hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a student. It will surely be a
rewarding learning experience for you.)
1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a
student monitor a peer’s learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
2. Teach students study or learning strategies.
TQLR- This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is a
metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or presentation.
T is for Tune in. it is the first important for the learner himself to be aware that he
is paying attention, and that he is ready to learn.
Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about
what he will soon learn.
L is for Listen. The learner intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes aware
if he is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again.
2. Teach students study or learning strategies,
` TQLR – This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is a
metacognitive strategy
before listening to a story or presentation.
` T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that e is
paying attention, and that he is ready to learn.
O is for Question. The learner is given question or he thinks of questions about
what he will soon learn.
L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes
aware if he is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again.
R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was
learned.
PQ4R – This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and
onwards. This strategy is used to study a unit or chapter.
P- Preview – scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check
about the important topics and ideas about in the chapter. Read the summary of the
chapter first. (But please don’t stop at the summary alone. No. No. No. This is not a
good idea at all. Read the whole chapter!)
Q- Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions
about the topic.
 R- Read. Check out the sub headings as you read. Pay attention words that are
printed in bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use
maker or colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases. (Do not highlight the
whole paragraph!
R-Recite. Work on answering the question you had earlier.
R- Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read
in order to understand better.
R- Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the
main points you learned? How is this relevant or useful to you?
3. Have the students make predictions about information to be presented next based
on what they read.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures.( it is important to
have relevant knowledge structures well learned.)
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what’s going
on around them (Have you asked a good question today?)
6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/she must be able to self- monitor;
require students to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their
own.)
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations
or tasks.
Novice and Expert Learners
In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologist have studied the distinctions
among learners in the manner they absorb or process information. They are able to
differentiate expert learners from novice learners. A very important
factor that separates these two types of learners mentioned is
metacognition. Expert learners employ metacognitive strategies in
learning. They are more aware of their learning process as they read,
study and do problem solving. Expert; learners monitor their learning
and consequently adjust their strategies to make learning more effective.
the table below shows the different between a novice learner and an
expert learner.
Difference between Novice and Expert Learners
Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners
Knowledge in different Have limited knowledge in Have deepest knowledge in
subject areas the different subject areas. different subject areas
because they look for
 interrelationship in the things
they learn.
problem solving Satisfied at just scratching First try to understand the
the surface; hurriedly gives a problem, look for
solution to the problem. boundaries, and create a
mental picture of the
problem
Learning/ thinking Strategies Employ right strategies that Design new strategies that
may not be appropriate to would be appropriate to the
the task at hand. task at hand.
Selectivity in Processing Attempt to process all Select important information
information they received. to process, able to
breakdown information to
manageable chunks.
Production of output Did not examine the quality Check their errors and
of their work, nor stop to redirect their efforts to
make revisions. maintain quality output.

Stop and pause a while. Are you novice learner? Or an expert one? Strive to
apply the concepts of metacognition in your world of learning, and for sure you will be
on your way to be an expert learner, probably an expert teacher, too!
Metacognition and Learning

According to Dr. Regan Gurung, a learning scientist, metacognition is “broken

down into three main processes. How we plan, how we monitor and then how we
assess.” For example, when a student can plan out how they are going to study, and
how they will tackle a complex task, their studying and learning improve.

Several different lines of research support the idea of teaching metacognitive

strategies to students. First, students who have high levels of metacognition—who are
better at monitoring their own learning and better at assessing what they know--
consistently learn more, and more deeply than students with low levels of
metacognition.

How to Improve Metacognition

Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the
following types of question:
 What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?
 Do I know what I need to know?
 Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
 How much time will I need to learn this?
 What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
  Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
 How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
 How can I spot an error if I make one?
 How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?

As stated by Gurung (2020), “The more we can make the thinking process visible,
the better we can understand how to make it more effective - and that’s what
metacognition is all about,”. The ultimate goal of metacognitive strategies is for people
to become more self-directed in their own learning. Students, for example, should be
able to figure out the areas that they are weak in and take appropriate steps to address
those areas.
Everyone can improve metacognition. For one, keep in mind the problem of
overconfidence. We're all often arrogant. We think we know something. But we don't.
So we need metacognition, to review what we know. So ask yourself questions or have
your students/learners ask themselves the following questions to assess their
metacognitive skills in learning and how these learning help them to become expert
learners:

What do I know?
How do I know it?
Could I explain this to a friend? Could I give an example? Or provide a theory?

Looking forward and backwards can help too when it comes to metacognition.
Looking backward, ask: What did I learn? How has my thinking changed?
Looking forward, ask: What do I need to learn next? What will make me an expert?

In the end, metacognition is a type of learning superpower. It makes people

better learners. Or as Anderson notes, “Once [students] feel better about
themselves, or just feel comfortable answering the questions, I find that they dig
deeper and not just read and do things on the surface level.”
--Ulrich Boser
For you to know more and to gain deeper knowledge and understanding about
metacognition, visit the following links:

[Link] initiatives/teal/guide/metacognitive
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

1.2 Learning Activities

Learning Activity 1: Present a challenging situation or scenario in your

community with regard to covid – 19 problems. How do you use your
metacognitive skills to help solve the problems or the situation?
Learning Activity 2: Write a reflection paper following this instruction:
Identify a situation based on your experiences on online/remote learning modality
during this pandemic and discuss how you cope with the challenges encountered
using the “looking backward (What did I learn? How has my thinking changed?
and looking forward questions (”What do I need to learn next? What will make
me an expert in this situation?”).

My Reflection
______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________

Learning Activity 3: Form a group with 5 members. Each member of the group
will list at least 5 problems or challenges that you individually experience in your
family life and in your situation on coping with your online learning. Write down
your strategy/strategies on how you solve each problem/challege. Indicate a
remark of “ Very Effective, Effective, slightly Effective or Not Effective in each
strategy that you are applying and why. Then,the rest of the members of the
group will give their suggestions on what you need to [Link] will be done by all
members of the group following this matrix.

Problems/Challenges Strategy/Strategies Remarks Reasons Suggestions

Encountered Applied
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 Learning Activity 4: Based on the activity you’ve done in LA 3, analyze,
evaluate and describe each of you in your group as “Novice Learner or Expert
Learner” following the matrix below (just put a check (/) below the corresponding
column):

Name of the Member. _________________ Evaluator: ___________________

Group No.:_________

Aspect of Learning Novice Learner Expert Learner

[Link] Solving
[Link]/thinking Strategies
[Link] in Processing
[Link] of Output

Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading.

Know more and learn more about metacognition, visit the following links:
 [Link]
 [Link]
[Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
marcus-conyers

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

 Remote/Online (synchronous) through SeDi or any of the following which
ever is possible:
google classroom / google meet / messenger/ etc.
 Remote (asynchronous) through Presentation Module / offline through
Print module

Asynchronous and Synchronous

For the written activity, you may answer it through SeDi or any of the online
platforms which ever is possible and if you want to have a hard copy of the module, you
may get this at my drop box at ISU- Security Guard House. You may also download the
copy of the module.
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. Explain your understanding about metacognition? How it differs from your

perspective after reading the module?
2. What is the significance of metacognition in education?
3. Why is there a need to understand and realize the importance of metacognition
in the life - long learning process?
4. How do metacognitive skills affect the learning process of the students?
5 Why the application of metacognition skills in real life situation is very
essential? How does it help individual to survive in a challenging situation
such as this pandemic phenomenon?

References
A. Books

• Biemiller, A., & Meichenbaum, D. (1992). The nature and nurture of the self-
directed learner. Educational Leadership, 50, 75–80. Retrieved November 17,
2019.
 Borkowski, J., Carr, M., & Pressely, M. (1987). “Spontaneous” strategy use:
Perspectives from metacognitive theory. Intelligence, 11, 61–75. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Bruning, R. H. et. al. (2004). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. USA: Merill
Prentice – Hall.
 Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of
cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick
(Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Fogarty, R. (1994). How to teach for metacognition. Palatine, IL: IRI/Skylight
Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical
thinking. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved November 17,
2019.
 Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An overview. Retrieved November 17,
2019.
  Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 McKeachie, W. J. (1988). The need for study strategy training. In C. E.
Weinstein, E. T. Goetz, & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies:
Issues in assessment, instruction, and evaluation (pp. 3–9). New York: Academic
Press. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Meichenbaum, D. (1985). Teaching thinking: A cognitive-behavioral perspective.
In S. F., Chipman, J. W. Segal, & R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills,
Vol. 2: Research and open questions. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Nietfeld, J. L., & Shraw, G. (2002). The effect of knowledge and strategy
explanation on monitoring accuracy. Journal of Educational Research, 95, 131–
142. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Nist, S. (1993). What the literature says about academic literacy. Georgia
Journal of Reading, Fall-Winter, 11–18.
 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (1995). Strategic teaching
and reading project guidebook. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & Schneider, W. (1987). Cognitive strategies:
Good strategy users coordinate metacognition and knowledge. In R. Vasta, & G.
Whitehurst (Eds.), Annals of child development, 4, 80–129. Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press.

ISUE__ __ Syl ___

Revision: 02
Effectivity: August 1, 2020