Chapter 13

Pressurized Irrigation Systems

Junaid Nawaz Chauhdary, Ghulam Shabbir, Shahzad Ahmed
and Ahmad Waqas*

Abstract
Pakistan’s cultivable area lies mostly in arid and semiarid climatic regions. Thus,
more than 80 percent of its irrigation water requirement is met either through canal
system or groundwater pumping. As the population is increasing every year, food
requirement is also increasing and thus water required to produce more food is
ultimately going higher every year. On the other hand, the per capita water
availability is reducing and groundwater extraction is increasing annually. Therefore,
the overall available water resources (surface and groundwater) are shrinking.
Consequently, there is an imbalance between supply and demand, which demands
more efficient utilization of the available water resources. Use of pressurized
irrigation systems (Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation Systems), which have performance
efficiencies significantly higher than the gravity irrigation system, may help solving
the problem. Adoption and successful use of pressurized irrigation systems require
that all the stakeholders, practicing irrigated agriculture, including farmers and
professionals must update their knowledge about these systems. The Punjab
Irrigation and Agriculture Departments have recently launched LBDCIP and PIPIP
projects to introduce high efficiency irrigation systems (HEIS) among farmers for
row crops, particularly cotton, maize, sugarcane vegetables and orchards on a
participatory basis. Thus, it becomes important to provide sound knowledge based

*
Junaid Nawaz Chauhdary
Department of Irrigation and Drainage, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
For correspondance: mjunaidnawaz@[Link]

Ghulam Shabbir
Directorate of Water Management, Agriculture Department, Government of Punjab, Pakistan.

Shahzad Ahmed and Ahmad Waqas

Water Management Research Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Allah Bakhsh and Muhammad Rafiq Choudhry
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

275
276 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

information to the professionals and users of these systems through books and other
printed materials.
Keywords: Drip Irrigation, Sprinkler Irrigation, Drippers, Sprinkler Heads, Laterals,
Operation Time

Learning Objectives
1. To introduce the reader about the pressurized irrigation systems.
2. To familiarize the professionals and farmers about the components, design,
installation, operation and maintenance of the pressurized irrigation
systems.
3. Introducing improved systems to replace the traditional ones may encounter
several issues that must be resolved to operate the systems successfully. The
purpose of this chapter is to highlight such issues and their solutions.
4. The solved examples and questions to exercise, provide opportunities to the
students for a better understanding of the subject.

13.1 Introduction
A pressurized irrigation system operates through a piping system where water flows
under pressure as compared to gravity systems where water flows due to level
difference. The pressurized irrigation system provides opportunities of minimum
water losses which otherwise occur due to seepage, surface absorption and through
evaporation in gravity flow condition particularly in open channel flow. This system
also allows the irrigator to apply more precise quantities of water wherever is needed.
Thus, the performance efficiencies are much higher than the gravity irrigation
systems. Major types of pressurized irrigation systems include drip or trickle
irrigation system and sprinkler irrigation system.

13.2 Drip or Trickle Irrigation

Drip irrigation, being a proven technology, has offered special agronomical,
economical, and agro-technical advantages for efficient use of water and labor
(Keller and Bliesner, 1990; Keller, 2002) and it can replace flood irrigation having
50-60% application efficiency with an efficiency of 90% (FAO, 1988; Leeds-
Harrison and Rickson, 1992). Drip Irrigation is the slow application of available
irrigation water on or beneath the soil surface as per the field capacity or intake rate
of a soil for efficient use in crop production. Water is applied under low pressure
through emitters/drippers placed along a lateral line. The device that emits water to
the soil is called “emitter” that is either projected on the lateral or may be built in the
lateral line. The size, diameter and shape of the emitter affect the operating pressure
at discharge point and a small volume of water is discharged. Water flowing out from
the emission points infiltrates into the soil and travel further by capillarity and gravity
forces.
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 277

13.2.1 Advantages of Drip Irrigation

1. Highest irrigation application efficiency.
2. Increases yield per unit of water, thereby, increases the water use efficiency.
3. Increases fertilizer use efficiency and therefore, reduces overall production
cost.
4. Its operating cost is low as compared to sprinkler irrigation systems.
5. Its operation is not affected by wind speed.
6. Less weeds germination in unirrigated parts of the field, hence, less use of
weedicide, less labor requirement for eradication of weeds.
7. Ensure uniform development of crop, excellent quality produce.
8. Less energy cost if farmer previously irrigated his fields by flooding through
tube well.
9. Early maturity of crop, early marketing of produce as compare to crop under
flood irrigation.
10. Suitable to hilly and unlevelled areas where topography does not allow
surface irrigation systems.
11. Daily irrigation keeps land wet and soft for easy penetration of crop roots.
12. Measured and uniform application of chemicals.
13. Reduces irrigation time.
14. Reduces soil compaction.
15. Reduced environmental contamination.

13.2.2 Limitations of Drip Irrigation

1. The initial installation cost of drip irrigation system is high.
2. Drip irrigation system operates under pressure that requires additional
energy and thus adds to production cost.
3. Regular monitoring and maintenance of drip irrigation system is difficult
for common farmer.
4. Salts may accumulate in dry zone area and leaching of salt requirement
always exists.
5. Poor quality of irrigation water, arise problems like algal bloom and
bacterial slime in the filtration system and may cause clogging of
drippers/emitters.
6. Fertilizers and chemicals used for fertigation may corrosive to system parts.

13.2.3 Components of Drip Irrigation System

A drip irrigation system comprises of a pumping unit, filters, air release valves,
control valves, pressure gauges, fertigation unit, main line, sub-mains, flush valves,
laterals and emitters. The main line delivers water to sub-mains and sub-mains into
laterals, and finally moves through emitters into the soil. Following are the main
components of drip irrigation system:
278 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

[Link] Head Unit

Head unit consists of prime mover (motor or engine), water pump, G.I or PVC pipe
fittings, by pass valves, air release valve, filters, flow meter, non-return valve,
pressure gages and fertigation unit. All head unit accessories are shown in Fig. 13.1.
[Link] Field Unit
Field unit consists of main line, sub-mains, manifolds, and lateral lines with emitters,
end plugs and flush valves. All field unit accessories are shown in Fig.13.1

Fig.13.1 Components of Drip Irrigation System

13.2.4 Design of Drip Irrigation System

Following steps are under taken to design drip irrigation system for a given crop,
area and water availability:
• Survey of the area
• Water quality consideration
• Soil type
• Emitter selection
• Type of crop and peak water requirement
• Design of lateral, sub-main and main lines
• Selection of Pump
• Selection of Prime Mover
[Link] Survey of the Area
Survey of the area, where the drip irrigation system is to be installed, requires the
following data to be collected:
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 279

• Topography of area and relative position of highest point to the pumping

unit
• Water quality and quantity of available water and time of irrigation
• Power source available with farmer
• Soil type
• Crop to be grown
• Physical features on ground surface and preparation of a base map.
• Demarcation of the area where mainlines, sub-mainlines and laterals are to
be installed. Main-lines, sub-mainlines and laterals should be installed in
such a way that they should not interfere with the normal tractor operations.
• Estimated cost (the system must be economical for the farmer).

[Link] Water Quality Consideration

In drip irrigation system, water comes out from the emitters which have very small
openings and can be clogged due to the soil particles, salts, which are always present
in water. So, water quality is very important criteria in designing an efficient drip
irrigation system for the area under consideration. Analysis of water tells about the
presence of chemicals like Calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, carbonates, silicates,
sulfides etc., and suspended solids like sand, silt, clay, algae and bacteria. Calcium
and iron precipitates are a potential problem with most of the well water. If
bicarbonate level is higher than 2.0 meq per liter coupled with pH > 7.5, it is a major
problem for emitter clogging. Iron is present in water in soluble (ferrous) form. It can
produce enough slime to plug emitters if the water supply has an iron concentration
of 0.3 parts per million (ppm) or greater and the pH of water is between 4.0 and 8.5.
Algae are common in most surface water supplies, which can also clog emitters.
Filtration system has to be selected according to the quality of irrigation water.
[Link] Soil Type
In designing of drip irrigation system, soil type is always determined, which helps in
the selection of emitters/drippers and their discharge.
The shape of the wetted zone depends on the physical properties of soil:
• In light soils the distribution of the water will be narrow and deeper.
• In heavy soil the distribution of the water will be relatively in spherical
shape, wider and less deep.

[Link] Emitter Selection

Emitter selection in designing a drip irrigation system depends upon the type of soil.
The water from the emitter enters the soil and moves downward and sideways
forming a cone (wetting pattern). The size and shape of the cone are affected mainly
by emitter discharge, type of soil and duration of water application. Cone formation
in heavy soils is shallower and wider, whereas, in lighter soils cone is narrower and
deeper as shown in Fig. 13.2. In loamy soil, the water will move slowly and water
will spread evenly. In heavy soils water is absorbed very slowly and runoff can occur
if water is applied quickly because of densely packed particles of the soil profile.
Therefore, there will be more lateral movement as compared to vertical movement.
280 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Fig. 13.2 Cone Formation in different Classes of Soils

The emitter selection mainly depends on the infiltration rate of the soil. The emitter
spacing decides the emitter discharge, however, the selection of emitter spacing and
discharge for different soil is given in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1 Recommended Emitter Spacing (cm) for different Soil Types and Emitter
Discharge
Soil Type Discharge Rates (Lph)
2 4 8
Light 40 80 120
Medium (cm) 80 120 160
Heavy 120 160 200
Usually, emitter with 2 Lph discharge is used for heavy soils. In lighter soils, which
are very loose and absorb water very quickly, no runoff occurs. Sandy soils do not
hold water and thus dry out very quickly. For sandy soils 4 Lph discharge emitter
can be used. Crop type also influences the emitter selection. There are two types of
emitter: pressure compensating and non-pressure compensating. Pressure
compensating emitters deliver a constant output of water even with changes of
pressure and elevation. In non-pressure compensating emitters, output of water
changes with the change in pressure and elevation.
[Link] Type of Crop and Peak Water Requirement
Drip irrigation system designed for its maximum capacity, should consider type of
crop and its peak water requirement. To calculate system irrigation requirement, row
to row spacing, emitter to emitter spacing and discharge of emitters for a certain crop
are needed to be decided as given below:
Area m ∗ Emitter flow Lph
Total flow (Lph = 1
LL Spacing m ∗ Emitter Spacing m
Application rate is defined as depth of water applied per unit time or flow rate per
unit area. It can be calculated by following two methods:
Method-1
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 281

Total Flow Lph

Application Rate mm/hr = 2
Total Area m
Method-2
Emitter Flow Lph
Application Rate mm/hr = 3
LL Spacing m ∗ Emitter Spacing m
[Link] Design of Lateral, Sub-main and Main Pipe
The design of lateral, sub-main and main-line involves selection of required pipe
diameter for a given length which can carry the required amount of discharge to the
plant or crop in such a way that friction loss (head loss and velocity) should not
exceed the designing criteria. The designing criteria is as following:
• The head loss in main and sub main pipe should not exceed 1 m/ 100 m and
velocity should not exceed 1.5 m/sec.
• The head loss in lateral should not exceed 20% of operating pressure of
emitter.

Availability in the market, affordability of price, and durability of material are also
important aspects in selecting an efficient and economic pipe network.
The head loss in lateral, submain and mainline is calculated by using Hazen Williams
equation given as following:

s
1222 .
S
f= × L + L¯ 13.4
D#. ^

Where
f = Friction head loss (m)
c = Hazen-William’s roughness constant (given in table 13.2)
q = Flow rate (Lps)
D = Inside diameter (mm)
L= Length (m)
Le= Equivalent length of accessories (given in table 13.3)
Head loss can also be calculated through Darcy Weisbach equation:
FLQ
hW = 6.377 13.5
D
Where:
hf= Head loss (m)
F= friction factor for Darcy equation
L= Length of pipe (m)
282 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Q= Flow in pipe (Lph)

D= Diameter of pipe (mm)

Table 13.2 Hazen-williams Coefficient ‘c’ for different Materials

Material Hazen-Williams Coefficient c
Aluminum 130 – 150
Asbestos Cement 140
Brass 130 – 140
Copper 130 – 140
Fiber 140
Galvanized iron 120
Plastic 130 – 150
Polyethylene, PE, PEH 140
Polyvinyl Chloride, PVC, CPVC 150
Smooth Pipes 140
Steel, welded and seamless 100

Table 13.3 Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe for Fitting Accessories (m)
Accessory internal 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
diameter inch inch inch inch inch inch inch
Valves Gate valve 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8
Ball valve 2.4 3.4 4.6 5.8 6.7 8.2 11.6
Elbows Regular 90o 1.1 1.6 2.3 2.6 2.8 3.4 4.0
Regular 45o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.7
Tees Line flow 0.5 1.0 1.7 2.3 2.8 3.7 5.2
Branch flow 1.3 2.0 3.0 3.7 4.0 5.2 6.4
Friction factor (f) in Darcy equation can be calculated by using equations 13.6-13.8
for different flow regimes and Reynold’s numbers.
64
F= for Re < 2000 13.6
Re
1 e 9.35
= 1.14 − 2log % ' + , For Re > 4000 13.7
√f D Re√f
Where:
f= friction factor
e= internal roughness of pipe
D= inner diameter of pipe (mm)
Re= Reynold’s number
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 283

1 e
= 2log % { | + 1.14 ForRe > 10000 13.8
√f D
f= friction factor
e= internal roughness of pipe
D= inner diameter of pipe (mm)
Re= Reynold’s number
[Link] Selection of Pump
Discharge and head are the two important parameters for the selection of the pump
in the design of drip irrigation system. Pump discharge is calculated by multiplying
the emitter discharge by total number of emitters in the area. Head developed by the
pump should be sufficient to overcome head loss in the system and provide 1 bar
head at the exit. Total head loss includes: head loss in laterals, sub-main, main,
emitter operating pressure and head loss in power unit and filtration system. Pump
size can be selected using pump characteristic curves provided by the manufacturer.
A typical pump characteristic curve of the head vs pump for various pump rpm is
given in Fig. 13.3.

Fig. 13.3 Characteristic Curves for Pump Selection

[Link] Selection of Prime Mover

Motor power can be determined by using the equation 13.9.
Q∗H
Hp = 13.9
76
Where:
284 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Hp = Horse power
Q = Discharge (Lps)
H = Head (m)
Example 13.1: Determine HP of prime mover if the pump discharge is 25 Lps and
the total head against which water is to be lifted is 45 m. Take the motor efficiency
as 60%.
Given:
Q = 25 Lps
H = 45 m
25 ∗ 45
Hp =
76
Calculated Hp= 14.8
#.
Actual Hp = = 24.6→ 25
%.^

Example 13.2: Design a drip irrigation system for Cotton crop with the following
data:
Area = 160 x 120 m2
Plant x Plant= 0.5 m
Row x Row= 1 m
Water source: Both tube well and canal water is used for irrigation.
Suction lift: 2 m
Delivery lift: 2 m.
Solution
Field survey is conducted and field layout is developed. To reduce the system capital
and operational cost, the whole field is divided into four equal zones as shown in Fig.
13.4. The location of power unit, mainline, sub-main and lateral is also determined.
In field survey, it is also analyzed that the soil of the area is sandy loam.
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 285

Fig. 13.4 Field Layout of Case Study

Water Sampling
Water from canal and tubewell is stored in a settling pond where all impurities like
suspended, chemical and biological were present. Hydrocyclone, sand media and
screen filters are selected to control and clean the impurities.
Emitter Selection
The emitter with 4 Lph discharge is recommended for sandy loam soils. The lateral
with 4 Lph and 0.30 m emitter spacing is selected as per availability in market.
Discharge of One Zone
As the drip irrigation system is divided into eight operational zones so the number of
plants in one zone is as following:
Dimension of one zone= 30 × 50 m2
Number of laterals in one zone= 50/1 = 50 (as RxR= 1 meter)
Length of lateral= 30 m
Total emitters in one lateral= 30 /0.30 = 100 (as emitters spacing on lateral line was
0.30 m)
Total emitters in one zone= 100 × 50= 5000
Total discharge in one zone= Emitter discharge x No. of emitters
Total discharge in one zone= 5000 × 4= 20000 Lph
Design of Lateral, Sub-main and Main Pipe
The lateral diameter is selected on the basis of head loss, price of lateral and market
availability. The lateral with 12 mm diameter is selected.
The head loss was calculated by equation 13.5
FLQ
hf 6.377
D
286 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Lateral Pipe
The diameter of lateral pipe= 12 mm
The length of lateral pipe= 30 m
Total emitters on one lateral= 30/0.30= 100
Total flow of lateral pipe= 100 × 4= 400 Lph
Head loss in lateral pipe= 1.8 m
By using head loss equation, the diameter of main and sub-main pipe is selected in
such a way, so that design requirements are fulfilled.
Sub-main Pipe
The diameter of Sub main pipe= 76.2 mm
The length of sub main pipe= 50 m
Total flow of sub main pipe= 50 × 400 = 20000 Lph
Head loss in sub main pipe= 0.5 m
Main Pipe
The diameter of main pipe= 76.2 mm
The length of main pipe= 30 m
Total flow of main pipe= 20000 Lph
Headloss in main pipe= 0.3 m
Pump Selection
Discharge of pump= 20000 Lph = 5.5 Lps
Total Head of pump= Emitter operating pressure+ Head loss in lateral+ Head loss in
submain+ Head loss in main line + Head loss in the joints, turns, filtration unit plus
miscellaneous head loss+ suction lift + Delivery lift.
Required Head of pump= 10 + 1.8 + 0.5+ 0.3 +20 + 2+ 2 = 36.6 ≈37 m
Assume Pump efficiency = 60 %
Required Discharge= 5.5 /0.6= 9.16 ≈ 9 Lps
According to discharge, head requirement and market availability, pump is selected
with 14.1 Lps discharge and 44 m head.
Motor Selection
Motor selection is done by using equation 13.9. Efficiency of the motor is kept at 75
% according to supplier
Q∗H
Hp =
76 ∗ efficiency
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 287

9 ∗ 37
Hp =
76 ∗ 0.75
Hp=5.84 ≈ 6 Hp
Example 13.3: Design a drip irrigation system for the following data:
Area = 180 m x 160m
Soil type = Sandy loam
Crop = Mango plants
Plant stage= Mature
Plant to plant distance = 10 m
Row to row distance = 10 m
Water table is 15 m below from the ground surface in existing dug well
Delivery head is 2 m above ground surface
Given:
Area = 180 m x 160m = 28800 m2
Water source= Dug well
Suction lift (m) = 0 m (Use submersible pump, as the water table 15 m below ground
surface)
Delivery lift = 15+2= 17 m
Plant spacing = 10 m
Row spacing = 10 m
Discharge Required
Calculate total no. of plants = 28800/ (10 x 10) = 288
Assume emitter discharge = 8 Lph (As plants are mature)
Calculate total No. of emitters (4 per plant) 288 x 4 =1152
Calculate total flow rate = 1152 x 8 = 9216 Lph = 2.56 Lps
288 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Fig. 13.5 Layout of Orchard Field

Lateral Pipe Head Loss

The diameter of lateral pipe= 12 mm
The length of lateral pipe= 80 m
Total emitters on one lateral= 80/10= 8 × 4= 32
Total flow of lateral pipe= 32 × 8= 256 Lph
Head loss in lateral pipe= 1.9 m
Sub-main Pipe
The diameter of sub-main pipe= 63.5 mm
The length of sub main pipe= 90 m
Total laterals on one sub main= 90/10= 9×2= 18
Total flow of sub main pipe= 18 × 256=4608 Lph
Head loss in sub main pipe= 0.4 m
Main Pipe
The diameter of main pipe= 63.5 mm
The length of main pipe= 170 m
Total flow of main pipe= 9216 Lph
Head loss in main pipe= 0.9 m
Pump Selection
Discharge of pump= 2.56 Lps
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 289

Total Head of pump= Emitter operating pressure+ Head loss in lateral+ Head loss in
submain+ Head loss in main line + Head loss in the joints, turns filtration unit plus
miscellaneous head loss+ suction lift + Delivery lift.
Required Head of pump= 10 + 1.9 + 0.4+ 0.9+20+ 0+ 17 = 40.2 ≈ 41m
Assume Pump efficiency = 60 %
Required Discharge= 2.56 /0.6= 4.26 ≈ 4.3 Lps
Motor Selection
Motor selection is done by using equation 13.9. Efficiency of the motor is kept at
75% according to supplier.
Q×H
Hp =
76 × efficiency
4.3 × 41
Hp =
76 × 0.75
Hp=3.09 ≈ 3Hp

13.2.5 Fertilizer Application

Nitrogen, phosphorous and potash are important plant nutrients which are supplied
to obtain optimum crop production. These nutrients are made available to the crops
from different sources like Urea, DAP, Diammonium phosphate, Mono ammonium
phosphate, Urea and SOP, etc. but due to the solubility problem of conventional
fertilizers, water soluble fertilizers are preferred in drip irrigation to avoid emitter
clogging. Following points must be kept in mind before the application of fertilizers
in drip irrigation
• Fertilizer must be fully water soluble and does not make precipitates
• Should not increase the pH of irrigation water
• Fertilizers must be economical
• Easily available in market
• Readily available to plants

[Link] Fertilizer Injection Methods

Pesticides, herbicides and fertilizer can be injected into the drip irrigation system
using (a) By-pass pressure tank (b) Venturi system (c) Direct injection system.
(a) By-pass Pressure Tank: In this method, a tank is provided in which dry or
liquid fertilizers are placed. An agitator is fixed at the top of the tank for
mixing the fertilizer. The tank is connected to main irrigation line with help
of a by-pass valve at the entrance of tank for the inflow of irrigation water
into the tank to dilute the fertilizer. Another by-pass valve is given at the
outlet of the tank to let the fertilizer go into the irrigation system. In this
method of fertilizer injection, rate of fertilizer injection changes with time.
290 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

(b) Venturi Injector: This is a qualitative method of fertilizer injection in

which the rate of fertilizer injection remains the same throughout the time
of injection. The working principle of the venturi is that the velocity of flow
is increased due to small dia of venture at center that causes a pressure drop
in flow pipe which creates a vacuum and sucks the fertilizer. The rate of
fertilizer injection is controlled by means of valves. This is the cheapest
method of fertilizer injection.
(c) Direct Injection System: In this method, a pump is used to inject fertilizer
solution directly into the irrigation line. The use of this method is limited
because it requires an additional source of power to operate the pump. On
the other hand, this method can be automatically controlled and convenient
to use because of control over the injection rate with less head loss.

13.2.6 Emitter Clogging

Clogging of emitters has been a major problem with the use of drip irrigation
systems, especially when fertilizers are applied through the system or when irrigation
systems are operated under an inadequate pressure. This problem is not unique in
Pakistan rather it is a universal characteristic of drip system applications. Clogging
of drippers depends upon source of water. The water quality criteria for emitter
clogging are given in Table 13.4.

Table 13.4 Degree of Clogging as Affected by Different Materials

Potential Units Degree of Restriction on Use
Problem None Slight to Moderate Sever
Suspended solids mg/l <50 50-100 >100
pH <7 7-7.5 >7.5
Dissolved solids mg/l <500 500-2000 >2000
Manganese mg/l <0.1 0.1-1.5 >1.5
Iron mg/l <0.1 0.1-1.5 >1.5
Hardness as CaCO3 mg/l <150 150-300 >300
Bacterial population mL 10000 10000-50000 >50000
Source: Storlie, 1995

Source of water may be surface or groundwater. Bacterial growth and algae are major
problems associated with surface water use. These algae content form aggregate that
can clog emitters. Groundwater contains a greater concentration of minerals that can
clog the system by precipitation. The acidification and chlorination are used to
unclog emitters.
[Link] Filtration
The major problem with drip irrigation is clogging of emitters by chemical and
biological materials. Drip irrigation has low flow rates and extremely small passages
(emitter) for water these passages are easily clogged with organic and mineral
particles carried out irrigation water and by chemical precipitates and biological
growth, that develop within the system, clogging adversely affects the performance
of drip irrigation system, resulting in less flow than the designed thus affecting the
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 291

system distribution efficiency. The major clogging contributors are given in

Table 13.5.

Table 13.5 Clogging Contributors in Drip Irrigation System

Physical (Suspended Chemicals (Precipitation) Biological (Bacteria
Particles) and algae)
Organic: Algae, bacteria, a) Calcium carbonate a) Filaments
diatoms, larvae, fish, b) Calcium sulphate
snails, seeds, plants parts
Inorganic: Sand, silt, clay c) Heavy metals hydroxide, b) Slime microbial
oxides, carbonates, Silicates deposition, iron sulphur
and Sulphides manganese
d) Fertilizer, phosphate,
aqueous, ammonia, iron,
zinc, cooper, manganese
Source: Bucks et al., 1979

To remove these impurities, some arrangement techniques for filtration and some
filters are used.
Types of Filtration
a) Settling Ponds: These can be used to remove large volumes of sand and silt. Algal
growth and windblown contaminants in the pool cause more filtration problem than
sediment, therefore, open water from a pond supply should be avoided. If water is
drawn from the pool, it must be chemically treated or filtered through a combination
of filters and screens. Minimum 15 minutes are required for most in-organic particles
larger than 80 microns to settle.

Fig. 13.6 Settling Ponds

292 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

b) Hydrocyclone Filter: These filters remove 98% of the sand particles that would
be removed by 200 mesh screen. It depends upon the centrifugal force to remove or
eject high density particles from the water. Hydrocyclone filters cannot remove
organic materials.

Fig. 13.7 Hydrocyclone Filters

c) Sand Media Filter

These filters have graded sand of selected sizes inside a cylindrical tank. As water
passes through the tank, the gravel or sand filters out heavy loads of very fine sand
and organic materials. These filters are more effective for organic materials as well
as for long and narrow contaminants such as algae and diatoms which are caught on
multi-layered sand bed than single screen filters. To measure the head loss in the
filter, it is recommended that pressure gauges should install at the inlet and outlet of
the filter. If the head loss exceeds more than 3.0 kPa, filter needs back washing. To
clean the filter, open the drainage valve of filter and reverse the direction of water
inflow into the filter until the deposits wash out from the filter.
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 293

Fig. 13.8 Sand Media Filters

d) Screen Filter
As most of the impurities in water are filtered by hydrocyclone and sand media filter,
screen filters are provided as a safeguard against any physical impurities left
unfiltered from hydrocyclone and sand media filter. The screen filter usually contains
cylindrical screens, which filters physical impurities and allows only clean water to
enter the drip irrigation system. The screens are mostly made of plastic material and
non-corrosive metal as shown in Fig. 13.9. The screen filters are available in market
with screen sizes ranging from 20 mesh to 200 mesh with different flow rate
capacities.
[Link] Chemical Treatment of Drip Irrigation System
To prevent drip irrigation emitters from clogging due to mineral precipitations and
inorganic particles, timely and regular application of chemicals is often required.
These chemicals included acids and chlorine.
(i) Acidification

Treatment of drip irrigation system with acids such as sulfuric, phosphoric or

hydrochloric (muriatic) acid is known as acidification. The most common deposits
in irrigation water are iron oxides and magnesium or calcium carbonates. To reduce
the potential for chemical precipitations, acids are used to lower the pH of irrigation
water (below 7.0) because in irrigation water with high pH (above 7.0), precipitation
occurs more readily.
294 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Fig. 13.9 Screen Filters

The injection rate of acids should be adjusted in such a way so that the pH of
irrigation water reaches just below 4.0 to prevent magnesium and calcium
precipitates from aggregate forming. The amount of acid required to treat a system
depends on (a) the strength of the acid being used (b) the target pH and (c) the
buffering capacity of the irrigation water. A “titration test” can be used to determine
the optimum volume of acids needed to get the desired pH of water and prevent plat
roots from any damage.
(ii) Chlorination
Treatment of drip irrigation system with chlorine such as chlorine gas or liquid
sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) is known as Chlorination. To decompose
and remove Bacteria, algae and fungi from drip irrigation laterals and emitters,
chlorine is used as a powerful oxidizing agent. When chlorine is dissolved in water,
hydrolysis reaction occurs where chlorine molecules combine with water. The
hydrolysis reaction produces hypochlorous acid (HOCl) as shown in Eq.13.10.
H2O + Cl2 = HOCl + H+ + Cl− (13.10)
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 295

Hypochlorous acid further ionized in to hypochlorite:

HOCl = H+ +OCl−(13.11)
The effectiveness of hypochlorite in killing microorganism is about 40 to 80 times
lesser than hypochlorous acid (HOCl). Thus, water with high pH will result in a low
concentration of HOCl. The active form of chlorine as HOCl at different pH levels
of irrigation water is given in table 13.6. The efficiency of chlorination is greatly
dependent upon the quantity of bacteria and pH of the irrigation water source. To
lower the pH of irrigation water, acids can be used to increase the efficiency of
chlorination.

Table 13.6 Available Form of Chlorine as Active HOCl at different pH Levels of

Irrigation Water
pH of water Available active chlorine
8 24%
7 72%
6 97%

13.3 Sprinkler Irrigation System

In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall
on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The characteristics of the
system include:
• A network of pipelines is used to convey water to the field and distribute to
crops through sprinkler heads in the field. The spray is produced by
pumping of water under pressure through small orifices or nozzles. With
careful selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing,
the amount of irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be
applied nearly uniformly at the rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil,
thereby obtaining efficient irrigation.
• The system provides efficient coverage for small to large areas, for a wide
range of crops and soils. However, these are recommended for sandy soils
that have a high infiltration rate and not suited for fine textured soils
(Infiltration rate less than 4 mm/hr).
• Sprinkler irrigation system is suitable for steep slopes or irregular
topography. If soil erosion is a hazard, sprinkler irrigation can be used in
conjunction with contouring, terracing, mulching and strip cropping.
• In sprinkler irrigation, land leveling is not essential.
• In sprinkler irrigation system, there is a provision to apply soluble
fertilizers, fungicides and herbicides during the irrigation.

13.3.1 Advantages of Sprinkler System

1. Sprinkler irrigation permits efficient irrigation and enables judicious
utilization of water.
296 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

2. It provides better control over water application convenient for giving light
and frequent irrigations and water application efficiency approaching 80%.
3. It saves 10 to 16% land by eliminating channels and ridges needed in other
methods.
4. Sandy soils (permeable soils) as well as sandy clay soils (Less permeable
soils) can be easily irrigated by this method, without any risk of inundation,
erosion and seepage losses.
5. The system saves the extra labor required for the application of fertilizers,
pesticides and weedicides.
6. It is suitable for irrigating the crops with very high plant population per unit
area. It is most suitable for vegetable, oil and cereal crops.
7. The system permits partial or full portability, wherever required.
8. Lesser chances of clogging of sprinkler nozzles as compared to drip
irrigation system.
9. The system is flexible to permit very light application of water for less than
1 inch depth, which is not possible with surface irrigation systems

13.3.2 Limitations of Sprinkler System

1. High initial cost of equipment.
2. Excessive use of Energy to create operating pressures of the order of 3 to 6
bars.
3. Higher operating cost because of skilled labor.
4. Winds can disturb the water distribution that causes uneven irrigation.
5. Foliar application of saline water may burn the plant leaves.
6. Under certain climatic conditions, diseases may be exhilarated like fruit
rotting in strawberry and tomato.
7. The larger labor force needed to move the pipes and sprinklers around the
field.
8. Evaporation losses are high as compared to other irrigation methods
because of sprinkling.
9. Tall crops may obstruct center pivot or side-roll portable sprinkler systems.
10. Falling sprinkler drops on bare soil can cause soil crusting.
11. The maintenance cost is high.
12. Due to complexity and expertise requirements, the chances of system failure
increases.
13. Excessive wetness of plant leaves may develop certain diseases.

13.3.3 Components of Sprinkler System

The main components of sprinkler irrigation systems are shown in Fig. 13.10. These
components are as follow:
• Pumping unit
• Main and sub-main lines
• Lateral lines
• Sprinkler heads
• Fertilizer applicator
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 297

• Fittings and accessories (Water meter, pressure gauges, couples, flanges,

nipples, take of valve, flow control valve)

Fig. 13.10 Component of a Typical Sprinkler Irrigation System.

[Link] Pumping Unit

In sprinkler irrigation systems, water is sprayed over the fields under certain pressure
usually provided by a pumping system. It is an essential requirement in the system
that the pump should be designed to lift the required amount of water from the water
source to the highest point in the field. Centrifugal pumps are commonly used for
this purpose, which can be permanent or portable. While the turbine pump is used
for deeper water source and it should, generally, be set at a fixed location.
The driving unit may be either an internal combustion engine or electric motor.
Electric motors are best for fixed installations. They have low initial and running
costs and are easier to maintain. Engines are used when the pumping unit is portable
and at places where electricity is not available. The engine maintenance and fuel cost
make the system costlier.
[Link] Main and Sub-Main Lines
Main line conveys water from the source and distributes it to the sub-mains. Main
lines may be permanent or portable. Mains are generally permanent on the farms with
fixed field-boundaries and where crops require full-season irrigation. Portable mains
are more economical when a sprinkler system is to be used in several fields on
different locations. The material used for pipes can be steel, asbestos, aluminum and
PVC. Steel pipes are used for most permanent main lines and for center-pivot laterals.
The permanent lines should be buried to be out of the way of farming operations.
Light weight aluminum pipes may also be used for portable main lines. Portable
mains, generally, have a lower initial cost and do not provide an obstruction to field
operations. The laterals/sub-mains are coupled with the mains either through a valve
set at each point of junction or in some cases through ‘L’ or ‘T’ section that is
supplied in place of one of the couplings on the main.
298 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

[Link] Lateral Lines

These pipes are smaller in diameter as compared to main or sub-mains. They receive
water from the main/sub-main and deliver it to riser pipes or directly to the field in
case of perforated pipe or side roll type of sprinkler systems. Most of the portable
laterals are made of light weight steel or high density polyethylene. The lateral lines
usually are portable. Buried permanent laterals are, however, used for some orchards,
tree nurseries, and for other special sites. Aluminum pipe is best for most portable
laterals. The lateral pipes are usually available in lengths of 5, 6 or 12 m. Each length
has quick couplings. The rubber gasket in the female portion of these couplings has
a U-shape. The water pressure forces the outside of the 'U' to form a water tight seal.
When the water is turned off, the seal is broken and water drains from the pipe,
making it easier to uncouple and move.
[Link] Sprinkler Heads
The sprinkler head is the main component of a sprinkler irrigation system. The
sprinkler head is responsible for uniform distribution of water over the field without
water loss due to deep percolation and runoff. Sprinklers are either fixed or rotating.
For a wide range of application and spacing, the rotating type of sprinklers can be
adapted. For irrigation of small lawns and gardens, fixed head sprinklers are used.
The operating pressure of sprinkler heads ranging from 16 to 40 m depends on the
sprinkler type and range of shoot. A typical rotating head sprinkler is shown in Fig.
13.11.

Fig. 13.11 Details of a Twin-Nozzle Rotating Sprinkler Head.

Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 299

[Link] Fertilizer Applicators

It is an optional component that is used to inject soluble fertilizers into the sprinkler
system and to apply it to the crops without any danger of being leached away. Both
irrigation and fertigation are performed simultaneously in this way, hence,
considerable time of the farmer, required for fertigation, is saved. The components
of fertilizer applicator include a fertilizer tank, injection pump and a network of pipes
and connections. A venturi apparatus can also be used to inject fertilizer directly in
the main pipe during irrigation. If the fertilizer is to be injected from suction side of
the pump, the pump impeller should be made of corrosion resistant materials.
Whenever it is planned to inject fertilizer through sprinkler system, the system should
be run long enough to wet the soil and the plant foliage prior to fertilizer application.
[Link] Fittings and Accessories
The detail of fittings and accessories used in sprinkler system is given below:
a. Water meter: It is used to measure volume of delivered water.
b. Pressure gauges: These are used to measure system pressure during
operation to check that if system is working with desired pressure to ensure
application uniformity.
c. Couplers: Coupler should provide: a leak proof joint, eases of coupling and
uncoupling, flexible connection and durability.
d. Flanges, couplings and nipples: These are used for establishing proper
connections to the pump, suction and delivery pipes.
e. Take-off valves: These are, generally, used to control the lateral line
pressures particularly wherever significant differences in main line
pressures exist at the various lateral take-off points.
f. Flow control valves: These components are needed when non-uniform
pressure distribution along the laterals caused by undulating topography of
the land is there.

13.3.4 Types of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

Based on the arrangement of spraying and portability of the system, the sprinkler
irrigation systems are classified into many types. These systems exist in various
sizes, shapes, capabilities and costs. The sprinkler’s types which are mostly used are
described below:
[Link] Rotating Head Systems
These systems consist of small size sprinkler nozzles, fitted on lateral pipes at
uniform. The lateral pipes are laid in the field usually on ground. These nozzles are
rotated through 90°-360° to irrigate crops. In rotating type sprinklers, to rotate the
sprinkler heads, commonly a small hammer mechanism is used that is activated by
water head.
[Link] Perforated Pipe Systems
In these systems, perforations are present in the lateral irrigation pipes in a specially
designed pattern to distribute water uniformly. Usually, these systems work with low
300 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

operating pressures of about 0.5 to 2.5 kg/cm2. The pressure required for the system
can be attained by connecting the system to an overhead tank. The sprays are directed
at both sides of the pipe and can cover a strip of land from 6 to 15 meters wide
depending upon the pressure applied. The water is applied at a relatively high rate,
and therefore, it is suitable for soils having moderate infiltration rates. These systems
are suited for irrigation of lawns, gardens and small vegetable fields and other plants
when the crop height does not exceed from 40 to 60 cm. The water should be cleaned
through a filter to prevent clogging of the small perforations.
[Link] Side Roll System
To irrigate rectangular fields, mostly side roll sprinkler systems are used. It consists
of a wheel with lateral lines mounted on it with a pipe forming the axle. A driving
unit (engine), located near the center of the lateral, is used to move the system during
irrigation along the length of field. The height of system is controlled by wheel
diameter according to crop height so that system can move without any obstruction.
[Link] Rain-gun System
These are high performance impact sprinklers designed for a variety of uses and
applications where relatively high flows and extended radius of throw are desired.
Rain gun systems use large volume sprinklers operating at relatively high pressures
(3-6 Bars), mounted on a riser stand or towed through the field (Fig. 13.12). The
operating pressure of rain guns usually ranges between 2.0 to 7.5 kg/cm2 and flows
of 3 to 30 L/s usually with nozzle diameters ranging from 10 to 30 mm and with a
wetting radius of 27 to 60 m (Tajuddin & Somasundaram, 2012). It gives the
extraordinary pressure at all operating levels, works smoothly and uniformly over
the whole nozzle pressure range. Excellent hydraulic design, large barrel cross
section and full size taper bore nozzle allows maximum possible throw and
performance. Almost no maintenance is required. It can be adjusted to different
stream, break-up frequencies and to various rotation speeds to optimize the water
distribution. Variable trajectory angle option allows the changing trajectory angle of
various ranges, thus providing more uniformity even in windy conditions. It is mostly
recommended for the field crops like Sugarcane, Pulses, Oil Seeds, Cereals, Tea,
Coffee and Vegetables, etc.
There are three types of rain-gun sprinkler irrigation system that are: (a) Permanent
System (b) Semi-Permanent System and (c) Portable System. In permanent systems,
the rain-gun riser stands are installed permanently and fitted to solid set pipeline
network. Riser can also be supported by a cement concrete block around it. In semi-
permanent system pipeline network, can be permanent and rain-gun riser stand or
only rain-gun shifts from one location to another. In this type of systems, the rain-
gun riser stand can be detachable. In portable system, entire pipeline network, along
with the rain-gun riser stand and rain-gun, can be shifted from one location to
another. Easily detachable quick-connect pipes are used for this purpose.
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 301

Fig. 13.12 Rain-Gun Sprinkler Irrigation System

[Link] Center Pivot Systems

The center pivot system consists of a single sprinkler lateral supported by a series of
towers. The towers are self-propelled so that the lateral rotates around a pivot point
in the center of the irrigated area (Fig. 13.13). The time for the system to revolve
through one complete circle can range from an hour to many hours. The longer the
lateral, the faster the end of the lateral travels and the larger the area irrigated by the
end section. Thus, the water application rate must increase with distance from the
pivot point at the other end to deliver water evenly in the field. A variety of sprinkler
products have been developed specifically for use on these machines to better match
water requirements, water application rates and soil characteristics. Since, the center
pivot irrigates in a circle, it leaves the corners of the field un-irrigated (unless
additions of special equipment are made to the system). Center pivots are capable of
irrigating most field crops but have on occasion been used on tree and vine crops.
302 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Fig. 13.13 Center Pivot Sprinkler System

13.3.5 Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System

Appropriate flow of water and its pressure in the system are important factors to
operate the sprinkler irrigation system successfully. Properly designed, installed,
maintained and managed sprinkler irrigation systems greatly reduce the water and
pressure losses in the system.
Properly designed piping, with sound hydraulics, can also reduce the maintenance
problems of an irrigation system. Keeping the water flow velocity within limits
reduces wear of the system components and lengthens service life. Poor hydraulic
design results in poor performance of the irrigation system, leading to stressed
landscaping, material, or even broke pipes and flood damage.
Following design steps are generally adopted for a typical sprinkler irrigation system:
• Preliminary field survey
• Selection of sprinkler nozzles
• Sprinkler coverage and system layout
• Estimation of system head losses
• Estimation of power requirement
• Calculation of operation time
[Link] Preliminary Field Survey
The site information required to design the sprinkler irrigation system would include
soil type, water supply, crop and its water requirement etc. The detail of these
components is given below:
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 303

a. Soil Type: Soil is natural formation that can absorb water in between its
pore spaces. As the pore spaces varies with different soil types, so the water
holding and water intake capacity of soil varies with different soil types.
The soil infiltration rate (intake rate) influences the type of sprinkler that
can be used. The water holding capacity (field capacity) of soil greatly
affects the irrigation schedule. The sprinklers are not suitable for soils which
have low infiltration rate (clay soils). If sprinkler irrigation is the only
method available in that area, then low discharge sprinklers should be used.
The larger sprinklers producing larger water droplets are to be avoided to
save the soil structure.
b. Water Supply: The irrigation practices are influenced by the quality and
quantity of the water source. During the growing season, frequent
irrigations are suited for small discharge water supplies with low irrigation
depth, whereas irrigation frequency should be less for large water supplies
with more irrigation depth. The water quality also affects irrigation
scheduling. The trace elements like boron or selenium along with water
salinity can affect the irrigation scheduling of crops. The application of poor
quality water must be frequent and low discharged than the application of
good quality water.
c. Crop and Its Water Requirement: Sprinkler irrigation is suited for field
crops and small tree crops. During irrigation, sprinkler can spray water over
or under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended
for irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops
produced by the sprinklers may damage the crop.
[Link] Selection of Sprinkler Nozzles
The sprinkler operating pressure, size of field and shape of field affects the selection
of nozzles for irrigation. Rotary nozzle type sprinklers are preferred for pressure less
than 40 PSI static. If the area to be watered is greater than 25 ft x 30 ft, rotors may
be the best solution. Rotors are not suited for sharp curve edges (less than 20 ft
radius). If the area beyond the edge should not get water on it, smaller rotary nozzle
or spray-type sprinkler may be adopted. In Table 7, some sprinkler nozzles and their
specifications are given.

Table 13.7 Sprinkler Classification.

Sprinkler Nozzle size Pressure (m) Radius (m) Discharge Area
type (Lps) covered
20 6-8 30-40 19-23 0.66-1.28 1584
30 9-12 30-40 24-29 1.38-2.74 2584
40 12-16 30-45 27-36 2.64-5.44 3960
50 16-20 40-50 37-42 4.97-8.47 5544
Source: PARC, 2001
304 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

[Link] Sprinkler Coverage and System Layout

The area watered by each sprinkler must overlap substantially the area watered by
the adjacent sprinkler. This overlap may seem like a waste at first, but it is a very
important necessity. Without this overlap it would be impossible to design sprinkler
systems that provided uniform water coverage. Sprinkler coverage, crop geometry
and pipe spacing influences the layout of the system.

Fig. 13.14 Sprinklers Spaced Head to Head

[Link] Estimation of System Head Losses

In the pipe network, the head loss can be calculated by equation 13.4 or 13.5. In case,
the pressure losses are very high, the size of pipe laterals may be increased. Larger
size of pipes will reduce the pressure but at the same time it may increase the cost of
the system. Select the optimum size of main, sub-main and laterals for economic
system design.
[Link] Estimation of Power Requirement
When we know about system discharge and total head loss in the system then we can
calculate the power requirement of system by equation 13. 9.
[Link] Calculate Operation Time
The operation time of a sprinkler irrigation system refers to the time (Minutes)
required to cover the area to be irrigated in one pass per day.
I›60
OT = 13.12
PR›DA
Where:
OT = Operating time, min/day.
I = Irrigation requirement in the “worst case” season, in/wk.
PR = Precipitation rate, in/hr.
DA = Days available for irrigation per week.
60 = Constant conversion factor of min/hr.
Drainage Requirements of Irrigated Land 305

Example:
Given:
i. System irrigation requirement: 1.5 inches (38 mm) per week.
ii. Days available for irrigation: 3 days.
iii. Sprinkler performance: 3.5 gpm (0.79 m3/h) full circle, radius = 14 ft (4 m).
iv. Sprinkler spacing: 13 x 15 ft (4 m x 5 m) rectangular.
Determine the precipitation rate and operation time of the circuit.
96.3›3.5 gpm
PR 1.73 in/hr
13′›15′
. Ý> ^%†Ý>
› 18min 3days
•Þ ßT
OT 17.3 or or
1.73
Ý>
›
•8:X day wk
ßT •Þ

Example: Design permanent sprinkler irrigation for a farmer field. The following
information was collected after field survey:
i. Total area= 56×42= 0.58 m2 (About half acre)
ii. Soil type= Sandy loam
iii. Crop= Maize
iv. Water source is 3 m deep from G.S

Fig. 13.15 Layout of Sprinklers in Maize Field

Solution:
According to crop (maize) and soil type select sprinkler gun PY-20 (0.66 Lps, 20 m
dia throw, 4 bar operating pressure)
306 S. Ali and M. M. Alam

Take 30% overlap area (to cover 100% space between sprinkler guns in case of row
crops)
Sprinkler in one lateral= 3
Total laterals on main line= 4
Total sprinkler= 3×4= 12
Sprinkler discharge= 0.66 Lps
Total pump discharge= 12×0.66= 8 Lps
Head loss calculation by Hazen-William equation:
Main line= 1.6 (76.2 mm dia) (1.2 m/100 m)
Lateral line= 3.3 (18 mm dia)
Total head loss= Sprinkler operating pressure+ Main line head loss+ Lateral Head
loss+ Suction lift+ Delivery lift
Total head loss= 40+1.6 +3.3 + 3+0= 47.9 ≈ 48 m
s∗v
Power requirement= Hp =
L^∗ ¯WWÝSݯ>S:
∗#
Hp =
L^∗ ^%%

Hp = 8.42

References
Bucks, D.A., D.S. Nakayama and R.G. Gilbert (1979). Trickle irrigation water
quality and preventive maintenance. Agric. Water Manage., 2:149-162.
Keller, J. and R.D. Bliesner (1990). Sprinkle and trickle irrigation. p. 652. Van
Nostrand Reinhold. New York, USA.
Keller, J. (2002). Evolution of drip/microirrigation: traditional and non-traditional
uses. Advances in Drip/Micro Irrigation workshop.2-5 [Link] de la
Cruz, Tenerife, Spain.
Leeds-Harrison, P.B., R.J. Rickson (1992). Field drainage in non-temperate climate.
In: Drainage Design (End. P. Smart and J.G. Herbertson), Blackie and Sons,
New York, USA.
PARC (2001). Pressurized irrigation system and innovation adaptation. Water
Resources Research Institute, National Agri. Res. Centre, Islamabad.
Storlie, C.A. (1995). Using irrigation water tests to predict and prevent clogging of
drip irrigation systems. A fact sheet by Rutgers Coop Res. & Ext., NJAES,
Rutgers. The State University, New Jersey.
Tajuddin, A. and S. Somasundaram (2012). Raingun sprinkler proves economical.
[Link]
conomical/[Link] (Accessed on 14, August 2016).